Heinemann

Ancient and Medieval History

Kim McCorquodale

EgyptRamesside Society,
Dynasties XIX and XX
hi.com.au/ancient

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv
Outcomes and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v
Chapter 1 The geographical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Geographical features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Egypts neighbours and their resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Significant sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Chapter 2 Social structure and political organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Images and role of the pharaoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
The viziers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Civil, religious and military administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
The army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Royal and non-royal women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Scribes, artisans and agricultural workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Chapter 3 The economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Importance of the Nile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Crafts and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Economic exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Technological developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Later economic problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Chapter 4 Religion, death and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Cults of gods and goddesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Personal religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Funerary customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Funerary texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Chapter 5 Cultural life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Artstatues, jewellery, wall paintings and reliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Writing and literaturelove poetry and tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Chapter 6 Everyday life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Daily life and leisure activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Housing and furniture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
III

Why study societies?

The focus of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX
is the study of the society and the lives of people during that time.
The central question that needs to be asked is, Why do we study societies? By studying ancient societies,
sites and sources, we are concerned with seeking the explanations to the how and why questions of history:
how people lived in the past, why they may have lived that way, and how and why their life circumstances
changed. We investigate the social history of a people through an investigation of the remains of their material
culture, and come to understand the key developments and forces that may have shaped that society and the
nature of the available sources for the study of that society.
The majority of the evidence for the study of this society comes from the archaeological remains: temples,
tombs, statues, reliefs and grave goods, but written evidence gives us an insight into official records and
everyday thought. The majority of this relates to royalty or the high officials in their employ. The remains left
by the workers of Deir el-Medina give a detailed record of life in the exclusive village of the tomb builders.
Evidence for the peasant farmers, the majority of the population, is mostly gleaned from what others record.
By studying this society not only is a sense of what it was like back then achieved, but the key competencies
of collecting, analysing and organising information and communicating ideas and information, which are the
core processes of historical inquiry, are explored.

Process of inquiry
The thematic books in the Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History series have been written to address the
Ancient History syllabus requirements for Queensland and New South Wales. A process of inquiry is used to
investigate the various topics presented in each book. The aim of each book is not to cover every aspect of the
given topic. The main approach is through investigation of a specific key question in each chapter. Using this
approach, it is hoped that you will identify historical issues for investigation, use focus questions to investigate
issues and finally reach conclusions or make judgements about them.
The structure of the process of inquiry requires you to investigate the following main aspects of your issue:
sources
background
key terms and concepts
changes and continuities.
The focus questions that occur at the beginning
of each chapter guide the process of inquiry and
provide the scale and scope of each chapter. A
brief background is provided before the Beginning
the inquiry section. By the end of each chapter, in
the Culminating the inquiry section, you should
be able to reach a conclusion or make a judgement
about the key question. By working through the
chapter, answering the Critical inquiry questions
that are provided for each source will assist you in
answering the focus questions. Critical inquiry
involves critically engaging with historical sources,
Process of inquiry.
not only the interpreting, analysing and evaluating
sources, but also unmasking situations and
Adapted from the Queensland Studies Authority,
revealing the interests embedded in situations
Ancient History Senior Syllabus 2004.
and sources.

IV

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Each chapter begins with an identification of the focus and key question that will guide the inquiry. Focus questions,
key terms and, in a couple of chapters, important dates are also provided. You are guided through the rest of the
process of inquiry by headings that flag the major aspects of the inquiry. Under the heading Sources is information
about the major historians and theorists associated with the study of each issue and the problematic nature of primary
and secondary sources. The heading Background provides the context of time and place. The interests of individuals
and groups in society are identified, and the ancient and modern arguments about the issue are presented.

Key features
Key features that enhance learning and skills development are:
a list of key terms and concepts for each chapter
important dates at the beginning of Chapters 1 and 3
integration of historiography integrated into relevant sections of each chapter to enable you to understand the
significant historiographical issues relevant to each topic
FYI (For Your Information) boxes to draw attention to specific aspects of the text or sources
Critical inquiry boxes to provide questions related to sources and provide you with the opportunity to develop
your skills in interpreting, analysing, evaluating and making decisions about the content of sources
Review and revise sections that provide you with opportunities to review the content covered, and provide
additional research activities
Further explorations sections at the end of each chapter; these include a reference list and direct you to web resources.
The icon
indicates the availability of web links through the Heinemann site: http://www.hi.com.au/ancient.

Outcomes and objectives

New South Wales
The following Knowledge and Understanding Outcomes of the Ancient History Stage 6 HSC in the New South Wales
Syllabus are addressed in each of the six chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside
Society, Dynasties XIX and XX.
H1.1 describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the
historical context
H2.1 explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient
world
H3.1 locate, select and organise relevant information from a variety of sources
H3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the past
H3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability
H3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past
H3.6 plan and present the findings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising information from a range
of sources
H4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately
H4.2 communicate knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using appropriate oral and
written forms
Board of Studies NSW Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus 2004, p. 11.

Queensland
The following General Objectives of the Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus 2004 are
addressed in each of the six chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside
Society, Dynasties XIX and XX.
Planning and using a historical research process
identify issues or problems for investigation
locate and use a variety of primary and secondary sources
maintain a coherent record of research
Forming historical knowledge through critical inquiry
understand the explicit content of sources
understand the nature of historical sources of evidence, assumptions about the problematic character of
historical sources, and the tentative and interpretive qualities of historical knowledge
analyse what is explicit and implicit in a wide variety of sources, including themes, values and
interrelationships within and among sources
evaluate the worth of sources. This will involve students in assessing the reliability, authenticity,
representativeness, relevance and accuracy of the sources and in identifying value positions, perspectives and
standpoints in their historic context
make decisions, i.e. making a judgment about a question or hypothesis, based on the interpretation and
analysis and on the evaluation of sources. This will involve students in:
synthesising evidence into a coherent whole
reaching a conclusion or proposing a solution that is consistent with the interpretation and analysis and
with the evaluation of the sources
justifying the conclusion by providing sound reasoning and logical argument in support
demonstrate an attitude of reflection on and revision of judgments made
Communicating historical knowledge
Using both written and non-written communication:
recalling significant information, defining and describing key concepts, events, development and people
providing explanations of and justifications for the finding/results of research, including the problematic nature
of historical sources, the interpretive nature of historical inquiry and the tentative nature of historical judgment
producing written and non-written responses in a variety of genres
incorporate accurate definitions, abstractions and concepts, and relationships between key concepts, events
and historic developments
substantiate claims by reference to sources of evidence.
Adapted from Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus, 2004, pp. 78.

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Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Chapter 1

The geographical environment

Important dates
Chapter focus
The natural features of ancient Egypt were very
different from most countries and helped shape the
society that developed along the Nile. The river was
central to the society, providing life-giving water,
transport and resources as it made its way north
through the desert. Natural borders helped to
protect Egypt from invasion, but her resources
enabled Egypt to trade with her neighbours. During
the Ramesside period a number of man-made sites
were also significant.
In this chapter you will examine the key question:
'What natural features and resources enabled Egypt
to play a prominent role in the Near East?'

Focus questions
In order to develop a response to the key question
you will need to consider the following focus
questions:
1 Why was the Nile important?
2 What types of natural resources did Egypt
possess?
3 How did the natural world affect the ancient
Egyptians beliefs and values?
4 What types of relationships did Egypt have with
her neighbours?
5 How did the concept of maat affect their world
view?
6 What man-made sites were important and what
were their functions?

Pharaohs of the Ramesside period and approximate

dates of their reigns.
Dynasty XIX: 12951188 BC
12951294
Ramesses I
12941279
Seti I
12791212
Ramesses II
12121202
Merenptah
12021199
Amenmesse
12021196
Seti II
11961190
Siptah
11961188
Queen Tawosret
Dynasty XX: 11881069 BC
11881186
Sethnakhte
11861154
Ramesses III
11541148
Ramesses IV
11481144
Ramesses V
11441136
Ramesses VI
11361128
Ramesses VII
11281125
Ramesses VIII
11251107
Ramesses IX
11071098
Ramesses X
10981069
Ramesses XI
10751069
Herihor

FYI
Egyptians recorded dates by the regnal year (year
of the reign) of the pharaoh who was on the
throne.

Terms/Concepts
cataract page 4
delta page 4
Deshret page 5
Faiyum page 4
friable page 4
inundation page 3

Kmt page 5
maat page 3
natron page 7
Sea Peoples page 8
silt page 3
unguent page 8

Source 1.1

Black

Sea

THRACE
Hattusas

GREECE
H AT T I
Mycenae
Carchemish
copper, ivory

Ugarit
copper

Knossos

SYRIA

Qadesh
Byblos

olive oil

ph

Sea

ra

Jerusalem

LE

Gaza
LOWER
EGYPT
natron
Memphis

STIN
E

Kyrene

PA

BEDOUINS

quartzite, limestone
copper
SINAI

turquoise, copper

N il e

copper
alabaster

iv
er

N
WESTERN
DESERT

EASTERN
DESERT

granite,
greywacke
UPPER
gold
EGYPT
Elephantine
granite
amethyst

FROM
PUNT

AFRICA
gneiss
Main cultivated area

copper, gold
gold

Resource
Principal import route

LOWER
EGYPT
gold

gold

NUBIA

Cataract

Red
Sea

Oasis
FROM IREM
AND PUNT

200

400 km

Egypt and her neighbours, resources and trade routes.

te

Mediterranean

LIBYA

timber

CYPRUS

Eu

CRETE

FROM ASSYRIA
AND BAYLONIA

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval HistoryEgypt: Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Ri v

er

Sources
Herodotus wrote an account of the ancient world
called the Histories. In Book Two he described the
geography of Egypt as well as the culture and history.
His historical reliability is often questioned, but his
geographical knowledge is fairly accurate.
Other sources that describe Egypts resources,
her neighbours and her contact with them, are the
monumental inscriptions erected by pharaohs, and
official dispatches and records. One cache of records
was found in the administrative buildings associated with
the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.

FYI
Herodotus (c.490c.420 BC) was a Greek historian who
wrote about the ancient world from his observations
and discussions with people on his travels.

Background
The ancient Egyptians saw in their natural environment
both order and disorder. They believed their world had
been created when a mound, called the ben-ben, arose
from the waters of chaos. The first god, who was both
male and female, appeared on this mound and created
life and an ordered world that embodied the concept of
maat or divine order. The opposing force was isfet or
disorder and evil. The pharaoh and people constantly
strove for maat. This religious concept was a reflection
of their natural environment.

Beginning the inquiry

Construct a table with the focus questions across
the top of the table. As you work through the
chapter, add notes that assist in answering the focus
questions. Don't forget to reference your notes.

Geographical features
The Nile
Central to Egypt is the Nile River, or Iteru as the
ancients called it. It was a constant factor in daily life.
The annual inundation of the Nile, from June to
September, caused by melting snows and monsoons
further south, regulated the seasons and provided lifegiving water and fertile silt. This was vital as it rarely
rains in Egypt. The spirit of the river was the god Hapi.
He was depicted as a man with the pendulous belly and
breasts of a woman. He represented the fertility that
the river brought to the people. A poor flood would
upset their world, causing hardship and famine.
Source 1.3

Source 1.2

The Nile.

Seti I holding the goddess Maat in his hand, from his

temple at Abydos.

Maat Goddess who personified truth, justice and the essential

harmony of the universe. She was depicted as a seated woman
with an ostrich feather on her head, or just as the feather. Maat was
also the divine order of the universe from the moment of creation.
The power of maat regulated the seasons, the movement of the
stars and the relations between men and gods. If maat broke down
then isfet or chaos occurred.
inundation

Flood.

silt Fertile organic material washed down with the flood and
deposited on fields.

The geographical environment

The river has two main sources. From Lake Victoria

in present-day Uganda, the White Nile flows
northward and is joined in the Sudan by the Blue Nile
and the Atbara River, both of which come from the
highlands of Ethiopia. The river flows northwards
5470 kilometres to reach the southern border of
Egypt, just south of Aswan at the First Cataract. It
flows 800 kilometres north through a narrow valley
hemmed in first by sandstone then limestone cliffs.
The fertile strips on either side of the river vary from
3 to 18 kilometres wide. Just south-west of Memphis,
water flows into a lush area called the Faiyum. This
800 kilometres of land is Upper Egypt or Shemau.
Just north of Memphis the river fans out into
a number of branches as it winds its way to the
Mediterranean Sea. This delta area is Lower Egypt
or To-mehu. It is lush with lots of wildlife. Over the
last 4000 years the rivers path has not altered except
in the north where it has moved several kilometers to
the east. The building of the Aswan High dam in the
1960s has controlled the flow of the river.

Source 1.4

The cliffs to the west of the Nile, at Luxor.

cataract Steep, rocky stretch in a river causing rapids. There

were six cataracts along the Nile between Aswan and Khartoum
in Nubia.
Faiyum Area to the south-west of Memphis where a branch of
the Nile flows into a depression. The land around this huge lake
was fertile and rich in wildlife.

Source 1.5
Herodotus on Egypt

[5] Egypt the Egyptians have gained as a gift from

the river.
[7] From the coast to the interior of the country as far
as Heliopolis Egypt is a broad country, consisting of
plains, water and marshlands.
[8] Continuing south from Heliopolis Egypt becomes
narrow. On the Arabian side it is bounded by a
mountain range which runs from north to south and
then continues inland without a break towards what is
known as the Red Sea. In these mountains are the
quarries where the stone for the pyramids in Memphis
was cut. Here the mountains start to decline and the
range changes direction, as mentioned, towards the
Red Sea. As I myself found out, it takes two months
to traverse the mountains from east to west at their
widest point, and the country at their eastern end
produces frankincense As for the Libyan side of
Egypt, it is bounded by another rocky mountain
range, where the pyramids are to be found South
of Heliopolis there is not much land Between the
two mountain ranges the land is level, and it seemed
to me that, at its narrowest point, there are no more
than two hundred stades [about 40 kilometres]
between the Arabian range and the Libyan mountains.
Further upstream, however, Egypt broadens out again.
[12] Egyptian soil is black and friable, which suggests
that it was once mud and silt carried down from
Ethiopia by the river. Libyan soil, on the other hand,
I know to be redder and more sandy, while Arabian
and Syrian soil is more clayey and stony.
[14] the land is not watered by rain they [those
who live in the delta] gather their crops with less
effort than anyone else in the world, including the rest
of Egypt. They do not work at breaking the land up
into furrows with a plough, they do not have to wield
hoes or carry out any of the other crop-farming tasks
which everyone else does. Instead, the river rises of its
own accord and irrigates their fields, and when the
water has receded again, each of them sows seed in his
own field and sends pigs in to tread the seed down.
Herodotus, The Histories, translated by R. Waterfield, Oxford
University Press, 1998, pp. 97100.

delta Flat alluvial (muddy, sandy) plain where a river divides into
many branches, spreading into a fan shape. The Nile delta in Egypt
is between the ancient capital of Memphis and the sea.
friable

Easily crumbled.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Source 1.6

A distinct line between the fertile, irrigated area and

the desert.

Critical inquiry
Refer to Source 1.1 to 1.6.
1 Consult a map of the Niles course today. Identify
the similarities and differences between
Herodotus account and modern maps.
Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link for
maps and information on the river and deserts.
2 Locate and list the resources Herodotus
mentions for Egypt and her neighbours.
3 Identify the reasons why Herodotus believes that
farming in the delta was easier that anywhere else.
4 Try to account for the fact that there is such a
distinct line between the fertile land and the
desert.
5 How reliable do you believe Herodotus account
is? Justify your response by researching and
commenting on how his evidence was gathered.
6 Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link to look
at satellite photographs of the Nile.

The land
The land and the river affected the way the Egyptians
thought about themselves and the world. Duality, or
the concept of two opposing ideas, was how the
ancient Egyptians tried to make sense of their world.
They saw this in the extremes of the land around
them. The fertile land along the banks of the Nile and
in the delta area was known as Kmt or the Black Land,
while beyond that was Deshret or the Red Land of
the deserts. The deserts could be dangerous places and
represented chaos, while the fertile area was lush and
ordered. It was the role of the pharaoh to ensure maat
or order within Egypt. The deserts also provided
natural defences and resources, which were exploited
by mining expeditions organised by the pharaoh.
From the earliest times Egypt had always been two
lands or tawyUpper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh
united these, and this duality is seen in the symbolism
of the two crowns of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt
in the double crown.
On the two banks of the Nile, the people generally
lived on the east and buried their dead on the west.
The river affected lifestyle and beliefsit was the
uniting factor in life. A central government was
needed to control water supplies, undertake irrigation
work, re-survey land after the floods and provide
employment during the period of the flood.
Religious beliefs were partly inspired by the land
and its climate. The Egyptian creation myth reflects
the world coming forth from the watery void. Many
of the Egyptian gods symbolised some aspect of the
natural environment. Re embodied the sun, Osiris
symbolised the energy of regeneration, Seth was
the god of the desert and Hapi the god of the Nile.
The sun and the river showed the cycle of death,
regeneration and rebirth, which influenced their
afterlife beliefs.

Kmtthe Black Land The narrow river valley, enclosed by

desert cliffs and the delta, made up of fertile, black silt or mud,
which the Nile deposited every year during flooding.
Deshretthe Red Land The desert.

The geographical environment

Resources

Source 1.7
Hymn to Hapi

Praise to you, Hapi, sprung from the earth, come to

nourish Egypt!
You flood the fields that Re has made, to satisfy all
who thirst,
Your dew descends from the sky to let the waterless
desert drink.
Lord of the fishes,
You make the wild fowl stream south and none falls
down from heat.
Maker of barley and wheat, it is through you that the
temples celebrate.
When your flow is sluggish, noses are blocked and
everyone is poor;
As the number of sacred loaves goes down, a million
men perish.
When you flood, the earth is glad and every belly
rejoices,
Laughter is on every face and every mouth is smiling.
If your rise is insufficient, the people dwindle,
A years food supply is lost.
The rich man looks concerned, everyone is seen with
weapons,
Friends do not attend to each other.
Cloth is wanting for ones clothes, noble children lack
their finery.
There is no eye-paint, no one is anointed
P. Bradley, Ancient Egypt: Reconstructing the Past, Cambridge
University Press, 1999, pp. 201.

Critical inquiry
Refer to Source 1.7.
1 Who was Hapi?
2 What benefits did the annual floods bring
farmers?
3 How was society affected when the flood was
insufficient?
4 Assess the impact of the Nile on ancient
Egyptian thought.
5 Go to hi.com.au/ancient to find links
to cruise the Nile.

Central to resources was the river, which deposited silt

on Kmt, the Black Land, allowing the production of
crops and the breeding of animals. The farmers grew
emmer-wheat, barley, flax, fruit and vegetables.
Poultry and livestock were kept, and the Nile was a
bountiful source of fish, birds and papyrus. Papyrus
was used not only as a writing material, but also for
small boats, matting (both for floor covering and
roofing) and ropes. Baskets were made from the leaves
of the dom palm.
Deshret, the Red Land, provided great mineral
wealth, which was exploited by expeditions organised
by pharaohs. For much of the Ramesside period Nubia
and the Sinai were considered as part of the country
(as they had been for much of Egypts history). Many
of the people who undertook mining were foreign
captives or prisoners.

FYI
Nubia consisted of Wawat in the north and Kush in
the south.

Critical inquiry
Refer to Source 1.8.
1 Draw up a table dividing the resources into
stone, metals, minerals and semi-precious
stones. Try to determine what these resources
may have been used for.
2 What conclusions can be drawn about Egypts
natural resources?
3 Assess the ability of the ancients, given their
resources to be self-sufficient.
4 Go to hi.com.au/ancient and follow the
link to geography. Here you can explore
the landscape.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Source 1.8

Tell el-Gamma

Mediterranean Sea

KEY
Town or site

Other route

Wadi
Nasseib

Memphis
FAIYUM

Wadi (dry river bed) route

SINAI

LOWER EGYPT
GYPSUM
DOLERITE
BASALT

Fertile area

Daphnae (Tell Dafana)

Naukratis
Wadi elNatrun

Wad
i

h
A r a ba

Limestone quarries

Serabit el-Kadim
Gebel
Maghara

EASTERN DESERT
BAHARIYA
OASIS

Timna

Granite quarries
Greywacke quarries

UPPER
EGYPT

Hatnub

Diorite quarries
Sandstone quarries
Gold mines

Qena Fawakhir
Qusseir
Coptos (Qift)

Copper mines

Wadi Hammamat

Tin mines

Thebes

WESTERN DESERT

Lead mines

ALUM

Iron mines

EMERALD

EL-KHARGA
OASIS

Natron deposits

Aswan
AMETHYST

Ri
N

Turquoise quarries

er

ile

Alabaster quarries
Wa d i

ki
Alla

Abu Simbel

Quartzite quarries
ALUM

Other mineral, with type

Red
Sea

Buhen
NUBIAN DESERT

200

400 km

The mineral resources of Egypt.

Egypts neighbours
and their resources
The isolation of the Nile valley by the deserts, the
cataracts and the sea meant that Egypt had long
been self-sufficient. Egypt felt superior to all other
countries, which were considered as part of the chaos.
This is reflected in the collective name used for
foreign lands, Pesdjet, or The Nine Bows. The invasion
of northern Egypt by the Hyksos, at the end of the
Middle Kingdom, shattered Egypts sense of security

and resulted in the expulsion of the Hyksos and the

creation of an empire in the New Kingdom.
By the Ramesside period, Egypt had become more
cosmopolitan and the relationships with foreign
countries varied. Some, like the Hittites, were
considered equal superpowers; others were influenced
and controlled, such as Syria-Palestine; others still
were trading partners, such as Crete and Cyprus. The
natural resources of Egypt, particularly grain, natron
and precious metals, allowed the pharaoh to trade
and participate in gift exchanges with some of its
natron A naturally occurring salt used in the process of
mummification. It was found in the Wadi Natrun, to the north-west.

The geographical environment

neighbours. Egypt lacked large timber, iron, silver, tin

and lead. Diplomatic marriages to foreign princesses
were also used to ensure peaceful relations with some
surrounding countries.
Some of Egypts important trading links included
the following countries:
Nubia to the south, was a rich source of gold,
cereals and cattle as well as giving access to
African trade including ivory, ebony, incense,
myrrh, aromatic wood, leopard skins, giraffe skins
and ostrich eggs.
Palestine possessed few resources that the
Egyptians wanted, but the area was important for
its transit corridors providing communications and
trade routes with the people further north in Syria
and Mesopotamia.
Byblos on the Syrian coast had the resource of
cedar wood. During the Ramesside period the
Egyptians and the Hittites, from Hatti further to
the north, struggled for supremacy over the area.
Ramesses II signed a treaty and married a Hittite
princess to cement the alliance. Merenptah
supplied grain to the Hittites when they were
stricken by famine.
Cyprus was a major source of copper via trade or
diplomatic gifts. Copper was needed to make bronze.
Merchant ships from the Aegean plied the triangle
of sea lanes between Crete and Greece, Syria and
the Nile delta. Egyptian emmer-wheat and barley
were exchanged for spices, unguents, oil, opium
and exotic manufactured goods.
Egypts many resources brought her into contact
with other people who wished to invade and settle in
the lush delta areas. The Libyans attempted to invade
a number of times from the west, forcing more
fortresses to be built in the western desert to protect
Kmt. Merenptah and Ramesses III both had had to
fight off invasions by the Sea Peoples.

unguent Soft substance used as an ointment or for

lubrication.
Sea Peoples A collection of peoples from all over the
Mediterranean who sometimes made piracy a way of life, but
more commonly wandered across many countries in search of
safe places to live.

Critical inquiry
Refer to the text and Source 1.1.
1 Account for the varying attitude of Egypt to
surrounding countries.
2 Draw up a mind map showing the countries that
Egypt traded with or received tribute from.
Colour-code them to show the difference.
3 Make a list of imported goods and their sources.
4 Research and try to describe what these goods
may have been used for.

Significant sites
The natural resources of Egypt not only shaped the
beliefs and world view of the people, but also allowed
the pharaohs, as controllers of Kmt, to show their
strength, control and organisational skills through
building programs. This led to a number of major sites
of importance in ancient Egypt. Often the extent and
quality of pharaohs building works is an indicator
of their wealth and power. The extent of Ramesses II
and IIIs building programs reflect the prosperity and
importance of their reigns.

Per-Ramesses
In the early nineteenth dynasty, the administrative
capital was Memphis, while Thebes remained the
religious capital. During the Ramesside period there
was a determined attempt to spread the power
amongst the gods. Ramesses II extended Seti Is
summer palace to create a new administrative city in
the eastern deltait was called Per-Ramesses. It was
described by the scribes as beauteous of balconies,
dazzling with halls of lapis and turquoise. It had
military barracks, the marshalling place of your
chariotry, mustering place of your infantry, the
mooring for your marines. There were also temples,
a jubilee hall for the celebration of Ramesses 14 Sed
festivals, administrative buildings and offices, a glaze
factory, a recreational lake and a zoological garden,
where the bones of African animals were found. It also
had a harbour, which gave access via the delta to the
Mediterranean Sea, which enabled troops and tribute
to be transported. It was strategically placed to enable
intervention in the northern areas.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Source 1.9
Temple
of Ptah

N
Ra

Temple
of Amun

Temple
of
Wadjet

ilit
ar
y

High officials

Military
Princes
Palace

Stores

Well

Glaze
works

Wa
ters

Dyn. 12
site

Work
shops

ry

lita

Mi

Town
Port
Town

e
L a k e of th
Temple
of Astarte

AVARIS

s
Re

of

of A
var
is

s
er
at
W

Military

Jubilee
Halls

Nile

id

e
nc

Temple
? of Ra

Temple
of Seth

Ramesses built two large rock-cut temples at

Abu Simbel in Nubia. They were carved into the
sandstone cliff and both have an interior pillared
hall with a shrine at the rear. The smaller one was
dedicated to his wife Nefertari as the goddess Hathor.
She stands on either side of the facade with her
husband and children. The larger of the temples is
dedicated to Ptah, Re, Amun and Ramesses himself
as a god. The facade has four seated statues of
Ramesses, each 20 metres high. The pillared hall has
inscriptions detailing the battle of Kadesh. The temple
was designed so that twice a year the sun would shine
into the shrine (30 metres into the mountain) and
light up the statues of the gods.
In 1966 an international effort relocated both
temples on a man-made mountain above the water
level of the Aswan dam.

Per-Ramesses.

Source 1.10

Critical inquiry
Refer to Source 1.9.
1 Describe the main features of Per-Ramesses.
2 What is the importance of the four military
barracks?
3 How many temples are situated in the city? How
does this reflect the religious policy of
Ramesside kings?
4 Ramesses II established a large glaze works, which
produced tilessome with aquatic motifs were
found. What do you think they were used for?
5 Assess the advantages of having the
administrative centre close to the Mediterranean.

Temples
Ramesses still had to appease the religious capital
Thebes, whose main god was Amun. He completed
the decoration of the Hypostyle hall, begun by his
grandfather and father, at the temple of Amun at
Karnak. He built in front of the temple of Amun at
Luxor, adding a colonnade adorned with statues of
himself, an entrance (third) pylon with obelisks and
more large statues of himself. The inscriptions on the
walls include the Hymn to Ramesses and the account of
the battle of Kadesh. He also built his mortuary temple,
the Ramesseum, on the west bank at Thebes.

Nefertari and Hathors temple at Abu Simbel.

Valleys of the Kings

and Queens
Most of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom were
buried in the Valley of the Kings, west of Thebes.
The valley, with two main branches, was isolated from
the community and overlooked by a pyramid-shaped
peak sacred to the cobra goddess Meretseger, She
Who Loves Silence. The entrances to the tombs were
sealed and necropolis police patrolled the valley. Their
mortuary temples, where offerings were left and they
were worshipped, were built separately, closer to the
west bank of the Nile.

The geographical environment

FYI

Source 1.13

Necropolis comes from the Greek and literally means

city of the dead.

Source 1.11

Ramesses III offering incense and water to the gods,

in the tomb of his son in the Valley of the Queens.
The Valley of the Kings.

Source 1.12

The west bank at Thebes showing the fertile agricultural

land, Ramesses IIs mortuary temple and the cliffs with
rock-cut tombs of the nobles.

During the Ramesside period the queens and many

of their offspring were buried in the Valley of the
Queens, about two kilometres south of the Valley of
the Kings. One of the largest and most beautiful is the
tomb Ramesses II built for his principal wife Nefertari.
It has many features of a kings tomb. The colour is
particularly vivid in this tomb and that of Ramesses
IIIs son, Amun-hir-khopershef.

10

These tombs were built by the workers of Deir

el-Medinaa town of artisans set up by Amenhotep I
at the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty. They lived
in a walled village on the edge of the desert on the
west bank at Thebes. They walked over the mountain
to work in either the Valley of the Kings, to the north,
or the Valley of the Queens, to the south. They
continued to excavate and decorate royal tombs
throughout the Ramesside period, although economic
difficulties in the later Ramesside period resulted in
the first recorded strike in history.
Officials in the Ramesside period were either buried
in the northern cemetery at Saqqara or in rock-cut
tombs in the cliffs west of the river at Thebes.
Source 1.14

The walled village of Deir el-Medina with the temple to

the left and their tombs in the cliff face to the right.

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: EgyptRamesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

Critical inquiry
Refer to Sources 1.10 to 1.14.
1 Explain why more than one god was worshipped
at Ramesses IIs temple at Abu Simbel.
2 What is the significance of Ramesses II
appearing among the gods?
3 Assess the advantages of the location of the
village of Deir el-Medina.
4 Analyse and evaluate the advantage of separating
the burials of the kings (in the Valley of the Kings)
and their mortuary temples (where offerings
were left by the living).
5 Go to hi.com.au/ancient to find links
to the Valley of the Kings.

4 Try to imagine you are an ancient Egyptian. How

could you survive in an environment with no rain,
except destructive torrential rains every 5 to 10
years? What would you have to rely on the river
for, and what difficulties might you have accessing
the water?
5 Identify the countries that Egypt had contact with.
Group them according to the type of contact.
6 Research the Hittites and Ramesses IIs relationship
with their royal family. Research the impact the
death of the Hittite king Muwatallis had on
HittiteEgyptian relations.
7 Research the Great Harris Papyrus that records
Ramesses IIIs battles against the Libyans, the Sea
Peoples and the Bedouin.

Further explorations
Viewing

Culminating the inquiry

1 Collate your answers to the focus questions
presented at the beginning of this chapter.
2 Frame a hypothesis based on the importance of
the geography, topography and natural resources
of ancient Egypt from the evidence.
3 Create a graphic overview or plan based on the
importance of the Nile to ancient Egyptian
society.
4 Identify the sources you will use to support your
argument.
5 Present the ancient attitude to the natural
environment by writing hymns to Hapi and Seth.

Review and revise

Activities
The following activities will help you revise and extend
your knowledge of the geographical environment of
Ramesside Egypt.
1 Analyse why Egypt has been referred to as the gift
of the Nile.
2 Assess the reliability of Herodotus as a source.
3 Research how the Aswan High Dam has changed
the natural environment of modern Egypt. Draw up
a list of advantages and disadvantages of the dam.

Egypt: The Gift of the Nile, BBC, London, 1989. This video
focuses on the geography of Egypt and the annual
inundation, particularly the importance of the river for
agriculture and transport. (Duration: 20 mins.)
Reading
Bradley, P., Ancient Egypt Reconstructing the Past,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999.
Hikade, T., Economic Aspects of the New Kingdom:
The Expeditions to the Copper Mines of the Sinai,
Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology (BACE),
vol. 9, 1998, pp. 4352.
Kitchen, K.A., Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of
Ramesses II, Aris & Phillips Ltd, Warminster, 1982.
Shaw, I., Surveying at the Edges of Egypt: The
Archaeology of Pharaonic Mining and Quarrying,
BACE, vol. 4, 1993, pp. 514.
Silverman, D. (ed.), Ancient Egypt, Duncan Baird
Publishers, London, 1997.
Websites
Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link to see Mysteries of
Egypta National Geographic film.

Web links
For a full list of relevant websites go to
hi.com.au/ancient.

The geographical environment

11