Frequency Polygons:

Graphical display of the frequency table can also be achieved through a frequency polygon. To create
a frequency polygon the intervals are labeled on the X-axis and the Y axis represents the height of a
point in the middle of the interval. The points are then joined are connected to the X-axis and thus a
polygon is formed. So, frequency polygon is a graph that is obtained by connecting the middle points
of the intervals. We can create a frequency polygon from a histogram also. If the middle top points of
the bars of the histogram are joined, a frequency polygon is formed.

Frequency polygon and histogram fulfills the same purpose. However, the former one is useful in
comparison of different datasets. In addition to that frequency polygon can be used to display
cumulative frequency distributions.

How to Create a Frequency Polygon?

As already mentioned, histogram can be used for creating frequency polygon. The X-axis represents
the scores of the dataset and the Y-axis represents the frequency for each of the classes. Now, mark
the mid top points of each bar of the created histogram for each class interval. One generally uses a
dot for marking. Now join all the dots by straight lines and connect it with the X-axis on both sides.
For creating a frequency polygon without a histogram, you just need to consider the midpoint of the
class intervals, such that it corresponds to the frequencies. Then connect the points as stated above.

The following table is the frequency table of the marks obtained by 50 students in the pre-test
examination.

Table 1. Frequency Distribution of the marks obtained by 50 students in the pre-test examination.

Cumulative
Class
frequency
Frequency
Boundaries
(Less than
type)
30.5-40.5

40.5-50.5

14

20

50.5-60.5

20

40

60.5-70.5

47

70.5-80.5

Total

50

50

The labels of the X-axis are the midpoints of the class intervals. So the first label on the X-axis will be
35.5, next 45.5, followed by 55.5, 65.5 and lastly 75.5. The corresponding frequencies are then
considered to create the frequency polygon. The shape of the distribution can be determined from the
created frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is shown in the following figure.

Fig 1: Frequency polygon of the distribution of the marks obtained by 50 students in the pre-test
examination.

From the above figure we can observe that the curve is asymmetric and is right skewed.

Cumulative Frequency Polygon:

Cumulative frequency polygon is similar to a frequency polygon. The difference is that in creating a
cumulative frequency polygon we consider cumulative frequencies instead of actual frequencies.
Cumulative frequency of less than type is obtained by adding the frequency of each class interval to
the sum of all frequencies in the lower intervals. In table 1 for example, the cumulative frequency for
the class interval 30.5-40.5 is 6 since the sum of all frequencies in the lower intervals is 0. Again the
cumulative frequency for the class interval 40.5-50.5 is 20 since the sum of all frequencies in the
lower intervals is 14, i.e, 6+14=20, so for the next interval it will be 6+14+20=40 and so on.

The following is the cumulative frequency polygon

Fig2: Cumulative Frequency polygon of the marks obtained by 50 students in the pre-test
examination.

Overlaid Frequency Polygon:

Also to compare the distributions of different data sets, frequency polygon can be used. In such case
frequency polygons of different data are drawn on the same graph. The above thing can be made clear
through illustrations.

The following is an example of dice where the distribution of observed frequencies and the distribution
of expected frequencies are compared for different scores of two dice. The frequency curves of the two
distributions are used for comparison.

Fig3: Overlaid Frequency polygon of the distributions of rolling two dice

The observed curve overlaps expected curve. The expected curve is smooth while the observed curve
is not smooth.

Also cumulative frequency polygon can also be plotted in the same graph. The following figure shows
such plot. The marks of two papers are compared throughcumulative frequency polygon.

Fig4: Overlaid cumulative frequency polygon

Fig5: Frequency polygon drawn over the histogram

Statistical help and online statistics help provided by us will thus help you to learn the proper use and
various aspects of statistics.

Applied Statistics - Lesson 1

Definitions, Uses, Data Types, and Levels of

Measurement
Lesson Overview
What is Statistics: Descriptive Statistics vs Inferential Statistics
General terms Used Throughout Statistics
o Population
o Sample
o Parameter
o Statistic
Basic Mathematics for Statistics
Accuracy vs. Precision
Uses and Abuses of Statistics
Types of Data
o Qualitative
o Quantitative: Discrete vs. Continuous
2. Levels of Measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
3. Homework
The term statistics has several basic meanings. First, statistics is a subject or field of
study closely related to mathematics. This four week, sixteen lesson unit will first
introduce and briefly cover the area known as descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics generally characterizes or describes a set of data elements by graphically
displaying the information or describing its central tendancies and how it is distributed.

The last half of the course will cover inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics tries to infer information about a population

by using information gathered by sampling.
Statistics: The collection of methods used in planning an experiment
and analyzing data in order to draw accurate conclusions.

General Terms Used Throughout Statistics

Population: The complete set of data elements is termed the population.

The term population will vary widely with its application. Examples could be any of
the following proper subsets: animals; primates; human beings; homo sapiens; U.S.
citizens; who are attending Andrews University, as graduate students, in the School of
Education, as Masters students, female, last name starting with S, who web registered.
Sample: A sample is a portion of a population selected for further analysis.

How samples are obtained or types of sampling will be studied in lesson 7. Most any
of the examples above for population could serve as a sample for the next higher level
data set.
Parameter: A parameter is a characteristic of the whole population.
Statistic: A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, presumably measurable.

The plural of statistic just above is another basic meaning of statistics.

Assume there are 8 students in a particular statistics class, with 1 student being male.
Since 1 is 12.5% of 8, we can say 13% are male. The 13% represents a parameter (not
a statistic) of the class because it is based on the entire population. If we assume this
class is representative of all classes, and we treat this 1 student as a sample drawn
from a larger population, then the 13% becomes a statistic.
Remember: Parameter is to Population as Statistic is to Sample.

Inferential statistics is used to draw conclusions about a population by studying a

sample. It is not guesswork! We test hypotheses about a parameter's value with a
certain risk of being wrong. That risk is carefully specified. Also, descriptive and
inferential statistics are not mutually exclusive. The inferences made about a
population from a sample help describe that population. We also tend to use Roman
letters for statistics and Greek letters for parameters.
Basic Mathematics for Statistics

This course will avoid complex models utilizing complicated mathematics. You will
need to be familiar with, however, the fundamental arithmetic operations, elementary
algebra, and some basic symbolism.
An interesting subset of the natural numbers generated by addition are called
Triangular Numbers. These are so called because these are the total number of dots, if
we arrange the dots in a triangle with one additional dot in each layer.

The triangular numbers thus are: 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, ....

Suppose we wish to add together the first 100 natural numbers, which is equivalent to
finding the 100th triangular number. One way to do this is by grouping them as
follows:
T100

= (1 +100) + (2+99) + (3 + 98) + ... + (50 + 51)

= 101 50
= 101 100/2

In general we write:
where
mathematicians use the capital Greek letter (sigma) to represent summation. Your
teacher has a particular fondness for this symbol since the first computer he had much
access to had that nickname.
There are three important rules for using the summation operator:
1. Since multiplication distributes over addition, the sum of a constant times a set
of numbers is the same as the constant times the sum of the set of numbers.
Example: Cx1 + Cx2 + ... + Cxn = C(x1 + x2 + ...+ xn)
2. The sum of a series of constants is the same as N times the constant,
where N represents how many constants there are.
Example: 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 5 4 = 20.

3. Since addition is commutative, the total sum of two or more scores for several
individuals can be achieved either by summing the scores separately and then
combining them or by summing an individual's scores and then combining
them.
Example: Joe got scores of 500 and 550 for his verbal and quantitative SAT
scores whereas Jim got scores of 520 and 510, respectively. 500 + 550 + 520 +
510 = 1050 + 1030 = 500 + 520 + 550 + 510 = 1020 + 1060 = 2090.
In addition to the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
several other arithmetic operators often appear. Exponentiation and absolute
value are two such. Also, various symbols of inclusion (parentheses, brackets, braces,
vincula) are used.
Exponentiation is a general term which includes squaring (12 2=144), cubing (63=216),
and square roots (16= (16)=4. When the square root symbol (surd and symbol of
inclusion, in recent history a vinculum, but historically parentheses) is used, we
general (although not quite always) mean only the positive square root.
The absolute value operator indicates the distance (always non-negative) a number is
from the origin (zero). The symbol used is a vertical line on either side of the operand.
Thus, if x>0, then |x|=x, if x<0, then |x|=-x, and ifx=0, |x|=0. (x2)=|x|.
There is a proscribed order for arithmetic operations to be performed.
Example: If we write 4 5 + 3 it is conventional to multiply the 4 and 5 together
before adding the 3 and thus obtain 23. Some calculators are algebraic and handle this
appropriately, others do not.
Parentheses and other symbols of inclusion are used to modify the normal order of
operations. We say these symbols of inclusion have the highest priority or precidence.
Exponentiation is done next. There is confusion when exponents are stacked which
we will not deal with here except to say computer scientists tend to do it from left to
right while mathematicians know that is wrong.
Multiplication and Division are done next, in order, from left to right.
Addition and Subtraction are done next, in order, from left to right.
A mnemonic such as Please Eat Miss Daisy's Apple Sauce can be useful for
remembering the proper order of operation.

Accuracy vs. Precision

The distinction between accuracy and precision, reviewed in Numbers lesson 9, is
very important.
This ties in with significant figures, and proper rounding of results. I have several
major concerns regarding significant digits.
1. There needs to be sufficient (not to few). Slide rule accuracy or three
significant digits has a long-standing precident in science. We are not doing
science here so two may suffice, but rarely one.
2. There should not be too many significant digits. Generally, more than 5 is
probably a joke, especially in the "softer" sciences. Thus
representing 1/3 or 1/7 with infinite precision (by indicating the repeated unit)
should not occur.
3. Care must be taken so that a primary statistics (such as variance) is not
incorrectly derived from a secondary statistic (such as standard deviation) in
such a way that accuracy is lost. We will discuss this more in textbook Chapter
3.
4. A mean and standard deviation or mean and margin of error should be given to
compatible precision.
5. There are proper rules, but they are difficult to explain to the general public.
Thus every statistics book gives its own heuristic.
Uses and Abuses of Statistics
Most of the time, samples are used to infer something (draw conclusions) about the
population. If an experiment or study was done cautiously and results were interpreted
without bias, then the conclusions would be accurate. However, occasionally the
conclusions are inaccurate or inaccurately portrayed for the following reasons:
Sample is too small.
Even a large sample may not represent the population.

 Unauthorized personnel are giving wrong information that the public will take
as truth. A possibility is a company sponsoring a statistics research to prove that
their company is better.
Visual aids may be correct, but emphasize different aspects. Specific examples
include graphs which don't start at zero thus exaggerating small differences and
charts which misuse area to represent proportions. Often a chart will use a
symbol which is both twice as long and twice as high to represent something
twice as much. The area, in this case however, is four times as much!
Precise statisitics or parameters may incorrectly convey a sense of high
accuracy.
Misleading or unclear percentages are often used.
Statistics are often abused. Many examples could be added, (even books have been
written) but it will be more instructive and fun to find them on your own.
Types of Data
A dictionary defines data as facts or figures from which conclusions may be drawn.
Thus, technically, it is a collective, or plural noun. Some recent dictionaries
acknowledge popular usage of the word data with a singular verb. However we intend
to adhere to the traditional "English" teacher mentality in our grammar usagesorry
if "data are" just doesn't sound quite right! (My mother and step-mother were both
English teachers, so clearly no offense is intended above.) Datum is the singular form
of the noun data. Data can be classified as either numeric or nonnumeric. Specific
terms are used as follows:
1.
Qualitative data are nonnumeric.

2. {Poor, Fair, Good, Better, Best}, colors (ignoring any physical causes), and
types of material {straw, sticks, bricks} are examples of qualitative data.
3. Qualitative data are often termed catagorical data. Some books use the
terms individual and variable to reference the objects and characteristics
described by a set of data. They also stress the importance of exact definitions
of these variables, including what units they are recorded in. The reason the
data were collected is also important.

4.
Quantitative data are numeric.

5. Quantitative data are further classified as either discrete or continuous.

o

Discrete data are numeric data that have a finite number of possible values.

o A classic example of discrete data is a finite subset of the counting

numbers, {1,2,3,4,5} perhaps corresponding to {Strongly Disagree...
Strongly Agree}.
o Another classic is the spin or electric charge of a single
electron. Quantum Mechanics, the field of physics which deals with the
very small, is much concerned with discrete values.
o When data represent counts, they are discrete. An example might be
how many students were absent on a given day. Counts are usually
considered exact and integer. Consider, however, if three tradies make an
absence, then aren't two tardies equal to 0.67 absences?
o

Continuous data have infinite possibilities: 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.141421...

The real numbers are continuous with no gaps or interruptions. Physically

measureable quantities of length, volume, time, mass, etc. are generally considered
continuous. At the physical level (microscopically), especially for mass, this may not
be true, but for normal life situations is a valid assumption.
The structure and nature of data will greatly affect our choice of analysis method. By
structure we are referring to the fact that, for example, the data might be pairs of
measurements. Consider the legend of Galileo dropping weights from the leaning
tower of Pisa. The times for each item would be paired with the mass (and surface
area) of the item. Something which Galileo clearly did was measure the time it took a
pendulum to swing with various amplitudes. (Galileo Galilei is considered a founder
of the experimental method.)
Levels of Measurement

The experimental (scientific) method depends on physically measuring things. The

concept of measurement has been developed in conjunction with the concepts of
numbers and units of measurement. Statisticians categorize measurements according
to levels. Each level corresponds to how this measurement can be treated
mathematically.
1.
Nominal: Nominal data have no order and thus only gives names or labels to various
categories.

3.
Ordinal: Ordinal data have order, but the interval between measurements is not
meaningful.

5.
Interval: Interval data have meaningful intervals between measurements, but there is no
true starting point (zero).

7.
Ratio: Ratio data have the highest level of measurement. Ratios between measurements as
well as intervals are meaningful because there is a starting point (zero).

Nominal comes from the Latin root nomen meaning name. Nomenclature,
nominative, and nominee are related words. Gender is nominal. (Gender is something
you are born with, whereas sex is something you should get a license for.)
Example 1: Colors
To most people, the colors: black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray,
and white are just names of colors.
To an electronics student familiar with color-coded resistors, this data is in ascending
order and thus represents at least ordinal data.
To a physicist, the colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet correspond to
specific wavelengths of light and would be an example of ratio data.
Example 2: Temperatures
What level of measurement a temperature is depends on which temperature scale is
used.

Specific values: 0C = 32F = 273.15 K = 491.69R 100C = 212F = 373.15 K =

671.67R -17.8C = 0F = 255.4 K = 459.67R
where C refers to Celsius (or Centigrade before 1948); F refers to Fahrenheit; K refers
to Kelvin; R refers to Rankine.
Only Kelvin and Rankine have true zeroes (starting point) and ratios can be found.
Celsius and Fahrenheit are interval data; certainly order is important and intervals are
meaningful. However, a 180 dashboard is not twice as hot as the 90 outside
temperature (Fahrenheit assumed)! Rankine has the same size degree as Fahrenheit
but is rarely used. To interconvert Fahrenheit and Celsius, see Numbers lesson
12. (Note that since 1967, the use of the degree symbol on tempertures Kelvin is no
longer proper.)
Although ordinal data should not be used for calculations, it is not uncommon to find
averages formed from data collected which represented Strongly Disagree, ...,
Strongly Agree! Also, averages of nominal data (zip codes, social security numbers) is
rather meaningless!