3.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES

Distributed energy resource (DER) systems are small-scale power generation technologies
(typically in the range of 1 kW to 10,000 kW) used to provide an alternative to or an
enhancement of the traditional electric power system. The usual problem with distributed
generators is their high initial capital costs.
3.1 COGENERATION:
Distributed cogeneration sources use steam turbines, natural gas-fired fuel cells, Microturbines or reciprocating engines to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or
water heating, or to drive an absorptive chiller for cooling such as air-conditioning. In
addition to natural gas-based schemes, distributed energy projects can also include other
renewable or low carbon fuels including bio fuels, biogas, landfill gas, sewage gas, coal bed
methane, syngas and associated petroleum gas.
In addition, molten carbonate fuel cell and solid oxide fuel cells using natural gas, such as the
ones from Fuel cell Energy and the Bloom energy server, or waste-to-energy are used as a
distributed energy resource.

3.2 SOLAR PANEL:

A primary issue with solar power is that it is intermittent. Popular sources of power for
distributed generation are solar heat collection panels and solar panels on the roofs of
buildings or free-standing. Solar heating panels are used mostly for heating water and when
the water is heated into steam it can effectively and economically used in steam turbines to
produce electricity.
Some "thin-film" solar cells have waste-disposal issues when they are made with heavy
metals such as Cadmium telluride and Copper indium gallium selenide and must be recycled,
as opposed to silicon solar cells, which are mostly non-metallic. Unlike coal and nuclear,
there are no fuel costs, operating pollution, mining-safety or operating-safety issues. Solar
power has a low capacity factor, producing peak power at local noon each day. Average
capacity factor is typically 20%.

3.3 WIND TURBINE:

Another source is small wind turbines. These have low maintenance, and low pollution,
however as with solar, wind energy is intermittent. Construction costs are higher than large
power plants, except in very windy areas. Wind towers and generators have substantial
insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. Wind also tends to
complement solar. Days without sun there tend to be windy, and vice versa. Many distributed
generation sites combine wind power and solar can be monitored online.

3.4 WASTE-TO-ENERGY:
Municipal solid waste (MSW) and natural waste, such as sewage sludge, food waste and
animal manure will decompose and discharge methane-containing gas that can be collected as
used as fuel in gas turbines or micro turbines to produce electricity as a distributed energy
resource. Additionally, a California-based company has developed a process that transforms
natural waste materials, such as sewage sludge, into biofuel that can be combusted to power a
steam turbine that produces power. This power can be used in lieu of grid-power at the waste
source (such as a treatment plant, farm or dairy).

3.5. FUEL CELLS:

5

There are many types of fuel cells currently under development in the 5-1000+ kW size
range, including phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane, molten carbonate, solid oxide,
alkaline, and direct methanol.
Although the numerous types of fuel cells differ in their electrolytic material, they all use the
same basic principle. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. With the aid of a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton (H+)
and an electron. The proton passes through the electrolyte to the cathode and the electrons
travel in an external circuit. As the electrons flow through an external circuit connected as a
load they create a DC current. At the cathode, protons combine with hydrogen and oxygen,
producing water and heat. Fuel cells have very low levels of NOx and CO emissions because
the power conversion is an electrochemical process. The part of a fuel cell that contains the
electrodes and electrolytic material is called the "stack," and is a major contributor to the total
cost of the total system. Stack replacement is very costly but becomes necessary when
efficiency degrades as stack operating hours accumulate.
Fuel cells require hydrogen for operation. However, it is generally impractical to use
hydrogen directly as a fuel source; instead, it must be extracted from hydrogen-rich sources
such as gasoline, propane, or natural gas. Cost effective, efficient fuel reformers that can
convert various fuels to hydrogen are necessary to allow fuel cells increased flexibility and
commercial feasibility.

3.6 RECIPROCATING DIESEL OR NATURAL GAS ENGINES:

Reciprocating engines, developed more than 100 years ago, were the first among DG technologies. They are
used on many scales, with applications ranging from fractional horsepower units that power small tools to
enormous 60 MW base load electric power plants. Smaller engines are primarily designed for transportation
and can usually be converted to power generation with little modification. Larger engines are most
frequently designed for power generation, mechanical drive, or marine propulsion.
Reciprocating engines can be fueled by diesel or natural gas, with varying emission outputs. Almost all
engines used for power generation are four-stroke and operate in four cycles (intake, compression,
combustion, and exhaust). The process begins with fuel and air being mixed. In turbocharged applications,
the air is compressed before mixing with fuel. The fuel/air mixture is introduced into the combustion
cylinder and ignited with a spark. For diesel units, the air and fuel are introduced separately with fuel being
injected after the air is compressed. Reciprocating engines are currently available from many manufacturers
in all size ranges. They are typically used for either continuous power or backup emergency power.
Cogeneration configurations are available with heat recovery from the gaseous exhaust.

3.7MICROTURBINES:

Micro turbines are an emerging class of small-scale distributed power generation in the 30-400 kW size
range. The basic technology used in micro turbines is derived from aircraft auxiliary power systems, diesel
engine turbochargers, and automotive designs. A number of companies are currently field-testing
demonstration units, and several commercial units are available for purchase.

Micro turbines consist of a compressor, combustor, turbine, and generator. The compressors and turbines
are typically radial-flow designs, and resemble automotive engine turbochargers. Most designs are singleshaft and use a high-speed permanent magnet generator producing variable voltage, variable frequency
alternating current (AC) power. Most micro turbine units are designed for continuous-duty operation and
are recuperated to obtain higher electric efficiencies.

3.8 COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES:

Combustion turbines range in size from simple cycle units starting at about 1 MW to several hundred MW
when configured as a combined cycle power plant. Units from 1-15 MW are generally referred to as
industrial turbines (or sometimes as miniturbines), which differentiates them both from larger utility grade
turbines and smaller micro turbines.. Historically, they were developed as aero derivatives, spawned from

engines used for jet propulsion. Some, however, are designed specifically for stationary power generation or
compression applications in the oil and gas industries. Multiple stages are typical and along with axial
blading differentiate these turbines from the smaller micro turbines described above.

Combustion turbines have relatively low installation costs, low emissions, and infrequent maintenance
requirements. Cogeneration DG installations are particularly advantageous when a continuous supply of
steam or hot water is desired.

4. INTEGRATION WITH THE GRID

For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the

same transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in the
integration of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of power
quality, voltage stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control. Behavior of
protective devices on the grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and
9

central station generation. A large scale deployment of distributed generation may affect gridwide functions such as frequency control and allocation of reserves. As a result smart grid
functions, virtual power plants and grid energy storage such as power to gas stations are
added to the grid.

5. BENEFITS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

As mentioned above, basic tangible benefits that may be derived out of such sort of
distributed or dispersed or decentralized generation are the following.
Easy and quicker installation on account of prefabricated standardized components
Lowering of cost by avoiding long distance high voltage transmission
Environment friendly where renewable sources are used
Running cost more or less constant over the period of time with the use of renewable
sources
Possibility of user-operator participation due to lesser complexity
More dependability with simple construction, and consequent easy operation and
maintenance
Of course the issue of intermittent supply may be a big issue, particularly when backup
supply from grid does not exist. Initial cost too may be high depending upon location in a
number of cases.

6. CONCLUSION
Distributed generation (DG) has much potential to improve distribution system performance.
The use of DG strongly contributes to a clean, reliable and cost effective energy for future.
The range of DG technologies and the variability in their size, performance, and suitable
applications suggest that DG could provide power supply solutions in many different
industrial, commercial, and residential settings. In this way, DG is contributing to improving
the security of electricity supply. However, distribution system designs and operating
practices are normally based on radial power flow and this creates a significant challenge for
10

the successful integration of DG system. As the issues are new and are the key for sustainable
future power supply, a lot of research is required to study their impact and exploit them to the
full extent.

7. FUTURE SCOPE

Possible future methods include risk-based planning and advanced monitoring

schemes combined with curtailment of production and consumption.

Future generations of electric vehicles may have the ability to deliver power from the
battery in a vehicle-to-grid into the grid when needed. An electric vehicle network
could also be an important distributed generation resource.

11

The developed dynamic model of SOFC based DG system can be used along with
micro-turbine based DG system for combined operation to increase the efficiency of
the complete system.

8. REFERENCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation
Distributed Generation - Basic Policy, Perspective Planning, and Achievement so far
in
India- Subrata Mukhopadhyay, Senior Member, IEEE, and Bhim Singh, Senior

member,

IEEE.

Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power SystemBy Math H. Bollen,

Fainan Hassan
12

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2342/16/16_chapter%206.pdf

13