Running Head: LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

An Examination of Learning Theories that Support Technology Integration

John M. Potosnak
Boise State University

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

Abstract
Not all educators have embraced technology or know how to effectively integrate technology
into the curriculum. This is most likely because of a lack of knowledge or framework for
technology integration. There will always be a need for researchers to continue to develop new
learning theories for the digital era. However, just because technology is changing education
does not mean that educators need to abandon learning theories of the past. There are many
theories that have been around for years that can be adapted to support technology integration.
This paper examines how learning theories can guide educators towards efficient use of
technology. It also explores existing learning theories and explains how they can support
technology integration. The theories that are discussed include dual-coding theory (DCT),
multiple intelligences, communities of practice, and connectivism.
Keywords: technology integration, dual-coding theory, multiple intelligences,
communities of practice, connectivism

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

An Examination of Learning Theories that Support Technology Integration

Developments in technology are providing exciting opportunities for educators. Learners
are highly engaged and motivated by the use of technology in the classroom. Unfortunately,
many educators are not taking advantage of technological advantages or are using technology in
pedagogically ineffective ways (Harris, 2009). Even though a large amount of teachers have not
yet discovered a way to meaningfully integrate technology in the classroom, students frequently
use technology daily in their personal lives making traditional teaching practices less relevant to
their world (Robin, 2008). Motivating learners is a critical component for learning, and research
studies have shown that motivation and student participation increases with technology use in the
classroom (Robin, 2008).
With all of this in mind, it poses the following question: why are educators not using the
technology available or using it in ways not conducive to learning? Research has shown there is
a lack of understanding of how technology can be successfully integrated into the classroom.
According to Kadijevich (2012), A major reason for that unfavorable state may be found in the
fact that teachers lack sophisticated knowledge to support effective technology integration (p.
28). By examining learning theories that support technology integration and providing
frameworks for determining the technology that will guide student learning, educators will feel
more comfortable using it in the classroom.
Researchers consistently exclaim that there is a strong need for new research and theories
in the continuously evolving field of educational technology. According to Bell (2011), It is not
surprising that as the scope of changes in learning enabled by technologies increases, so does our
need to expand the repertoire of theories and research approaches (p. 113). While this is

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

certainly true, there are many existing theories that already support technology integration and
can also guide educators to determine what technology is most beneficial to learning.
This paper will examine four learning theories and explain how they support technology
integration. It will also offer examples of how the theory can be used with technology and how
educators can use the theory as a framework to successfully integrate technology into their
classroom. The theories that will be examined and discussed in relation to educational
technology are dual-coding theory, multiple intelligences, communities of practice, and
connectivism. With the exception of connectivim, all of these theories were developed before
the emergence of much of the technology available today but are relevant and offer strong
support of technology integration.
Dual-Coding Theory
Dual-Coding Theory (DCT) supports technology integration and helps explain how
educators can effectively use technology. Developed by Allan Paivio in 1971, the theory states
that human knowledge is constructed from the activity of two subsystems, a verbal system that
processes language and a nonverbal (imagery) system that processes nonlinguistic objects and
events (Paivio, 2006). The interconnectedness of these cognitive systems facilitates the most
learning (Wang & Shen, 2012).
Mayer and Sims (1994) conducted two experiments on multimedia and dual-coding
theory. Both experiments presented computer-based material to students. The topic for the first
experiment was how a bicycle pump works, and the topic for the second experiment was how the
human respiratory system works. The goal was to determine which group of students would
better retain the information. The material was presented to varying groups of college-aged
students in three different ways: animation and narration simultaneously, animation followed by

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

narration, and narration followed by animation. The results showed that students who were
presented the verbal and visual information concurrently performed better. Mayer and Simms
(1994) concluded the following:
These results have practical and theoretical implications. On the practical side, it seems
worthwhile for instructional designers to be alert to an instructional manipulation that has
been shown to increase transfer performance by 50% across a number of studies. Our work
signals the value of instructional materials that maximize the learner's chances of building
connections between words and pictures. Unfortunately, examples of a lack of coordination
between animation and narration can be found in educational multimedia products
currently in use (e.g., presentation of animation without simultaneous narration). (p. 400)
Almost 20 years after this study, a lot can still be learned on how technology can be used most
efficiently in the classroom.
Traditionally, educators taught material in mainly a lecture format that completely leaves
out the visual system that helps retain knowledge. In recent years, a growing trend is to use a
lecture format while displaying a PowerPoint presentation or Smart Notebook file of written
notes for students to follow. According to dual-coding theory, this is not the most effective way
to promote learning because it is still only addressing the verbal system that represents both
written and spoken language. In order to incorporate the nonverbal (imagery) system, it would
be more beneficial for students to be presented with visual representations of what is being
taught so that the two systems are working together. It could be argued that the traditional
lecture format has become outdated and the most efficient way to teach is to create multimedia
presentations using iPads or interactive whiteboards. Narrated presentations allow the students
to activate both verbal and nonverbal systems, which increases retention of what is being

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

learned. Technology is greatly changing the role of the teacher in education, and a DCT
approach supports the use of technology because it allows material to be presented in ways that
were not previously possible and can easily target both verbal and nonverbal systems. By
applying dual-coding theory and following current studies, educators can ensure that technology
and multimedia are being used in ways that will benefit the student and promote knowledge
recall.
Communities of Practice
Another theory that supports technology integration and is distinctive because technology allows
it to be used globally is called communities of practice. Wenger, McDermott, and Snyder (2002)
define communities of practice as groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a
passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting
on an ongoing basis (p. 4). The three essential components of communities of practice are the
domain, the practice, and the community. The domain or subject is the shared interest of the
members in the community. The community is the group of people who work together on
activities and share information on the domain. Lastly, the practice is developed through the
communitys contributions of experiences, joint activities, resources, and tools (Harrison, 2004).
This is an exciting idea because technology can support the theory in multiple ways.
Technology can be used to support the community, the practice, or both (Hoadley, 2012). For
example, an online discussion board or chat room that allows musicians to discuss composition
would support the community. Software like Finale or Sibelius, which allows composers to
notate their music, supports the practice. Interactive software that allows multiple composers to
compose a piece of music together at the same time would support both the community and the
practice.

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

Much of how we interact online and the nature of Web 2.0 reflects the ideas of
communities of practice. Turnbull et al. (2009) explained the following:
Web 1.0 over the last couple of decades has focused primarily on users visiting Web sites
of experts to read or download their content. Alternatively, Web 2.0 focuses on Web
sites that offer participation where content is created and cocreated by users in a dynamic,
collective manner. (p. 57)
With all the available and emerging technologies, there are lots of opportunities to participate in
communities of practice. Social networking sites like Twitter and Pinterest allow the user to
search for shared interests and can be used by communities to share resources. Blogs, podcasts,
and YouTube encourage people to share their experiences and allow discussions to take place
between viewers. Skype, Google hangout, and other web chatting applications permit people to
discuss information from all over the world. Wiki pages and many Google applications allow
content to be created and edited by multiple users. Wikipedia is an ultimate example of a
community of practice where enthusiasts devoted to discussion and argument can explore a
shared interest (OSullivan, 2009, p. 85). Each page on Wikipedia can be seen as its own
community of practice as multiple contributors share information and resources to inform
viewers.
Hoadley (2012) went further to explain how technology can support communities of
practice by outlining four techniques: (1) link people with others who have similar interests by
using social networks like Facebook, (2) provide a shared repository of information resources,
(3) provide tools for discussion with others, and (4) provide awareness of the context of
information of various resources. By applying these techniques, one can successfully implement
a community of practice.

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple intelligences theory is based on the proposal of several different intelligences
that Howard Gardner believes all human beings possess. Gardner (1989) defined intelligence as,
The capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural
settings (p. 5). The seven original intelligences proposed by Gardner in 1983 included
linguistic, the ability to use spoken and written language; logical-mathematical, the ability to use
logic and numerical symbols and operations; musical, the ability to use musical concepts; spatial,
the ability to manipulate three-dimensional space; bodily-kinesthetic, the ability to coordinate
physical movement; interpersonal, the ability to interact well with other people; and
intrapersonal, the ability to use one's thoughts and feelings (Moran, Kornhaber, & Gardner,
2006). Since then Gardner (2011) extended his theory determining there was enough evidence to
add two more intelligences: naturalistic, the ability to distinguish and categorize objects or
phenomena in nature; and existential, the ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond
sensory data (Moran et al., 2006). Each persons understanding of the world is shaped by his or
her unique combination of strengths and weaknesses within these intelligences (Beliavsky,
2006).
The mobile learning applications of Gardners multiple intelligences theory are endless.
In the past, teacher instruction primarily addressed linguistic and logical intelligences, but that
has changed with the emergence of new technologies. Addressing multiple intelligences in the
classroom is easily made possible with the advancements in technology. Linguistic learners
would do well completing a research project using the Internet and creating a presentation with
software such as EduCreations that allows the user to narrate and display slides. Logicalmathematical learners would be excellent at organizing data in Excel or using software to create

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

graphs to display information. Spatial learners would excel in using graphic design software to
create visuals. Musical learners would enjoy using GarageBand for creating music or a song
about a topic. Bodily-kinesthetic learners would work well with free form gestural interfaces
such as Microsoft Kinect, which is software that responds to the users movements.
Interpersonal learners make good leaders and would do well working socially with students via
Skype, email, or social media to organize a project. Intrapersonal learners would do well
researching on the Internet and writing a blog or creating an individual project such as a
PowerPoint presentation. Naturalistic learners could use mobile devices to document nature such
as using an iPad to take pictures, videos, or record the sounds of nature. Lastly, existentialist
learners would do well exploring the nature of technology itself. For example, they can analyze
how technology has evolved and how technology effects the world around us (McCoog 2007).
These are just a few examples of how technology can be tailored toward each type of
intelligence. Although it would be ideal for teachers to be able to teach towards each students
strongest intelligence, large class sizes and limited time could present many challenges. Thus,
another approach can involve presenting material that incorporates multiple types of
intelligences all at once. Using the Jigsaw method of instruction and assigning students different
material based on their strongest intelligences is one example. Project-based learning is also
effective for multiple intelligences theory because each student can complete a separate portion
of the project that corresponds with their strongest intelligences, and interpersonal learners can
serve as project leaders. By creating a group project, students could be using multiple types of
technology at once. There are many ways that technology integration is supported by multiple
intelligences theory and research on this theory will continue to grow and develop.

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

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Connectivism
Connectivism is a learning theory for the digital era that was developed by George
Siemens (Starkey, 2012). Siemens (2004) outlined eight core principals of connectivism.
Tschofen and Mackness (2012) summarized the principals by stating, Learning in connectivism
terms is a network phenomenon, influenced, aided, and enhanced by socialization, technology,
diversity, strength of ties, and context of occurrence. Starkey (2012) further explained that
connectivism aims to provide a theory that considers how people, organizations, and technology
can collaboratively construct knowledge (p. 26). In simple terms, connectivism is based on the
idea that learning is achieved through the sharing and communication of ideas and information.
The theory also has a strong belief that the multiple perspectives of knowledge available in Web
2.0 contradicts existing learning theories and should therefore be abandoned and replaced with
connectivism (Clara & Barbera, 2013).
This theory is unique compared to the others discussed in this paper in that it was
developed to include emerging technologies and networks as a central focus. It relates to
communities of practice because the starting point of a connectivist approach to learning is
connecting to and providing information into a learning community (Kop & Hill, 2008). Social
networking sites, wikis, and blogs allow users to connect and learn in a connectivist approach.
According to Siemens (2004), Within social networks, hubs are well-connected people who are
able to foster and maintain knowledge flow (para 24).
Since connectivism is still an emerging theory, there is a lot of debate on whether it
should be considered a theory or not. However, it continues to grow in popularity and has seen
success when used to design online courses for distance education. Also, the ideas of

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11

connectivim provide a helpful framework for researchers to develop new learning theories for
the digital era.
Conclusion
As the popularity of educational technology continues to grow, there is a strong need for
more research and theories on how educators can effectively integrate technology into the
classroom. New technology emerges daily at such a pace that it is hard for researchers to
concurrently develop theories and perform studies. It is becoming increasingly clear that simply
using technology in the classroom is not enough to ensure successful technology integration
(Koehler & Mishra, 2005). For technology integration to be successful, it must be based in
learning theory so that educators can be guided to effectively use technology in the classroom
and see its importance. Park (2011) stated that the most serious issue facing emerging
technology is the lack of solid theoretical frameworks to guide instructional design and assess
program quality.
Rather than discuss the ongoing need for new research to broaden the field of educational
technology, this paper seeks to look at theories that have already been established. An attempt
has been made to outline how these theories can be applied in the field of educational
technology. These are certainly not the only learning theories that can be adapted to fit the needs
of 21st century educators, and researchers are continually looking to apply existing theories to
Web 2.0 and other emerging technologies. The discussion of four learning theoriesmultiple
intelligences, connectivim, dual-coding theory, and communities of practicein this paper
provide an opportunity for educators to explore how existing theories support technology
integration.

LEARNING THEORIES THAT SUPPORT TECHNOLOGY

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