com
18
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
Abstract
ObjectivesTo assess the global amount
of forest and woodland consumed
annually for curing tobacco between 1990
and 1995; to estimate tobaccos share in
total deforestation; to rank tobaccogrowing countries by the degree of impact
of tobacco deforestation; and to indicate
environmental criticality emerging from
tobaccos impact on forest resources.
DesignProduction of country-specific
estimates of forests/woodlands needed and
depleted on the basis of growing
stock/increment of woody biomass involved and wood consumption of tobacco.
Comparison of results with secondary
statistics on forest cover, deforestation,
and population development.
ResultsAn estimated 200 000 ha of
forests/woodlands are removed by tobacco farming each year. Deforestation
mainly occurs in the developing world,
amounting to 1.7% of global net losses of
forest cover or 4.6% of total national
deforestation. Environmental criticality
exists or is emerging in 35 countries with
an estimated serious, high, and medium
degree of tobacco-related deforestation,
mainly in southern Africa, middle east,
south, and east Asia, South America, and
the Caribbean.
ConclusionThe hypothesis that deforestation from tobacco production does not
have a significant negative eVect has to be
challenged. For empirical validation, the
globally significant pattern of estimated
tobacco-related environmental damage
ought to be included in international
research agendas on global environmental
change, to become an integral and
rational part of tobacco control policy.
(Tobacco Control 1999;8:1828)
Keywords: deforestation, tobacco farming
Neuss, Germany
H J Geist
Correspondence to:
Hubertusweg 90, D-41466
Neuss, Germany;
HJGeist@aol.com
Introduction
Since the late 1970s, growing concerns have
been expressed about the energy1 or
fuelwood crisis caused by tobacco
production,2 with emphasis being placed on
deforestation caused by the outstanding rate of
soil nutrient depletion and considerable usage
of wood. Tobacco production is considered to
pose a particularly diYcult dilemma for
development, as it generates a range of
employment, income, foreign exchange, and
60
Arctic Circle
40
Tropic of Cancer
20
Equator
20
Tropic of Capricorn
Antarctic Circle
160
Figure 1
140
40
60
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
In many countries where flue-cured tobacco is grown, fuelwood demand is not sustainable. (After Fraser. 8)
Table 1
Geist
Global assessment of annual deforestation caused by wood use in tobacco farming, 19911995
Flue-cured tobacco
Bur
Das
Ori
Dac
Lac
Poles
Poles
Poles
Poles
Poles
893
(11.9)
(n=65)
1094
(14.6)
(n=56)
651
(8.7)
(n=37)
114
(1.5)
(n=26)
77
(1.0)
(n=29)
7510
(100)
(n=118)
(2) Tobacco production using wood (000 tonnes dry weight) (% of global tobacco production)10
895
54
893
(11.9)
(0.7)
(11.9)
(n=56)
(n=54)
(n=56)
(n=17)
(n=17)
(n=17)
(n=65)
1094
(14.6)
(n=56)
651
(8.7)
(n=37)
114
(1.5)
(n=26)
77
(1.0)
(n=29)
3778
(50.3)
(n=116)
(3) Total annual solid wood required for tobacco production (000 tonnes) (%)10
6810
38
6849
560
12
571
987
(59.5)
(0.3)
(59.8)
(4.9)
(0.1)
(5.0)
(8.6)
2030
(17.7)
696
(6.1)
181
(1.6)
124
(1.1)
11 437
(100)
(4) Additional (deficit) wood required annually for tobacco production (000 tonnes)10
3011
17
3028
365
7
373
575
1150
404
102
67
5698
As % of total (5698)
52.8
0.3
(53.1)
(n=54)
(n=52)
(n=54)
20.2
(n=55)
7.1
(n=37)
1.8
(n=26)
1.2
(n=28)
100
(n=114)
(5) Sustained-yield area of woody biomass needed annually to provide (4) (000 ha* )
Natural (medium) woody biomass potential, mostly woodlands and dry forests (000 ha* )
6022
34
6056
730
15
745
1149
2299
807
204
134
11 396
Fuel
Poles
Fire-cured tobacco
Total
Fuel
Poles
Total
(1) Total annual global tobacco production (000 tonnes dry weight) (%)19
4627
54
(61.1)
(0.7)
(n=82)
(n=17)
6.4
(n=15)
40
0.1
(n=15)
<1
(6.5)
(n=15)
10.1
(n=63)
All
41
57
103
55
503
21
43
15
211
Bur = Burley tobacco; Dac = Dark air-cured (cigar) tobacco; Das = Dark air/sun-cured tobaccos; Lac = Light air-cured tobaccos; Ori = Oriental tobacco.
*1 Hectare = 0.01 km2. n = Number of tobacco-growing countries for which data were available.
Assessing tobacco-specific deforestation consists of six major steps (table 1). The main
objective is to translate the annual amount of
solid wood required (in tonnes, t), but not supplied from private sources (additional or deficit wood), into the equivalent area of woody
biomass needed (in hectares) and either
managed on a sustainable basis (using MAI) or
deforested (using GS).
(1) Total annual world tobacco production
To be comparable with the most recent annual
199095 FAO data on global forest-cover
change by country, the annual production of
tobacco is specified as a five-year average for
19911995 by variety grown.16 As diVerent
Geist
firmed by indicators of environmental criticality such as the share of forest in total land
(36.8%) which is far above the forest cover
required to ensure adequate fuelwood supplies
(8.4%), that is, 33.6 0.25. Although the
share of land under tobacco in 1992 to 1997
(1.1%) was above the global mean (0.7%),
expansion of tobacco land was far below that
of arable land.
Table 2
Usage of wood in tobacco production and its impact upon forest resources in the developing world*, 19901995
Fire-cured
tobacco
Bur
(d)
(b)
(d)
(b)
(e)
(b)
(e)
(b)
(e)
(b)
(e)
(b)
50
90
36
100
50
100
50
0
30
56
19.1
15.1
17.1
18.0
19.1
19.1
19.1
NA
28.0
17.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
(0.9)
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
(2.6)
37.9
3.6
2.4
71.6
0.0
1.0
21.0
2.3
5.3
16.1
3.8
3.8
5.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
3.8
5.0
5.0
4.0
0.0
7.1
61.6
0.7
0.0
21.6
0.0
7.9
0.0
11.0
0.0
3.8
5.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.0
18.0
50.5
0.3
<0.1
7.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
3.8
5.0
5.0
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
<0.1
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
1.1
55.2
0.0
0.0
15.5
0.0
67
0.0
0.0
90
0.0
12.1
0.0
0.0
15.1
0.0
<0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
35.6
100.0
0.0
55.9
0.0
3.8
3.8
0.0
5.0
0.0
8.4
0.0
100.0
28.7
0.0
3.8
0.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
14.9
54.1
81.5
28.9
64.5
21.2
5.7
28.5
90
100
100
90
90
50
100
65
15.1
19.1
33.1
15.1
15.1
19.1
28.1
14.3
0.0
0.0
18.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
(1.5)
0.0
0.0
37.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
(5.1)
10.2
29.7
0.3
67.5
35.5
0.0
90.6
35.4
3.8
3.8
5.0
3.8
3.8
0.0
3.8
3.1
74.9
0.0
0.0
2.6
0.0
28.8
3.7
20.6
3.8
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
3.8
2.0
0.0
<0.1
0.0
1.0
0.0
50.0
0.0
4.3
0.0
3.8
0.0
3.8
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.7
44.7
35.0
0.0
19.0
51.8
54.5
24.0
50.0
0.0
72.0
83.2
8.0
50
50
0.0
100
90
36
100
100
0.0
100
100
90
19.1
19.1
0.0
62.1
15.1
19.1
18.1
28.1
0.0
28.1
28.1
15.1
0.0
0.0
50.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
15.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.5
0.0
0.0
35.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
15.0
57.1
0.0
0.0
5.3
16.8
91.4
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
3.8
0.0
65.0
50.0
11.6
0.0
18.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
50.0
100.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
100.0 90
11.0 90
39.5 71
15.1
15.1
20.2
0.0 0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0
11.8
(4.7) (3.4) 16.6
0.0
3.8
2.2
0.0
73.3
15.6
0.0
3.8
1.7
0.0
0.0
11.8
Flue-cured tobacco
Developing
countries
(a)
(b)
(c)
Serious impact**
South Korea
Uruguay
Bangladesh
Malawi
Jordan
Pakistan
Syria
China
Zimbabwe
Mean (n=9)
85.5
1.4
55.0
125.4
2.8
96.0
18.5
3049.0
202.3
404.0
62.1
89.3
33.4
19.0
100.0
48.1
26.1
89.0
94.7
62.4
95.3
6.3
1.4
0.7
27.3
20.4
84.0
21.6
15.7
1.0
25.0
4.8
25.3
High impact**
Argentina
Tunisia
Burundi
Haiti
Cuba
Dominican
Republic
Philippines
Tanzania
Chile
El Salvador
Iran
Morocco
Mean (n=12)
Medium impact**
Thailand
79.1
Vietnam
30.3
Togo
2.0
Nigeria
9.2
Jamaica
2.3
Sri Lanka
9.0
Honduras
7.7
Ethiopia
3.5
Lebanon
5.0
Uganda
5.8
Zambia
5.7
Guatemala
13.4
Trinidad and
Tobago
0.2
Colombia
38.0
Mean (n=14)
15.1
Das
Wood
consumption
Deforestation
(e)
(f)
(g) (h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
0.0
0.0
2.4
0.0
0.0
11.3
2.5
0.0
0.0
1.8
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
3.8
0.0
0.0
1.5
272.2
7.6
128.0
485.4
11.7
486.1
42.3
722.8
715.0
319.0
58
58
58
80
58
58
58
58
30
57
157.9
4.4
74.2
388.3
6.8
282.0
24.5
419.2
214.5
174.6
5846
162
2750
14 382
252
10 443
909
15 527
7945
6468
13.0
0.4
9.0
55.0
1.0
55.0
5.0
87.0
50.0
30.6
45.0
40.6
30.6
26.1
25.2
19.0
18.2
17.8
15.9
26.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.8
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
254.1
10.4
3.1
1.9
44.6
90
58
58
58
58
228.7
6.0
1.8
1.1
25.8
8470
223
66
41
957
89.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
24.0
9.5
7.4
6.6
4.1
4.0
0.0
16.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.7
0.0
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
<0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
46.1
436.0
314.6
44.4
4.5
30.3
10.6
100.1
58
58
93
58
58
58
58
64
26.7
252.9
292.6
25.8
2.6
17.6
6.2
74.0
990
9367
10 836
955
97
652
228
2740
26.0
262.0
323.0
29.0
4.0
28.0
12.0
66.8
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.3
2.4
2.3
1.9
4.4
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
3.8
5.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
48.2
0.0
16.7
0.0
0.0
6.9
0.0
0.0
3.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.8
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
69.4
0.0
12.1
1.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.8
217.6
86.0
12.3
62.8
8.9
23.4
27.1
24.9
2.2
61.2
59.6
26.5
58
58
58
70
58
25
90
58
58
20
90
58
126.2
49.9
7.1
44.0
5.2
5.9
24.4
14.4
1.2
12.2
53.6
15.4
4674
1847
263
1629
192
217
903
535
46
453
1986
569
329.0
135.0
19.0
121.0
16.0
20.0
102.0
62.0
5.0
59.0
264.0
82.0
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.0
0.0
1.3
0.0
0.7
5.6
0.0
3.8
1.5
0.0
3.3
6.2
0.0
3.8
1.6
1.0
58 0.6
79.6 58 46.2
49.5 58 29.0
21
1710
1075
3.0
0.7
262.0 0.7
105.6 1.0
Ori
Dac
Lac
Low impact**
Mean (n=14)
55.7
45.0
84
18.0
3.4
7.1
15.2
3.0
28.1
3.0
<0.1 0.3
1.7
1.1
6.7
1.2
226.8 56
61.1
2263
450.0 0.4
Minor impact**
Mean (n=17)
2.6
18.5
39
8.0
9.8
4.0
11.9
1.2
36.5
2.6
<0.1 0.2
18.5
1.6
4.8
1.3
6.4
3.7
137
136.7 0.1
Minor-to-serious impact**
Mean (n=66)
75.4 36.4
62
15.1
4.6
4.1
18.5
2.5
23.9
2.4
4.3
8.1
1.2
4.3
1.2
121.9 59
57.3
2124
169.4 4.6
0.9
58
Bur = burley tobacco; Das = dark air/sun-cured tobaccos; Ori = oriental tobacco; Dac = dark air-cured (cigar) tobacco; Lac = light air-cured tobaccos; NA = not
applicable.
*Developing world as defined by FAO.16
No polewood usage assumed, as mostly brick-built barns.
Including 14 countries: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Angola, Mozambique, Madagascar, Laos, Myanmar/Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Costa Rica, Mexico,
Brazil, Venezuela.
Including 17 countries: Chad, Mali, Benin, Liberia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Algeria, Cambodia, Solomon Islands, Nicaragua, Panama,
Bolivia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru.
Arithmetical mean of single values.
**For an explanation of the classification of tobacco-related deforestation, see text.
(a) Mean annual tobacco production (000 tonnes), 5-year average of 199195.19
(b) Percentage in total production.19
(c) Percentage of flue-produce using fuelwood.10
(d) Rate of combined fuel/polewood usage (stacked cubic metres per tonne per year).10
(e) Rate of polewood usage (stacked cubic metres per tonne per year).10
(f) Total annual consumption of solid wood (000 tonnes).
(g) Percentage of wood taken as free goods from open, accessible (common) land.10
(h) Solid wood in (g) (000 tonnes).
(i) Area of natural woody biomass removed (ha).
(j) Total annual deforestation (000 ha).16
(k) Percentage of tobacco-related deforestation.
Table 3
Geist
Environmental criticality caused by tobaccos impact upon forest resources
Developing countries*
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Serious impact
South Korea
Uruguay
Bangladesh
Malawi
Jordan
Pakistan
Syria
China
Zimbabwe
Mean (n=9)
77.2
4.7
7.8
35.5
0.5
2.3
1.2
14.3
22.5
18.4
455.7
18.2
925.2
118.3
60.2
182.3
79.8
131.0
29.1
222.2
4.5
29.6
15.1
45.6
20.0
32.7
7.3
55.6
<1
<1
<1
46
<1
46
<1
23
46
NA
1.8
0.1
0.5
6.5
1.6
0.2
0.3
1.6
2.4
1.7
High impact
Argentina
Tunisia
Burundi
Haiti
Cuba
Dominican Republic
Philippines
Tanzania
Chile
El Salvador
Iran
Morocco
Mean (n=12)
12.4
3.6
12.3
0.8
16.8
32.7
22.7
36.8
10.5
5.1
0.9
8.6
13.6
12.6
57.3
248.9
260.5
100.5
161.7
226.7
33.6
19.0
278.4
41.1
60.6
125.1
3.1
14.3
62.2
65.1
25.1
40.4
56.7
8.4
4.7
69.6
10.3
15.2
31.3
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
46
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
NA
0.2
0.2
<0.1
0.2
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.6
Medium impact
Thailand
Vietnam
Togo
Nigeria
Jamaica
Sri Lanka
Honduras
Ethiopia
Lebanon
Uganda
Zambia
Guatemala
Trinidad and Tobago
Colombia
Mean (n=14)
22.8
28.0
22.9
15.1
16.2
27.8
36.8
12.6
5.1
30.6
42.2
35.4
31.4
51.0
27.0
115.1
229.0
76.1
122.7
225.9
284.0
50.5
53.2
294.1
106.7
12.7
98.0
254.6
33.8
139.7
28.8
57.2
19.0
30.7
56.5
71.0
12.6
13.3
73.5
26.7
3.2
24.5
63.6
8.5
34.9
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
23
<1
<1
>10
>10
710
<1
<1
NA
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.1
0.6
1.2
0.5
<0.1
1.2
0.1
0.1
0.4
<0.1
0.6
0.4
Low impact
Mean (n=14)
36.6
47.3
11.8
NA
0.5
Minor impact
Mean (n=17)
43.6
22.0
5.5
NA
0.1
NA = not applicable.
*Growing countries of the developing world as defined by FAO.16
For an explanation of the classification of tobacco-related deforestation, see text.
Value exceeds total of 100%.
Including 14 countries: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Angola, Mozambique, Madagascar,
Laos, Myanmar/Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela.
Including 17 countries: Chad, Mali, Benin, Liberia, Cameroon, Central African Republic,
Congo, Algeria, Cambodia, Solomon Islands, Nicaragua, Panama, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guyana,
Paraguay, Peru.
(a) Total forest as percentage of land area in 1995.
(b) Population density in 1995 (inhabitants per square kilometre).
(c) Percentage of forest cover required in 1995 to supply population with one cubic metre of
fuelwood per inhabitant.17
(d) Ratio of tobacco to arable land growth 19821997.
(e) Percentage of tobacco in arable land 1992/1997.
Geist
The share of African tobacco in world production has tripled from 2% in the 1930s to 6% in
the 1990s. At present, nearly 90% of continental production originates from producer countries of the miombo zone, an ecosystem of the
southeastern highlands bearing dry forests and
woodlands.28 None of the annual losses of vegetational cover (3.0 million ha) was oVset by
forest increases. Forest removal by tobacco is
estimated to be approximately 41 900 ha
annually. Thus, Africa holds a medium share of
tobacco-related forest removal in deforestation
(1.4%). A medium-to-serious degree of
tobacco-related deforestation exists in southern and eastern Africa (Malawi, Zimbabwe,
Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, Ethiopia), in parts of north Africa (Morocco,
Tunisia), and west Africa (Togo, Nigeria). The
27
Geist
11 Geist H. Soil mining and societal responses. The case of
tobacco in eastern miombo highlands. In: Lohnert B,
Geist H, eds. Coping with changing environments. Social
dimensions of endangered ecosystems in the developing world.
Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999. (In press.)
12 Andreae B. Farming, development and spacea world agricultural geography. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1981.
13 Akehurst BC. Tobacco. London: Longman, 1981.
14 Goodman J. Tobacco in history. The cultures of dependence.
London: Routledge, 1995.
15 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Production yearbook 1995;48:1767, 1997;50:1767.
16 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
State of the worlds forests 1997. Rome: FAO, 1997.
17 Steinlin H. The decline of tropical forests. Q J Int Agric
1994;33:12837.
18 Janzen DH. Tropical dry forests, The most endangered
major tropical ecosystem. In: Wilson EO, ed. Biodiversity.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988:1307.
19 US Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural
Service. World tobacco situation. Washington, DC: USDA/
FAS, 1994; Circular Series FT-9407, 1997; Circular Series
FT 9707.
20 Millington AC, Critchley RW, Douglas TD, et al. Estimating
woody biomass in sub-saharan Africa. Washington, DC:
World Bank, 1994.
21 Booth A, Clarke J. Woodlands and forests. In: Chenje M,
Johnson P, eds. State of the environment in Southern Africa,
A report by the Southern African Research & Documentation
Centre in collaboration with IUCNThe World Conservation
Union and the Southern African Development Community.
Harare, Masero: SARDC, IUCN & SADC, 1994:13356.
22 Majengo OJ. Tobacco marketing review 1994/95. Dar es
Salaam: Ministry of Agriculture, Marketing Development
Bureau, 1996.
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Notes