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Relations and Functions

Relation

7. Equivalence Classes
Given, an arbitrary equivalence relation R on an
arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint subsets
Ai called partitions satisfying Ai Aj = X and
Ai Aj = , i j . The subset Ai are called equivalence
class and it is denoted by [a].

Let A be a non-empty set and R A A. Then, R is called a

relation on A.
If (a, b) R, then we say that a is related to b and we write
aRb.
If (a, b) R, then we write b R/ a.

Types of Relation

Function

1. Empty Relation

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then, a relation f from

A to B which associates to each element x A, a unique
element of f(x) B is called a function from A to B and we
write f : A B. Here, A is called the domain of f,
i.e., dom(f ) = A, B is called the codomain of f.
Also, {f(x) : x A} B is called the range of f.

A relation R on a set A is called empty relation, if no

element of A is related to any element of A i.e.,
R = A A is the empty relation.

2. Universal Relation
A relation R on a set A is called universal relation, if each
element of A is related to every element of A i.e.,
R = A A.

Every function is a relation but every relation is not a

function.

Types of Function

Both the empty relation and the universal relation are

sometimes called trivial relations.

1. One-one (Injective) Function

3. Reflexive Relation

A function f : A B is said to be one-one, if f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )

x1 = x2 or x1 x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )

A relation R defined on set A is said to be reflexive, if

( x, x ) R, x A.

where, x1, x2 A

4. Symmetric Relation

2. Many-one Function

A relation R defined on set A is said to be symmetric, if

( x, y ) R ( y, x ) R, x, y A

A function f : A B is said to be many-one, if two or

more than two elements in A have the same image in B,
i . e ., if x1 x2 , then f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ).

5. Transitive Relation
A relation R defined on set A is said to be transitive, if
( x, y ) R and ( y, z ) R ( x, z ) R, x, y, z A

3. Onto (Surjective) Function

A function f : A B is said to be onto, if every element in
B has its pre-image in A, i.e., if for each y B, there exists
an element x A, such that f ( x ) = y.

6. Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation, if
it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

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4. Into Function

Binary Operation

A function f : A B is said to be into, if atleast one

element of B do not have a pre-image.

Let S be a non-empty set and be an operation on S

such that
a S, b S

a b S , a, b S
Then, is called a binary operation on S.

5. One-one and Onto (Bijective) Function

A function f : X Y is said to be one-one and onto, if f is
both one-one and onto.

6. Composite Function

Group

Let f : A B and g : B C, then

An algebraic structure (S ) consisting of a non-void set S

and a binary operation defined on S is called a group, if
it satisfies following axioms.
(i) Closure property We say that on S satisfies the
closure property, if
a S, b S a b S , a, b S

gof : A C, such that (gof) ( x ) = g { f ( x )}, x A

(i) In generally, gof fog .
(ii) In generally, if gof is one-one, then f is one-one. And if
gof is onto, then g is onto.

(ii) Commutative law Operation on S is said to be

commutative, if a b = b a, a, b S .
(iii) Associative law Operation on S is said to be
associative, if (a b) c = a (b c ); a, b, c S .
(iv) Identity law An element e S is said to be the
identity element of a binary operation on set S, if
a e = e a = a, a S
(v) Invertible law or inverse law
An element a S is said to be invertible, if there
exists an element b S , such that
a b = b a = e , b S.
Element b is called inverse of element a.

7. Invertible Function
A function f : X Y is defined to be invertible, if there
exists a function g : Y X, such that gof = IX and
fog = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and it is
denoted by f 1. Thus, f is invertible, then f must be
one-one and onto and vice-versa.
A

f(x)

g [f(x)]

gof

(i) If f : X Y, g : Y Z and h : Z S are functions, then

ho(gof ) = (hog)of.
(ii) Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two invertible functions.
1

Then, gof is also invertible with (gof )

Zero is identity for the addition operation on R but it is not

identity for addition operation on N.

= f og .

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are not one-one and onto on their natural domains and ranges, so their inverse does not exist in all
values but their inverse may exists in some interval of their domains and ranges. Thus, we can say that, inverse of
trigonometric functions are defined within restricted domains of corresponding trigonometric functions. Inverse of f is
denoted by f 1.
Let y = f ( x ) = sin x be a function.
Inverse

Its inverse is x = sin 1 y, i.e., sin x sin 1 x.

sin1 x (sin x)1

1
sin1 x sin1
x

1
(sin x)1

sin x

Domain, Range and Principal Values of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function

Domain

Range

[1, 1]

,
2 2

cos 1 x

[1, 1]

[0, ]

tan1 x

2 2

cosec 1 x

( , 1 ] [1, )

, { 0}
2 2

sec 1 x

( , 1 ] [1, )

[0, ]
2

cot 1 x

( 0, )

sin

Principal value branch

y ,
2
2

where y = sin1 x

0 y ,

where y = cos 1 x

< y< ,
2
2

where y = tan1 x

y , y 0, where y = cosec 1 x
2
2

0 y , y ,
2

where y = sec 1 x

0 < y < , where y = cot 1 x

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Mathematics-XII
T-ratios of Some Standard Angles

Angle ()

0 = 0

30 =

Ratio

45 =

60 =

90 =

sin

1
2

1
2

3
2

cos

3
2

1
2

1
2

tan

1
3

Transformation of one Inverse Trigonometric Function to another Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function
1

Transformation of a Function

(i)

sin

cos 1 ( 1 x2 )

tan1
1 x2

1 x2

cot 1

sec 1
1 x2

1
cosec 1
x

(ii)

cos 1 x

sin1 ( 1 x2 )

1 x2

tan1

cot 1
1 x2

1
sec 1
x

cosec 1
1 x2

(iii)

tan1 x

sin1
1 + x2

cos 1
1 + x2

1
cot 1
x

sec 1 1 + x2

1 + x2

cosec 1

Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(iv) cot 1 ( x ) = cot 1 x, x R

Property I

(v) cosec 1 ( x ) = cosec 1 x, x 1

(i) sin 1 (sin ) = , ,
2 2
(ii) cos

(vi) sec 1 ( x ) = sec 1 x, x 1

(cos ) = , [0, ]

(iii) tan 1 (tan ) = , ,
2 2

Property III
(i) sin 1 (1 / x ) = cosec 1 x, x 1 or x 1

(iv) cot 1(cot ) = , (0, )

(v) cosec 1 (cosec ) = , ,
{ 0}
2 2

(ii) cos 1 (1 / x ) = sec 1 x, x 1 or x 1

(vi) sec 1 (sec ) = , [0, ]
2

(iii) tan

(vii) sin (sin 1 x ) = x, x [ 1, 1]

, x [ 1, 1]
2

(ii) tan 1 x + cot 1 x = , x R

2

1
1
(iii) cosec x + sec x = , x (,1] [1, )
2

(ix) tan (tan 1 x ) = x, x R

(i) sin 1 x + cos 1 x =

(x) cot (cot 1 x ) = x, x R

(xi) cosec (cosec 1 x ) = x, x ( , 1] [1, )
(xii) sec (sec 1 x ) = x, x ( , 1] [1, )

Property II
(i) sin

(ii) cos

( x ) = sin

cot 1 x , x > 0
1
=
x
1
+ cot x, x < 0

Property IV

(viii) cos (cos 1 x ) = x, x [ 1, 1]

Property V
1

x, x [ 1, 1]

(i) sin 1 x + sin 1 y = sin 1[ x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 ],

( x ) = cos 1 x, x [ 1, 1]

if 1 x, y 1 and x 2 + y 2 1 or

(iii) tan 1 ( x ) = tan 1 x, x R

if xy < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

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(ii) sin 1 x sin 1 y = sin 1[ x 1 y 2 y 1 x 2 ],

(vi) tan ( A B) =

if 1 x, y 1 and x 2 + y 2 1 or

cot A cot B 1
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot ( A B) =
cot B cot A

(vii) cot ( A + B) =

if xy > 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

(iii) cos 1 x + cos 1 y = cos 1[ xy 1 x 2 1 y 2 ],
if 1 x, y 1 and x + y 0

(ix) 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B) + sin ( A B)

(iv) cos 1 x cos 1 y = cos 1[ xy + 1 x 2 1 y 2 ],

(x) 2 cos A cos B = sin ( A + B) sin ( A B)

if 1 x, y 1 and x y

(xi) 2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B) + cos ( A B)

x + y
(v) tan 1 x + tan 1 y = tan 1
, xy < 1
1 xy
(vi) tan

x tan

(xii) 2 sin A sin B = cos ( A B) cos ( A + B)

C D
C + D
(xiii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin

cos
2
2

x y
y = tan
, xy > 1
1 + xy
1

C D
C + D
(xiv) sin C sin D = 2 cos

sin
2
2

Property VI
(i) 2 sin 1 x = sin 1 (2 x 1 x 2 ),

C D
C + D
(xv) cos C + cos D = 2 cos

cos
2
2

1
1
x
2
2

C D
C + D
(xvi) cos C cos D = 2 sin

sin
2
2

(ii) 2 cos 1 x = cos 1 (2 x 2 1), 0 x 1

(iii) 2 tan

x = sin

tan A tan B
1 + tan A tan B

D C
C + D
= 2 sin

sin
2
2

2x

, | x | 1 or 1 x 1
1 + x2

(xvii) sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x

(xviii) cos 2 x = cos 2 x sin 2 x = 1 2 sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x 1

1 x
(iv) 2 tan 1 x = cos 1
, x 0
1 + x2

(xix) tan 2 x =

2x
(v) 2 tan 1 x = tan 1
, 1< x 1
1 x2

2 tan x
1 tan 2 x

(xx) 1 + cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x; 1 cos 2 x = 2 sin 2 x

(xxi) sin 2 x =

Some Useful Trigonometric Formulae

2 tan x
1 tan 2 x
;
=
x
2
cos
1 + tan 2 x
1 + tan 2 x

(xxii) sin 3 x = 3 sin x 4 sin 3 x;

(i) sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

cos 3 x = 4 cos 3 x 3 cos x

(ii) sin( A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

(iii) cos( A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B

(xxiii) tan 3 x =

(iv) cos( A B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B
(v) tan( A + B) =
1 tan A tan B

3 tan x tan 3 x
1 3 tan 2 x

Matrices
Matrix

If m = n, then matrix is a square matrix.

A matrix is denoted by the symbol [ ].
i.e.,
[A] = [aij] m n

A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or

functions. The number or functions are called the elements
or the entries of the matrix.

We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are

real number or function taking real values.

Order of Matrix
A matrix of order m n is
a11 a12
a
a22
A = 21
K
K

a
m1 am2

Types of Matrices

of the form
a13 K a1n
a23 K a2 n

K K K
am3 K amn

(i) Row matrix A matrix having only one row and many
columns, is called a row matrix.
(ii) Column matrix A matrix having only one column and
many rows, is called a column matrix.

Its element in the ith row and jth column is aij.

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(iii) Zero matrix or null matrix If all the elements of a matrix

are zero, then it is called a zero or null matrix. It is denoted
by symbol O.
(iv) Square matrix A matrix in which number of rows and
number of columns are equal, is called a square matrix.
(v) Diagonal matrix A square matrix is said to be a diagonal
matrix, if all the elements lying outside the diagonal
elements are zero.
(vi) Scalar matrix A diagonal matrix in which all principal
diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix.
(vii) Unit matrix or identity matrix A square matrix having 1
(one) on its principal diagonal and 0 (zero) elsewhere, is
called an identity matrix. It is denoted by symbol I.
(viii) Equality of Matrix Two matrices are said to be equal, if
their order is same and their corresponding elements are
also equal.

Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m n. Then, the
sum of matrices A + B is defined, if matrices A and B are of
same order.
If
A = [aij ]m n , B = [aij ]m n
Then,
A + B = [aij + bij ]m n

Properties of Addition of Matrices

If A, B and C are three matrices of same order m n, then
(i) Commutative law A + B = B + A
(ii) Associative law ( A + B) + C = A + (B + C )
(iii) Existence of additive identity A zero matrix (O) of order
m n (same as of A), is additive identity, if
A+ O = A=O + A
(iv) Existence of additive inverse If A is a square matrix,
then the matrix ( A), is additive inverse, if
A + ( A) = O = ( A) + A
If A and B are not of same order, then A + B is not defined.

Difference of Matrices
If A = [aij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order m n,
then difference, A B is defined as a matrix D = [d ij ], where
d ij = aij bij, i , j .

Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A = [aij ]m n be a matrix and k be any scalar. Then, the
matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called
the scalar multiple of A by k, i.e., kA = [kaij ]m n .
(i) k( A + B) = kA + kB
(ii) (k + l )A = kA + lA

Multiplication of Matrices
Let A = [aij ]m n and B = [bij ]n p be two matrices such that the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B,
then multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by
c ij =

aik bkj

Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

(i) Associative law ( AB)C = A(BC )
(ii) Existence of multiplicative identity
A I = A = I A, I is called multiplicative identity.
(iii) Distributive law A(B + C ) = AB + AC

Transpose of a Matrix
The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of a given matrix A, is callled transpose of a
matrix. It is denoted by A or AT .

Properties of Transpose of Matrices

(i) ( A + B) = A + B
(iii) ( AB) = B A

(ii) (kA) = kA
(iv) ( A ) = A

Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matirx A is callled symmetric, if A = A.
A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric, if A = A.

Properties of Symmetric and

Skew-symmetric Matrix
(i) For any square matrix A with real number entries,
A + A is a symmetric matrix and A A is a
skew-symmetric matrix.
(ii) Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of
symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
1
1
i.e.,
A = ( A + A ) + ( A A )
2
2
(iii) The
principal
diagonal
elements
skew-symmetric matrix are always zero.

of

Elementary Operations of a Matrix

There are six operations (transformations) on a matrix,
three of which are due to rows and three due to
columns, which are known as elementary operations or
transformations.
(i) The interchange of any two rows or two
columns Symbolically, the interchange of ith and
jth rows is denoted by Ri R j and interchange of
ith and jth columns is denoted by Ci C j.
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row
or column by a non-zero number Symbolically,
the multiplication of each element of the ith row
by k, where k 0 is denoted by Ri kRi. The
corresponding column operation is denoted by
Ci kCi.
(iii) The addition to the elements of any row or
column, the corresponding elements of any
other row or column multiplied by any
non-zero number Symbolically, the addition to
the elements of ith row, the corresponding
elements of jth row multiplied by k is denoted by
Ri Ri + kR j.
The corresponding column operation is denoted
by Ci Ci + kC j.

k =1

where, c ij is the element of matrix C and C = AB.

Generally, it is not commutative AB BA.

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Properties of Invertible Matrices

Invertible Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order m and there exists another
square matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I,
then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by
A1.

Let A and B be two non-zero matrices of same order.

(i) Uniqueness of inverse If inverse of a square matrix
exists, then it is unique.
(ii) AA1 = A1 A = I
(iii) ( AB)1 = B 1 A1

A rectangular matrix does not posses inverse matrix.

If B is an inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.

(iv) ( A1 ) 1 = A
(v) ( A )1 = ( A1 ) or ( AT )1 = ( A1 )T
where, A or AT is transpose of a matrix A.

Determinants
Determinant

Minors and Cofactors

Every square matrix A is associated with a number, called its

determinant and it is denoted by det(A) or A.

Minors Minor of an element aij of a matrix is the

determinant obtained by deleting i th row and jth
column. It is denoted by Mij.
a11 a12 a13
If A = a21 a22 a23 , then

Expansion of Determinant of Order (22)

a11 a12
= a11 a22 a12 a21
a21 a22

a31 a32

Expansion of Determinant of Order (3 3)

a11 a12
a21 a22
a31 a32

a33

Minors of A are
a
a
M11 = 22 23 ,
a32 a33

a13
a23 = a11 (a22 a33 a32 a23 )
a33

M12 =

a21 a23
,
a31 a33

M13 =

a21 a22

a12 (a21a33 a31a23 ) + a13 (a21a32 a31a22 )

Similarly, we can expand the above determinant corresponding
to any row or column.

a31 a32

, etc.

The minor of an element of a determinant of order

n (n 2 ) is a determinant of order n 1.

Properties of Determinants
(i) If the rows and columns of a determinant are
interchanged, then the value of the determinant does not
change.
(ii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are
interchanged, then sign of determinant changes.
(iii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical,
then the value of the determinant is zero.
(iv) If each element of a row (column) is multiplied by a
non-zero number k, then the value of the determinant is
multiplied by k. By this property, we can take out any
common factor from any one row or any one column of a
determinant.
(v) If A is a n n matrix, then| kA| = k n | A|.
(vi) If each element of any row (column) of a determinant is
added k times the corresponding element of another row
(column), then the value of the determinant remains
unchanged.
(vii) If some or all elements of a row (column) of a determinant
are expressed as sum of two (more) terms, then the
determinant can be expressed as sum of two (more)
determinants.

Cofactor If Mij is the minor of an element aij, then the

cofactor of aij is denoted by Cij or Aij and defined as
follows
Aij = Cij = ( 1)i + j Mij
Cofactors of A are Cij = ( 1)i + j Mij
where, i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3.
If elements of a row (column) are multiplied with
cofactors of any other row (column), then their sum is
zero.

Area of Triangle
Let A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) be the vertices of a
ABC. Then, its area is given by
x1
1
x2
=
2
x3
=

y1 1
y2 1
y3 1

1
x1( y2 y3 ) + x2 ( y3 y1 ) + x3 ( y1 y2 )
2

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Mathematics-XII

(i) Since, area is positive quantity. So, we always take the

absolute value of the determinant.

Properties of Inverse of a Square Matrix (A)

(i) ( A1 )1 = A

(ii) If area is given, use both positive and negative values

of the determinant for calculation.

(iii) ( AT )1 = ( A1 )T

(iv) (kA)1 = kA1

(v) adj ( A1 ) = (adj A)1

Condition of Collinearity
Three points A( x1, y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ) are
collinear, when = 0.
x1 y1 1
x 2 y2 1 = 0
i . e .,
x3

(ii) ( AB)1 = B 1 A1

A is said to be singular, if| A|= 0.

System of Linear Equations

y3 1

Let the system of equations be

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1,
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2
and
a3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3
Then, this system of equations can be written as AX = B
d1
x
a1 b1 c1
where, A = a2 b2 c 2 , X = y and B = d 2

d 3
z
a3 b3 c 3

Adjoint of a Matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix A is defined as the transpose
of the matrix formed by cofactors.
Let A = [ aij ] be a square matrix of order n, then adjoint of A,
i . e ., adj A = CT , where C = [Cij ] is the cofactor matrix of A.

Properties of Adjoint of Square Matrix

A system of equations is consistent or inconsistent

according as its solution exists or not.
(i) For a square matrix A in matrix equation AX = B
(a) | A| 0, then system of equations is consistent and
has unique solution.
(b) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B O, then there exists no
solution, i . e ., inconsistent.
(c) | A| = 0 and (adj A) B = O, then system of equations
is consistent and has an infinite number of
solutions.
0
(ii) When B = 0 , in such cases, we have

0
(a) | A| 0 System has only trivial solution
i.e., x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0
(b) | A| = 0 System has infinitely many solutions.

If A and B are square matrices of order n, then

(i) A(adj A) = | A| In = (adj A)A
(ii) adj ( AT ) = (adj A)T
(iii) | adj A| = | A|n 1, if| A| 0
2

(iv) |adj [adj ( A)]| = | A|( n 1) ' if| A| 0

(v) (adj AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

Inverse of a Matrix
A square matrix A has inverse, if and only if A is a
non-singular (| A| 0 ) matrix. The inverse of A is denoted
by A1 i.e.,
1
A 1 =
(adj A),| A| 0
| A|

Continuity and Differentiability

Continuous Function

Some Basic Continuous Function

(i) Every constant function is continuous.

A real function f is said to be continuous, if it is continuous

at every point in the domain f.

(ii) Every identity function is continuous.

(iii) Every polynomial function is continuous.

Continuity at a Point

Algebra of Continuous Function

Suppose f is a real valued function on a subset of the real

numbers and let c be a point in the domain of f. Then, f is
continuous at c, if lim f ( x ) = f (c ).

If f and g are two continuous functions in domain D, then

(i) (f + g ) is continuous.

xc

(ii) (f g ) is continuous.
(iii) cf is continuous.
(iv) fg is continuous.
f
(v) is continuous in domain except at the points,
g
where, g( x ) = 0.

i.e., if f (c ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ), then f ( x ) is continuous at

xc +

xc

x = c . Otherwise, f ( x ) is discontinuous at x = c .
Graphically, a function f( x) is said to be continuous at a
point, if the graph of the function has no break point.

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(vi) If f is continuous, then f is also continuous.

(vii) Every rational function is continuous.

(xv)

d
1
, 1 < x < 1
(cos 1 x ) =
dx
1 x2

(viii) Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that

(fog) is defined at c, if g is continuous at c and f is
continuous at g(c ), then (fog) is continuous at c.

(xvi)

d
1
(tan 1 x ) =
dx
1 + x2

(xvii)

d
1
(cot 1 x ) =
dx
1 + x2

(xviii)

1
d
,| x| > 1
(sec 1 x ) =
dx
| x| x 2 1

Differentiability or Derivability
A function f is said to be derivable or differentiable at x = c ,
if its left hand and right hand derivatives at c exist and are
equal.
f (a + h ) f (a)
(i) Right Hand Derivative Rf (a) = lim
h 0
h
f (a h ) f (a)
(ii) Left Hand Derivative Lf (a) = lim
h 0
h

(xix)

Derivative of Composite Function by

Chain Rule

f ( x ) is differentiable at x = a, if Rf (a) = L f (a).

Otherwise, f ( x ) is not differentiable at x = a.

Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two

functions u and v, i.e., f = vou . Suppose t = u ( x ) and if both
dt
dv
and
exist, we have
dx
dt
df dv dt
=
.
dx dt dx

(i) Graphically, a function is not differentiable at a corner

point of a curve.
(ii) Every differentiable function is continuous. But a
continuous function need not be differentiable.

Derivatives of Two or More Functions

Differentiation

d
du dv
(u v ) =

dx
dx dx
d
du dv dw
(ii)
(u v w K ) =

K
dx
dx dx dx
d
d
d
(iii)
[product rule]
(u v ) = u
(v ) + v
(u )
dx
dx
dx
d
d
v
(u ) u
(v )
d u
dx
dx
[quotient rule]
(iv)
=
2
dx v
v
(i)

The process of finding derivative is called differentiation.

Derivatives of Standard Functions

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)

d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx

d
1
,| x| > 1
(cosec 1 x ) =
dx
| x| x 2 1

( x n ) = nx n 1
(constant) = 0
(cx n ) = cn x n 1

(v) y = [f ( x )]g( x )
dy

= [f ( x )]g( x )
dx

(sin x ) = cos x
(cos x ) = sin x

g( x )

f ( x ) f ( x ) + log f ( x ) g ( x )

(vi) If y = f [g( x )], then

(tan x ) = sec 2 x

dy
= f [g( x )] g ( x )
dx

Useful Logarithmic Formulae

(cosec x ) = cosec x cot x

(i) log a mn = log a m + log a n

m
(ii) log a
= log a m log a n
n

(sec x ) = sec x tan x

(iii) log a mn = n log a m

(cot x ) = cosec 2 x

For m > 0, n > 0, a > 0

and a 1

(iv) log a a = 1; a > 0 and a 1

(e x ) = e x

(v) log a m = log b m + log a b; a > 0, b > 0, a 1, b 1 and

m>0

(a x ) = a x loge a, a > 0

(vi) log a m log m a = 1 ; a > 0, m > 0, a 1 and m 1

1
(vii) log bm a = log b a ; a > 0, b > 0 and b 1
m
log m a
(viii) log b a =
; a > 0, b > 0, b 1, m > 0 and m 1
log m b

1
(loge x ) = , x > 0
x
1
, a > 0, a 1
(log a x ) =
x loge a

1
d
, 1 < x < 1
(sin 1 x ) =
dx
1 x2

(ix) alog a = m; a > 0, m > 0, a 1

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Rolles Theorem

Lagranges Mean Value Theorem

If a function y = f ( x ) is defined in [a, b] and

(i) f ( x ) is continuous in [a, b].
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in (a, b) and
(iii) f (a) = f (b)
Then, there will be atleast one value of c (a, b) such
that f (c ) = 0.

If a function f ( x ) is said to be defined on [a, b] and

(i) continuous in [a, b] and
(ii) differentiable in (a, b), then there will be atleast one
f (b) f (a)
.
value of c (a, b) such that f (c ) =
ba
Lagranges mean value theorem is valid irrespective of
whether f(a) = f(b ) or f(a) f(b ).

Application of Derivatives
Rate of Change of Quantities

(iii) Area of a trapezium =

If y = f ( x ) is a function, where y is dependent variable and x

dy
[or f ( x )] represents the
is independent variable. Then,
dx
dy
rate of change of y w.r.t. x and
[or f ( x0 )]
dx x = x

1
(Sum of parallel sides)
2

Perpendicular distance between them

(iv) Area of a circle = r 2
and circumference of a circle

= 2r, where r is the radius of circle.

4
(v) Volume of sphere = r 3 and surface area = 4r 2
3
where, r is the radius of sphere.

represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x0 .

y
(i) Average rate of change of y w.r.t. x =
x
dy
(ii) Instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x =
dx
dy dy / dt
dx
, if
(iii) Related rate of change =
=
0
dx dx / dt
dt

(vi) Total surface area of a right circular cylinder

= 2 rh + 2 r 2
Curved surface area of right circular cylinder
= 2rh

dy
dy
is positive, if y increases as x increases and
is
dx
dx
negative, if y decreases as x increases.
Here,

and

volume = r 2 h

where, r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.

1
(vii) Volume of a right circular cone = r 2 h,
3
Curved surface area = rl
and
total surface area = r 2 + rl
where, r is the radius, h is the height and l is the slant
height of the cone.

Marginal Cost
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change
of the total cost at any level of output. If C( x ) represents the
cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost,
d
denoted by MC, is given by MC =
{C( x )}.
dx

(viii) Volume of a parallelopiped = xyz

and
surface area = 2( xy + yz + zx )
where, x,y and z are the dimensions of parallelopiped.

Marginal Revenue
Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total
revenue with respect to the number of items sold at an
instant. If R( x ) represents the revenue function for x units
sold, then marginal revenue, denoted by MR, is given by
d
MR =
{ R( x )}.
dx

(ix) Volume of a cube = x 3 and surface area = 6 x 2

where, x is the side of the cube.
(x) Area of an equilateral triangle =

3
(Side) 2 .
4

Increasing and Decreasing

Functions

Total cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost

i.e., C ( x) = f(c ) + v( x)

(i) Increasing functions Let I be an open interval

contained in the domain of a real valued function f.
Then, f is said to be
(a) increasing on I, if x1 < x2

Some Useful Results

(i) Area of a square = x 2 and perimeter = 4x
where, x is the side of the square.

f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I

(ii) Area of a rectangle = xy and perimeter = 2( x + y )

where, x and y are length and breadth of rectangle.

(b) strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2

f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

(ii) Decreasing functions Let I be an open interval

contained in the domain of a real valued function f.
Then, f is said to be

(a) If m1m2 = 1, then tangents are perpendicular to each

other. In this case, we say that the curves intersect
each other orthogonally.
This also happens, when m1 = 0 and m2 = .

(a) decreasing on I, if x1 < x2

(b) If m1 = m2 , then tangents are parallel to each other.

(c) If = 0, then curves touch each other.

f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I

(b) strictly decreasing on I, if x1 < x2

Approximation

f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ), x1, x2 I

Theorem Let f be
differentiable on (a, b).

continuous

on

[a, b]

and

(a) If f ( x ) > 0 for each x (a, b), then f ( x ) is said to be

increasing in [a, b] and strictly increasing in (a, b).
(b) If f ( x ) < 0 for each x (a, b), then f ( x ) is said to be
decreasing in [a, b] and strictly decreasing in (a, b).
(c) If f ( x ) = 0 for each x (a, b), then f is said to be a
constant function in [a, b].
(iii) A monotonic function f in an interval I, we mean that f is
either increasing in I or decreasing in I.

Tangents and Normals

A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve y = f ( x )
dy
represents the gradient function of a curve
at a point.
dx
y = f ( x ).
A normal is a straight line perpendicular to a tangent to the
curve y = f ( x ) intersecting at the point of contact.

Equation of Tangent and Normal

(a) Equation of tangent at P( x1, y1 ) is
( y y1 ) dy
=
( x x1 ) dx ( x1, y1 )
(b) Equation of normal at P ( x1, y1 ) is
( y y1 )
1
=
( x x1 ) dy
dx
(c) If a tangent line to the curve y = f ( x ) makes an angle
with X-axis in the positive direction, then
dy
= Slope of tangent = tan
dx

Angle of Intersection of Two Curves

Let y = f1( x ) and y = f2 ( x ) be the two curves and be the
angle between their tangents at the point of their intersection
P ( x1, y1 ).
m m2
Then,
tan = 1
1 + m1m2

and m2 =

f ( x + x ) = f ( x ) + y f ( x + x ) f ( x ) = y

Some Important Terms

Absolute error The error x in x is called the absolute
error in x.
x
Relative error If x is an error in x, then
is called the
x
relative error in x.
x
Percentage error If x is an error in x, then
100 is
x
called percentage error in x.

Maxima and Minima

Monotonic Function

( x1, y1 )

m1 =

Also,

Let f be a real valued function and c be an interior point in

the domain of f. Then,
(i) Local maxima Point c is called a local maxima, if
there is a h > 0 such that
f (c ) f ( x ) for all x in (c h, c + h ).
(ii) Local minima Point c is called a point of local
minima, if there is a h > 0 such that
f (c ) f ( x ) for all x in (c h, c + h ).

Let y = f ( x ) be a curve and P ( x1, y1 ) be a point on it. Then,

where,

Let y = f ( x ) be a function of x and x be a small change

in x and y be the corresponding change in y. Then,
y
= f ( x ) + , where 0 and x 0
x

y = f ( x ) x + x
dy
y dy
y =
x, approximately.
Q

x dx
dx

dy
for y = f1( x )
dx
( x1, y1 )

dy
for y = f2 ( x ).
dx
( x1, y1 )

10

A function which is either increasing or decreasing in their

domain is called monotonic function.
Every monotonic function assumes its maximum or
minimum value at the end points of the domain of the
function or every continuous function on a closed interval
has a maximum and a minimum value.
A monotonic function in an interval l, means that f is either
increasing or decreasing in l.

Critical Point
A point c in the domain of a function f at which either
f (c ) = 0 or f is not differentiable, is called a critical point
of f. Note that, if f is continuous at c and f (c) = 0, then
there exists a h > 0 such that f is differentiable in the
interval (c h, c + h).

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

First Derivative Test

(ii) x = c is a point of local minima, if f (c ) = 0 and

f (c ) > 0. Then, f (c ) is local minimum value of f.

(i) If f ( x ) > 0 to closely left of c and f ( x ) < 0 to closely right

of c, then c is a point of local maxima.
(ii) If f ( x ) < 0 to closely left of c and f ( x ) > 0 to closely right
of c, then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f ( x ) does not change sign as x increases through c,
then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of
local minima. This point is called a point of inflection.

(iii) If f (c ) = 0 and f (c ) = 0, then the test fails.

As f is twice differentiable at c, we mean second order
derivative of f exists at c.

Absolute Maxima and

Absolute Minima
Let f be a differentiable function on [a, b] and c be a point in
[a, b] such that f (c ) = 0. Then, find f (a), f (b) and f (c ). The
maximum of these values gives a maxima or absolute
maxima and minimum of these values gives a minima or
absolute minima.

Second Derivative Test

Let f be twice differentiable at c, then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima, if f (c ) = 0 and
f (c ) < 0. Then, f (c ) is local maximum value of f.

Integrals
Indefinite Integral

(xv)

Let F( x ) and f ( x ) be two functions connected together, such

d
that
[F( x )] = f ( x ), then F( x ) is called integral of f ( x ) or
dx
indefinite integral or anti-derivative.

(xvi)

Thus, f ( x )dx = F( x ) + C

(xvii)

1+

where, C is an arbitrary constant.

x n +1
+ C, n 1
(n + 1 )

(i)

x ndx =

(ii)

1
dx = log| x| + C, x 0
x

(iii)
(iv)

(xix)
(xx)

dx = cos 1 x + C

1
dx = cot 1 x + C
1+ x 2
dx
x

x2 1
1

x2 1

= sec 1 x + C
dx = cosec

x+C

Properties of Indefinite Integral

ax
a dx =
+C
log a
x

(i) The process of differentiation and integration are

inverse of each other.
d
i.e.,
f ( x )dx = f ( x ) and f ( x )dx = f ( x ) + C
dx
where, C is any arbitrary constant.

sin x dx = cos x + C
(vi) cos x dx = sin x + C
(vii) tan x dx = log|sec x| + C
(viii) cot x dx = log|sin x| + C
(ix) sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x | + C

{ f ( x ) g ( x )} dx = f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
(iii) K f ( x )dx = K f ( x )dx
(ii)

(iv) In general, if f1, f2 , ..., fn are functions and k1, k2 , ..., kn

are numbers, then

= log|tan ( / 4 + x / 2 )| + C

cosec

[k1 f1 ( x ) + k2 f2( x ) + ... + kn fn( x )]dx

= k1 f1( x )dx + k2 f2 ( x ) dx + ... + kn fn ( x )dx + C

x dx = log|cosec x cot x| + C

= log|tan( x / 2 )| + C

sec x dx = tan x + C
(xii) cosec 2 x dx = cot x + C
(xiii) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
(xiv) cosec x cot x dx = cosec
(xi)

1 + x2

dx = e x + C

(v)

(x)

dx = cos 1 x + C

dx
= tan 1 x + C
x2

(xviii)

Important Results

1 x

where, C is the constant of integration.

Integration by Substitution
The method of reducing a given integral into one or other
standard integral by changing the independent variable is
called method of substitution.
Thus, f ( x )dx = f { g (t )} g(t ) dt , if we substitute x = g (t ),

x+C

such that dx = g (t ) dt.

11

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII
Some Standard Substitutions

Partial Fractions
Form of the
Rational Functions
1.

Form of the
Partial Fractions

px q
,ab
(x a) (x b)
px q

2.

A
B
+
(x a) (x a)2

(x a)2
px2 qx r

3.

A
B
+
xa
xb

1.

a x

2.

a + x

3.

x a
2

Bx + C
A
, where
+ 2
(x a)
x bx c

px2 qx r
(x a) (x2 bx c)

x2 bx c cannot be factorised
further.

Integration by Parts

x = a tan or a cot

x = a sec or a cosec

4.

a+ x
or
ax

5.

x
or (x ) (x )
x

ax
a+ x

(i)

(x2 + a2 ) (x2 + b2 ) dx

(ii)

a+ x

dx

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

dx
(x a )
2

dx
x 2 + a2

= log x +

x
2
x
x 2 a2 dx =
2

a2 x 2 dx =

dx

x
2
, then
Put cos x =
x
1 + tan2
2
x
put tan = t
2

(iii)

a b sin x

dx

x
2 , then
x
1 + tan2
2
x
put tan = t
2

(iv)

a sin x +

(v)

(vi)

p sin x +

1 tan2

Put sin x =

x 2 + a2 + C

x 2 + a2 dx =

x
2

a2
log x +
2

x 2 a2 + C

x 2 + a2
+

a2
log x +
2

b cos x

a sin x + b cos x + c
dx
p sin x + q cos x

a sin x + b cos x
dx
q cos x + r

Put a sin x + b cos x + c

d
=A
(p sin x + q cos x)
dx
+ B (p sin x + q cos x)
Put a sin x + b cos x
d
=A
(p sin x + q cos x + r)
dx
+ B (p sin x + q cos x + r)

x 2 a2

(vii)

a2
x
sin 1 + C
2
a

2 tan

Put a = r cos and b = r sin

dx

x 2 a2| + C

a2 x 2 +

partial fraction of
y

a b cos x

+C

= log| x +

Let x2 = y and proceed for

(ii)

xa

( x 2 a2 ) = 2 a log x + a + C
(a2 x 2 ) = 2 a log a x

Substitution

( y + a2 ) ( y + b2 )

Some Important Integrals

1

x = cos 2 + sin2

Integral

If two functions are of different types, then consider the

1st function (i.e., u) which comes first in word ILATE,
where
I : Inverse trigonometric function e.g., sin 1 x
L : Logarithmic function e.g., log x
A : Algebraic function e.g., 1, x, x 2
T : Trigonometic function e.g., sin x, cos x
E : Exponential function e.g., e x

dx

x = a cos 2

Integration of Irrational and Trigonometric

Functions

Let u and v be two differentiable functions of a single

variable x, then the integral of the product of two
functions is

d
dx = u v dx u v dx dx
uv

dx
I II

(i)

Substitution
x = a sin or a cos

A
B
C
+
+
(x a) (x b) (x b)2

(x a) (x b)2
4.

Expression
2

x 2 + a2 + C

12

(vii)

(ax +

(viii)

(ax2 +

(ix)

(x)

dx
b) px + q

Put

px + q = t

dx

Put

px + q = t

bx + c) px + q
dx

(px + q)( ax2 + bx + c )

dx
(px + q) ax + b
2

Put px + q =
Put x =

1
t

1
t

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Definite Integral
An integral is of the form of

Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function defined on the

closed interval [a, b] and A( x ) be the area of function.

f ( x )dx is known as definite

[i . e ., A( x ) = f ( x )dx ]. Then, A( x ) = f ( x ), for all x [a, b].

integral and is given by

Theorem 2 Let f be a continuous function defined on the

closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti-derivative of f.

a f ( x )dx = g(b) g(a)

where, a and b are lower and upper limits of an integral.

Definite Integral as a Limit of Sum

Then,

(ii)

a f ( x )dx = b f ( x )dx

(iii)

a f ( x )dx = 0

(iv)

a f ( x )dx = a f ( x )dx + c f ( x )dx, where a < c < b.

(v)

a f ( x )dx = a f (a + b x )dx

(vi)

0 f ( x )dx = 0 f (a x )dx

(vii)

+ + f { a + (n 1 ) h}]
nh = b a

Some Standard Formulae

1. n = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =

2a

f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx +
0

0 f (2 a x )dx

2 a f ( x )dx, if f (2 a x ) = f ( x ), even
f
x
dx
(
)
=
0
0

0,
if f (2 a x ) = f ( x ), odd
a
a

if f ( x ) = f ( x ), even
(ix) f ( x )dx = 2 0 f ( x )dx,
a

0,
if f ( x ) = f ( x ), odd

n 2 (n + 1)2
3. n = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
4
3

a f ( x )dx = a f (t )dt

ba
n

n(n + 1)
2
n(n + 1)(2 n + 1)
2
2
2
2
2
2. n = 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
6

(i)

h [f (a) + f (a + h ) + f (a + 2 h )
a f ( x )dx = hlim
0

where,

Properties of Definite Integral

Let us define a continuous function f ( x ) in [a, b] divide

interval into n equal sub-intervals, each of length h, so that
h=

a f ( x ) dx = [F( x )]a = F(b) F(a)

Then,

(viii)

2a

Application of Integrals
1.

The area enclosed by the curve y = f ( x ), the X-axis and

3.

the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given by | y| dx.

a

If the curve y = f ( x ) lies below the X-axis, then area

bounded by the curve y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates
at x = a and x = b, is given by

Y
A
x=a
X O

x=a
X

x=b

L dx M

4.
The area enclosed by the curve x = f ( y ), the Y-axis and
d

the abscissae at y = c and y = d , is given by | x| dy.

c

x=b

2.

ydx .

f(x) B
y=
y

y = f (x)

Generally, it may happen that some position of the curve

is above X-axis and some is below the X-axis which is
shown in the figure. The area A bounded by the curve
y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is
given by A = | A2 | + A1.

Y
B
dy
X

y=d C
x
x = f(y)

A y=c

A1
X

x=b
X

x=a
O

O
Y

13

A2

Fast Track Revision Notes

5.

Mathematics-XII
7.

The area enclosed between two curves, y1 = f ( x ) and

y2 = g ( x ) and the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given
by

y2 y1 dx.

Area bounded by the two curves, y = f ( x ) and y = g( x )

between the ordinates at x = a and x = b, is given by
c
b
f ( x )dx + g( x ) dx.
a

y=
)
f (x

y2 = g(x)

y=

)
g (x

y1 = f(x)
X

x=a

x=b

The area enclosed between two curves, x1 = f ( y ) and

x2 = g ( y ) and the abscissae at y = c and y = d , is given
by

x=b

Curve Sketching
The points given below are of great help in curve sketching.

x2 x1 dy.

(i) If the equation of the curve contains only even powers

of x, then it is symmetrical about Y-axis.

(ii) If the equation of the curve contains only even powers

of y, then it is symmetrical about X-axis.

x2 = g(y)

x1 = f(y)

y=d

x=c

6.

O x=a

y=c

(iii) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged when x

and y are interchanged, then it is symmetrical about
the line y = x.

(iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged

when x and y are replaced by x and y
respectively, then the curve is symmetrical in
opposite quadrants.

Differential Equations
Differential Equation
An equation containing an independent variable, dependent
variable and derivative of dependent variable with respect to
independent variable, is called a differential equation. The
derivates are denoted by the symbols
dy d 2 y
d ny
, 2 ,...., n or y , y , ..., y ... n or y1, y2 ,..., yn
dx dx
dx

Order of a Differential Equation

The order of the highest derivative occurring in the differential
equation, is called order.

Degree of a Differential Equation

The power of the highest order derivative in the differential
equation, is called degree.

Solution of a Differential Equation

A relation between the dependent and independent variables
which, when substituted in the differential equation reduces it
to an identity, is called a solution.

General Solution of a
Differential Equation

Particular Solution of a Differential

Equation
The solution obtained from the general solution given
particular values to the arbitrary constants, is called a
particular solution of the differential equation.

Formation of a Differential Equation

An equation with independent, dependent variables
involving some arbitrary constants is given, then a
differential equation is obtained as follows
(i) Differentiate the given equation with respect to the
independent variable (say x) as many times as the
number of arbitrary constants in it.
(ii) Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
(iii) The obtained equation is the required differential
equation.
The order of a differential equation representing a family
of curves is same as the number of arbitrary constants
present in the equations corresponding to the family of
curves.

Equation in Variable Separable Form

A solution of a differential equation which contains as many

arbitrary constants as the order of the differential equation, is
called the general solution or primitive solution of the
differential equation.

14

If the equation can be reduced into the form

f ( x )dx + g( y ) dy = 0,
we say that the variables have been separated.
Then,

f ( x ) dx + g( y ) dy = C

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Homogeneous Differential Equation

A differential equation of the form

dy f ( x, y )
=
dx g( x, y )

where, f ( x, y ) and g( x, y ) are homogeneous

functions of x and y are of the same order.
If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form
dx
= F( x, y), where F( x, y) is a homogeneous function
dy
x
of degree zero, then we make substitution = v, i.e.,
y
x = vy and we proceed further to find the general
solution.

derivative is one and they do not get multiplied together, is

called a linear differential equation.
There are two types of linear differential equations.
dy
Type I Form
+ Py = Q, where P and Q are constants or
dx
functions of x.
We find integrating factor (IF) = e P dx . Now, solution is y
(IF) = [Q (IF)] dx + C.
dx
+ Px = Q, where P and Q are constants or
dy
functions of y, then IF = e P dy .

Type II Form

Its solution is x (IF) = [Q (IF)] dy + C.

Linear Differential Equation

A first order and first degree differential equation in
which the degree of dependent variable and its

Vector Algebra
Vector

Like Vectors

A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction, is called

a vector.

The vectors which have same direction are called like

vectors.

Unlike Vectors

Since, the length is never negative, so the notation | a | < 0

has no meaning.

The vectors which have opposite directions are called

unlike vectors.

Scalar

Equal Vectors

A quantity that has magnitude only, is called scalar.

Two vectors are equal, if they have same magnitude and

direction.

Magnitude of a Vector
If

a = a $i + b $j + c k$ , then | a | = a2 + b2 + c 2

Negative of a Vector
A vector whose magnitude is same as that of given vector
but the direction is opposite is called negative vector of the

Free Vector

If the initial point of a vector is not specified, then it is called

a free vector.

given vector. e.g., Let AB be a vector, then AB or BA is a

negative vector.

Type of Vectors

Coplanar Vectors

Zero or Null Vector

A system of vectors is said to be coplanar, if their supports

are parallel to same plane.

A vector whose magnitude is zero i . e ., whose initial and

final points coincide, is called a null vector or zero vector.

Addition of Vectors

Unit Vector
A vector whose magnitude is one unit. The unit vector in

$ The unit vectors

the direction of a is represented by a.
along X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are represented by $i , $j and k$ ,
respectively.

If

OA = a

and

AB = b,

then a + b = OA + AB = OB
B

Coinitial Vectors
Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called
coinitial vectors.

Collinear Vectors

The vectors which have same support are called collinear

vectors.

15

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

Section Formulae

If two vectors are represented along two sides of a triangle

taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the third
side taken in opposite direction i.e., from ABC, by triangle
law of vector addition, we have

Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b

respectively and P be a point which divides AB

BC + CA = BA

internally in the ratio m : n. Then, position vector of P

mb + n a
.
m+ n

If P divides AB externally in the ratio m:n. Then, position

vector of P =

mb n a
.
mn

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

If R is the mid-point of AB, then OR =

If two vectors are represented along the two adjacent sides of

a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented by the
diagonal of the sides. If the sides OA and OC of parallelogram

Component of a Vector

OABC represents OA and OC respectively, then we get

OA + OC = OB or OA + AB = OB

[Q AB = OC]

a+ b
.
2

If a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ , we say that the scalar components

of a along X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are a1, a2 and a3 ,

respectively.

Important Results in Component Form

Thus, we may say that the two laws of vectors addition are
equivalent to each other.

a+ b = b + a

[commutative law]

(b) For any three vectors a , b and c ,

[associative law]

(d) For any vector a , a + ( a ) = 0

If a and b are any two vectors, then their difference a b is

defined as a + ( b ).

b
a+

b b b
(v) If 1 = 2 = 3 = k (constant)
a1 a2 a3

Difference of Vectors

(iii) The vectors a and b are equal, if and only if

a1 = b1, a2 = b2
and
a3 = b3

(e) |a + b| |a + b|and |a b| |a| |b|

a b = (a1 b1 ) $i + (a2 b2 ) $j + (a3 b3 )k$

(iv) The multiplication of vector a by any scalar is

given by a = (a ) $i + (a ) $j + (a )k$

The vector a is additive inverse of a .

The zero vector 0 is called the additive identity for the

vector addition.

(i) The sum (or resultant) of the vectors a and b is

given by

a + b = (a1 + b1 ) $i + (a2 + b2 ) $j + (a3 + b3 )k$

(c) For any vector a , we have a + 0 = 0 + a = a .

(ii) The difference of the vectors a and b is given by

a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c

(a) For any two vectors a and b,

Then, (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) are called direction

ratios of a and b, respectively.

Properties of Vector Addition

If a and b are any two vectors given in the component

form such that a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ and b = b1$i + b2 $j + b3k$

16

Then, vectors a and b will be collinear.

(vi) If it is given that l, m and n are direction cosines of a
vector, then
l $i + m $j + n k$ = (cos ) $i + (cos ) $j + (cos )k$
is the unit vector in the direction of that vector, where
, and are the angles which the vector makes
with X, Y and Z-axes, respectively.

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Multiplication of a Vector by Scalar

If , and are the direction angles of vector

a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$ , then its DCs is given as

a
a
a
cos = 1 , cos = 2 , cos = 3

|a|
|a|
|a|

Let a be a given vector and be a scalar. Then, the

product of the vector a by the scalar , denoted by a , is

called the multiplication of vector a by the scalar .

Let a and b be any two vectors and k and m be any

scalars. Then,

Cross Product or Vector Product

(i) k a + m a = (k + m) a

(ii) k (m a ) = (km) a

(iii) k (a + b ) = k a + k b

n$ =

a b < 0

(iii) a b a b = 0.

(viii) If

a = a1$i + a2 $j + a3k$

$i
$j

$
$
$
and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k, then a b = a1 a2
b1 b2

a b
(v) Projection of a on b =

|b |

(vi) If a force F displaces a particle from a point A to a

point B, then work done by the force = F . AB

(ix) a b = b a

(vii) Properties of scalar product

(x) a (b + c ) = a b + a c

(a) a b = b a

(b) a (b + c ) = a b + a c
(c) a a = |a | 2 = a 2

(d) (a + b ) (a b ) = a2 b2 , where a and b represent

the magnitude of vectors a and b.

(xiii) $i $i = 0 , $j $j = 0 , k$ k$ = 0

where, a represents magnitude of vector a .

(xi) a a = 0
(xii) $i $j = k$ , $j k$ = $i , k$ $i = $j;
$j $i = k$ , k$ $j = $i , $i k$ = $j

[commutative]

(vii) a || b a b = 0

(iv) $i $i = $j $j = k$ k$ = 1 and $i $j = $j k$ = k$ $i = 0

1
1
(vi) Area of a ABC = | AB AC | = | BC BA |
2
2
1
= | CB CA |
2

(ii) If is acute, then a b > 0 and if is obtuse,

a b =| a || b |cos

(iv) Area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b

1
= | a b|
2
1
(v) Area of a quadrilateral ABCD = ( AC BD )
2

(a b )

(i) If is the angle between a and b, then

= | a b|

Dot Product or Scalar Product

then

(iii) Area of a parallelogram with sides a and b

= ( x2 $i +y2 $j + z2k$ ) ( x1$i +y1$j + z1k$ )

= ( x x ) $i + ( y y ) $j +( z z ) k$
1

|a b |

P1 P2 = OP2 OP1

(ii) A unit vector perpendicular to both a and b is given by

If P1 ( x1, y1, z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are any two points, then

vector joining P1 and P2 is

perpendicular to the plane of a and b.

Vector Joining Two Points

(i) If is the angle between the vectors a and b, then

a b =| a|| b |sin n$ , where, n$ is a unit vector

(e) ( a ) b = ( a b )

17

k$
a3
b3

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Three-Dimensional Geometry
Direction Cosines and
Direction Ratios

two

r =a +tb

lines

cos =

(ii) Angle between two lines If is the angle between

two lines with direction cosines l1, m1, n1 and
l 2 , m2 , n2 , then cos = l1 l 2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 .
Numbers proportional to the direction cosines of a line are
called the direction ratios of the line.

distance

between

the

skew-lines

r = a 1 + b 1 and r = a 2 + b 2 is given by

SD =

|(a 2 a 1 ) (b 1 b 2 )|
|b 1 b 2 |

(b) The shortest distance between the parallel lines

r = a 1 + b and r = a 2 + b is given by

SD =

b (a 2 a 1 )

Equation of Line in Cartesian Form

(i) The equation of a line passing through a point
A( x1, y1, z1 ) and having direction ratios a, b and c is
x x1 y y1 z z1
=
=
a
b
c

where, PQ = ( x2 x1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2 + ( z2 z1 )2

(ii) If l, m and n are the direction cosines of the line, then

equation of the line is
x x1
y y1 z z1
=
=
l
m
n

Line
A straight line is the locus of the intersection of two planes.
A line is uniquely determined, if

(iii) The equation of a line passing through two points

A( x1, y1, z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
x x1
y y1
z z1
=
=
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1

(i) it passes through a given point and has given

direction or
(ii) it passes through two given points.

(iv) If a1, b1, c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2 are direction ratios of two

lines respectively, then the angle between the lines
is given by

Equation of Line in Vector Form

(i) Equation of a line through a given point A with

position vector a and parallel to a given vector b is

cos =

given by r = a + t b, where t is a scalar.

$ then a, b and c are direction ratios

If b = a $i + b$j + ck,
of the line and conversely, if a, b and c are direction

ratios of a line, then b = a $i + b$j + ck$ will be the

or sin =

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2

a12

+ b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22

(a1b2 a2 b1 )2 + (b1c 2 b2c1 )2 + (c1a2 c 2 a1 )2

a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22

(v) Two lines with direction ratios a1, b1, c1 and a2 , b2 , c 2

are (a) perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0.
a
b
c
(b) parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 .
a2 b2 c 2

parallel to the line.

(ii) The vector equation of a line passing through two

points with position vectors a and b is given by

then

| b|| d|

The direction cosines and direction ratios of the

line segment joining P( x1, y1, z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are
respectively given by
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
and ( x2 x1, y2 y1, z2 z1 )
,
,
PQ
PQ
PQ

b d

Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a

Line

r = c + s d,

(a) Shortest

(ii) In any line, direction cosines are unique but direction

ratios are not unique.

(v) Shortest distance between two skew-lines The

shortest distance between two skew-lines is the
length of perpendicular to both the lines.

(i) If a, b and c are the direction ratios of a line, then

a
b
, m=
l=
a2 + b2 + c 2
a2 + b2 + c 2
c
and n =
a2 + b2 + c 2

and

(iv) Skew-lines If two lines do not meet and not

parallel, then they are known as skew-lines.

(i) We always have, l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1.

If a line make angles , and with X-axis, Y-axis and

Z-axis respectively, then l = cos , m = cos and n = cos
are called the direction cosines of the line.

If is the angle between

(iii) Angle between two lines

r = a + t (b a ), where t is a scalar.

18

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

(vi) The shortest distance between the lines

x x1 y y1 z z1
=
=
a1
b1
c1
and

(vi) Distance of a point from a plane Distance of a

point P( x1, y1, z1 ) from a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
given by

x x 2 y y 2 z z2
is
=
=
a2
b2
c2
x2 x1

y2 y1

z2 z1

a1
a2

b1
b2

c1
c2

p=

If is the angle between the planes

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0, then

+ (a1b2 a2 b1 )2

cos =

Plane

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2

a12

+ b12 + c12

a22 + b22 + c 22

If
two
planes
are
perpendicular,
then
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0 and if they are parallel, then
a1 b1 c1
.
=
=
a2 b2 c 2

A plane is a surface such that a line segment joining any

two points on it lies wholly on it. A plane is determined
uniquely, if any one of the following is known.

(viii) Equation of the bisector plane The equation of the

bisector plane to the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 are given by

(i) The normal to the plane and its distance from the
origin is given, i.e., equation of a plane in normal form.
(ii) It passes through a point and is perpendicular to a
given direction.

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1
a12

(iii) It passes through three given non-collinear points.

Now, we shall find vector and cartesian equations of
the planes.

+ c12

b12

a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2

a22 + b22 + c 22

Coplanarity of Two Lines

x x1 y y1 z z1
=
=
a1
b1
c1
x x 2 y y 2 z z2
and
=
=
a2
b2
c2
are coplanar, if and only if
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
a1
b1
c1 = 0

Equation of Plane in Cartesian Form

Two lines

(i) The general equation of a plane is

ax + by + cz + d = 0.
The direction ratios of the normal to this plane are
a, b and c .
(ii) If a plane cuts (intercepts) a, b and c with the
coordinate axes, then the equation of the plane is
x y z
+ + = 1.
a b c

a2

b2

c2

The equation of plane containing the above lines is

x x1 y y1 z z1
a1
b1
c1 = 0

(iii) Equation of a plane passing through a point and

perpendicular to a given vector The equation of a
plane passing through a point ( x1, y1, z1 ) is

a2

a ( x x1 ) + b( y y1 ) + c ( z z1 ) = 0
where, a, b and c are direction ratios of perpendicular
vector.

b2

c2

Equation of Plane in Vector Form

(i) Let O be the origin and n$ be a unit vector in the
direction of the normal ON to the plane and let

(iv) Equation of a plane passing through three

non-collinear points The equation of a plane
passing through three non-collinear points A( x1, y1, z1 ),
B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and C( x3 , y3 , z3 ) is given by
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 = 0
y3 y1

a2 + b2 + c 2

(vii) Angle between two planes The angle between two

planes is the angle between their normals.

2
2
(bc
1 2 b2c1 ) + (c1a2 c 2 a1 )

x3 x1

| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|

ON = p. Then, the equation of the plane is r n$ = p.

If r . (a $i + b$j + ck$ ) = d is the vector equation of a plane,

then ax + by + cz = d is the cartesian equation of the plane,
where a, b and c are the direction ratios of the normal to the
plane.

z3 z1

(v) Equation of a plane through the intersection of two

planes The equation of a plane through the
intersection of the planes

(ii) Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given vector

and passing through a given point The equation of a

plane passing through the point a and perpendicular

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
and
a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 is
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + (a2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ) = 0

to the given vector n is

(r a ) n = 0

19

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

(iii) Equation of plane passing through three non-collinear

points The equation of plane passing through three

perpendicular distance of a point a from the

non-collinear points a , b and c is

(vii) Distance of a point from a plane The

plane r n = d, where n is normal to the plane, is

( r a ) [( b a ) ( c a )] = 0

a n d

(iv) Plane passing through the intersection of two given

planes The equation of plane passing through the
intersection of two planes

r n1

(v) Two lines r = a 1 + b 1 and r = a 2 + b 2 are coplanar, if

and only if

(a 2 a 1 ) (b 1 b 2 ) = 0.

b n

r n = d is cos =

.
| n 1|| n 2|

(ix) The angle between line r = a + b and plane

n1 n 2

(viii) The length of the perpendicular from origin O to

d
the plane r n = d is
.

| n|

(vi) Angle between the planes r n 1 = p1 and r n 2 = p2 is given

by cos =

= d1 and r n 2 = d 2 is

r ( n 1 + n 2 ) = d1 + d 2 .

Two planes are perpendicular to each other, if n 1 n 2 = 0

and parallel, if n1 n2 = 0 .

and

sin =

b n

, where = 90 .

b n

Linear Programming
Linear Programming Problem

5. Solution

A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with

finding the optimal value (maximum or minimum value) of a linear
function (called objective function) of several variables (say x and
y called decision variable), subject to the conditions that the
variables are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities
(called linear constraints).

A set of values of the variables which satisfy the

constraints of given linear function (objective function)
of several variable, subject to the conditions that the
variables are non-negative is called a solution of the
linear programming problem.

Some Terms Related to LPP

Any solution to the given linear programming

problem which also satisfies the non-negative
restrictions of the problem is called a feasible
solution. Any point outside the feasible region is
called an infeasible solution.

1. Constraints
The linear inequations or inequalities or restrictions on the
variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints.
The conditions x 0, y 0 are called non-negative restrictions.

2. Optimisation Problem
A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function
subject to certain constraints determined by a set of linear
inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear
programming problems are special type of optimisation
problems.

3. Objective Function
A linear function of two or more variables which has to be
maximised or minimised under the given restrictions in the form
of linear inequations (or linear constraints) is called the
objective function.The variables used in the objective function
are called decision variables.

4. Optimal Values
The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is
known as its optimal value.

20

6. Feasible Solution

7. Feasible Region
The set of all feasible solutions constitutes a region
which is called the feasible region. Each point in this
region represents a feasible choice. The region other
than feasible region is called an infeasible region.

8. Bounded Region
A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is
said to be bounded, if it can be enclosed within a
circle. Otherwise, it is said to be unbounded region.

9. Optimal Solution
A feasible solution at which the objective function has
optimal value is called the optimal solution of the
linear programming problem.

10. Optimisation Technique

The process of obtaining the optimal solution is
called optimisation technique.

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Corner Point Method

Step III When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are

the maximum and minimum values of z.

It is a graphical method to solve the LPP.

The following steps are given below

Step IV In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we

have

Step I Find the feasible region of the linear programming

problem and determine its corner points (vertices)
either by inspection or by solving the two equations
of the lines intersecting at that point.

(a) M is the maximum value of z, if the open half

plane determined by ax + by > M has no point
in common with the feasible region. Otherwise,
z has no maximum value.

Step II Evaluate the objective function z = ax + by at each

corner point. Let M and m respectively denote the
largest and smallest values of these points.

(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of z, if the

open half plane determined by ax + by < m has
no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, z has no minimum value.

Probability
Some Basic Definitions

Complement of an Event

1. Experiment
An operation which results in some well-defined outcomes, is
called an experiment.

2. Random Experiment

Let some A be an event in a sample space S, then

complement of A is the set of all sample points of
the space other than the sample point in A and it
is denoted by A or A.
i . e ., A = { n : n S , n A}

An experiment in which total outcomes are known in advance but

occurrence of specific outcome can be told only after completion
of the experiment, is known as a random experiment.

3. Trial

Some Basic Terms

Coin

When a random experiment is repeated under identical

conditions and it does not give the same result each time but
may result in one of the several possible outcomes, then such
experiment is called a trial.

4. Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is
called its sample space. It is usually denoted by S.

5. Discrete Sample Space

A sample space is called a discrete sample space, if S is a finite
set.

A coin has two sides, head and tail. If an event

consists of more than one coin, then coins are
considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
(i) Sample space of one coin= { H, T }
(ii) Sample space of two coins
= {(H, T ), (T, H ), ( H, H ), (T, T )}
(iii) Sample space of three coins
= {( H, H, H ), ( H, H, T ), ( H, T, H ), (T, H, H ),
( H, T, T ), (T, H, T ), (T, T, H ), (T, T, T )}

Die

Event
A subset of the sample space associated with a random
experiment is called an event or case.

A die has six faces marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. If we

have more than one die, then all dice are
considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
(i) Sample space of a die = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) Sample space of two dice

Type of Events
Equally Likely Events
The given events are said to be equally likely, if none of them is
expected to occur in preference to the other.

Mutually Exclusive Events

A set of events is said to be mutually exclusive, if the happening of
one excludes the happening of the other i.e., if A and B are
mutually exclusive, then ( A B) = .

Exhaustive Events
A set of events is said to be exhaustive, if the performance of the
experiment always results in the occurrence of atleast one of
them.
If E1, E2 , , En are exhaustive events, then E1 E2 En = S .

21

(1, 1), (1, 2 ), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6)

(2, 1), (2, 2 ), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)

(3, 1), (3, 2 ), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)

(4, 1), (4, 2 ), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)

(5, 1), (5, 2 ), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)

(6, 1), (6, 2 ), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII
If a set of events A1, A2 , , An are exhaustive, then
P ( A1 A2 An ) = 1.

Playing Cards
A pack of playing cards has 52 cards. There are 4 suits
(spade, heart, diamond and club), each having 13 cards.
There are two colours, red (heart and diamond) and black
(spade and club), each having 26 cards.
In 13 cards of each suit, there are 3 face cards namely
king, queen and jack, so there are in all 12 face cards.
Also, there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit namely ace,
king, queen and jack.

Booleys Inequality
(i) If A1, A2 , , An are n events associated with a
random experiment, then
n

(a) P (A1 A2 An )
n

(b) P ( Ai )

Cards

i= 1

52

P(Ai ) (n 1)
i= 1

P(Ai )
i= 1

(ii) If A and B are two events associated to a random

experiment, then
P ( A B) P( A) P ( A B) P( A) + P(B)

Colours
Red
26

Black
26

(iii) If A and B are two events associated with a random

experiment, then
(a) P ( A B) = P(B) P ( A B)

Heart
13

Diamond
13

Club
13

(b) P ( A B ) = P( A) P ( A B)

Spade
13

(c) P[( A B ) ( A B)] = P( A) + P(B)

(d) P ( A B ) = 1 P ( A B)

Probability

(e) P( A B ) = 1 P ( A B)

In a random experiment, let S be the sample space and E

be the event. Then,
Number of distinct elements in E n( E )
=
P(E ) =
Number of distinct elements in S n(S )
=

(f) P( A) = P ( A B) + P ( A B )
(g) P(B) = P ( A B) + P (B A )
(iv) (a) P (exactly one of A, B occurs)
= P( A) + P(B) 2 P( A B)
= P ( A B) P ( A B)

Number of outcomes favourable to E

Number of all possible outcomes

(b) P (neither A nor B) = P (A B) = 1 P(A B)

(i) If E is an event and S is the sample space, then

(a) 0 P(E ) 1

2P ( A B)

(v) If A, B and C are three events, then

P (exactly one of A, B, C occurs)

(b) P( ) = 0

(c) P(S ) = 1

= P( A) + P(B) + P(C ) 2 P ( A B)

(ii) P (E ) = 1 P (E )

2 P (B C ) 2 P ( A C ) + 3P ( A B C )
(vi) P(atleast two of A, B, C occurs)

Addition Theorem of Probability

= P( A B) + P(B C ) + P(C A) 2 P( A B C )

(a) For two events A and B,

P ( A B) = P( A) + P(B) P ( A B)

(vii) P (exactly two of A, B, C occurs)

= P( A B) + P(B C ) + P( A C ) 3P( A B C )

If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then

P ( A B) = P( A) + P(B)
[for mutually exclusive, P ( A B) = 0 ]

(viii) (a) P( A ) = 1 P( A)
(b) P ( A A ) = P(S ), P ( ) = 0

(b) For three events A, B and C,

P ( A B C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C )
P ( A B ) P (B C )
P ( A C) + P ( A B C)
If A, B and C are mutually exclusive, then
P ( A B C ) = P( A) + P(B) + P(C )
for mutually exclusive events,

P( A B) = P(B C ) = P(C A)

= P( A B C)=0

Conditional Probability
Let E and F be two events associated with a random
experiment. Then, probability of occurrence of event E,
when the event F has already occurred, is called
conditional probability of event E over F and is denoted by
P(E / F ).
P(E F )
, where P(F ) 0.
P(E / F ) =
P(F )

Properties of Conditional Probability

Let A,B and C be the events of a sample space S. Then,

(c) If a set of events A1, A2 , , An are mutually exclusive,

then A1 A2 A3 An = .
P( A1 A2 A3 An )
= P( A1 ) + P( A2 ) ++ P( An )
and P ( A1 A2 A3 An ) = 0

(i) P(S / A) = P( A / A) = 1
(ii) P{( A B)/ C} = P( A / C ) + P(B / C ) P{( A B)/ C};
P(C ) 0
(iii) P( A / B) = 1 P( A / B), where A is complement of A.

22

Fast Track Revision Notes

Mathematics-XII

Multiplication Theorem on Probability

Let A and B are two events associated with a random
experiment, then
P( A) P(B / A), where P( A) 0
P( A B) =
P(B) P( A / B), where P( A) 0
The above result is known as the multiplication rule of
probability.

Probability Distribution of a
Random Variable
The system in which the value of a random variable are
given along with their corresponding probability is called
probability distribution. If X is a random variable and takes
the value x1, x2 , x3 ,..., xn with respective probabilities
p1, p2 , p3 ,..., pn . Then, the probability distribution of X is
represented by

Multiplication Probability for more than

Two Events
Let E, F and G be three events of sample space S, then
F G
P(E F G ) = P(E ) P P

E E F

x1

x2

x3

...

xn

P( X )

p1

p2

p3

...

pn

such that pi = 1
If xi is one of the possible values of a random variable X,
the statement X = x i is true only at some point(s) of the
sample space. Hence, the probability that X takes value x i
is always non-zero, i.e., P( X = x i ) 0.

Independent Events
Two events A and B are said to be independent, if the
occurrence or non-occurrence of one event does not affect
the occurrence or non-occurrence of another event.
Then,
P( A B) = P( A) P(B); P( A / B) = P( A)
and
P(B / A) = P(B)

Mean and Variance of a Probability

Distribution
n

Mean of a probability distribution is

Partition of Sample Space

xi pi.

A set of events E1, E2 , ..., En is said to represent a partition

of the sample space S, if it satisfies the following
conditions
(i) Ei E j = , i j , i , j = 1, 2,..., n
(ii) E1 E2 ... En = S
(iii) P(Ei ) > 0, for all i = 1, 2,..., n

called expectation of X, i.e., E( X ) = xi pi.

i =1

Variance is given by V ( X ) = xi2 pi xi pi

i=1

i =1
n

or V ( X ) = E( X 2 ) [E( X )]2 , where E( X 2 ) = xi2 p( xi )

i =1

Theorem of Total Probability

Let S be the sample space and E1, E2 , E3 ,..., En be n mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random
experiment.
If E is any event which occurs with E1, E2 , E3 ,..., En .
Then, P(E ) = P(E1 ) P(E / E1 ) + P(E2 ) P(E / E2 )
+ P(E3 ) P(E / E3 ) + ... + P(En ) P(E / En )
E
P(E ) = P (Ei ) P
Ei
i =1
n

or

It is also

i =1

Bayes Theorem
Let S be the sample space and E1, E2 ,..., En be n mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random
experiment. If A is any event which occurs with E1, E2 , ..., En ,
then probability of occurrence of Ei when A occurred,
P(E )P( A / Ei )
, i = 1, 2,..., n
P(Ei / A) = n i

P(Ei )P( A/ Ei )
i =1

Bernoulli Trials
The independent trials which have only two outcomes i.e.,
success or failure, is called Bernoulli trial.

Conditions for Bernoulli Trials

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

There should be a finite number of trials.

The trials should be independent.
Each trial has exactly two outcomes success or failure.
The probability of success remains the same in each
trial.

Binomial Distribution
The probability distribution of number of successes in an
experiment consisting n Bernoulli trials obtained by the
binomial expression ( p + q )n , is called binomial
distribution.
This distribution can be represented by the following table
0

If P(E1 ) = P(E2 ) = P(E3 ) =... = P(En ), then

P(E / Ei )
P(Ei / E ) = n

P( X ) C 0 q

1
n n

C1 q

n1 1 n

C2 q

...r

n2 2

p ... C r q

n r

...
p

...

n
n

Cnpn

Here, P( X = r ) = n Cr q n r pr is called the probability function

of the binomial distribution.
where,
p = Probability of success
q = Probability of failure,
n = Number of trials and p + q = 1

P(E / Ei )
i =1

23