Infinitives and Gerunds

Eight months ago I didnt even know the meaning of gerund

now I find that meaning is one of them.
Mike Smith
Teacher Workshop
18 July 2001
(from the reference)
Every language teacher knows theres a difference in meaning between He
forgot to shave and He forgot shaving. Is there a simple way to explain the
difference?
Language learners always want to say *She enjoys to go. Why do we have to
say She enjoys going, but we cant say *She wants going?
*He denied to take it and *He refused taking it are both wrong. Why?
They chose to stay is correct. Why isnt *They considered to stay?
The sentences She loves to dance and She loves dancing seem to communicate
the same thing. Is there ever a difference in their uses?
Scope
The scope of this paper exceeds what could be attempted in a 30 minute workshop, but is itself only a
precis of the references chapter on this topic, which in turn recommends wide further reading. The
scope of the workshop is limited to two aspects:

an exploration of time sequencing as a way to explain the use of infinitives and gerunds,
and

an introduction to their typically different features and the information they carry.

Introduction
When, in March this year, I started learning how to teach ESL, I had little real appreciation of the
subtleties of the English language. Now it fascinates me, mainly because teaching English to speakers
of other languages, is the mapping of communicative processes used by different cultures. Im finding
that languages may differ not just at the word level, but in the way information is structured in
sentences and, in higher structures building discourse. What I find interesting is how this reflects the
way people actually think. These ways of thinking differ between cultures, very much in some
comparisons. Surely this contributes to the difficulties experienced by ESL learners. However perhaps
these differences can be used in constructive opportunities to make learning easier.
This workshop explores the way infinitives and gerunds reflect how English speakers think. ESL
learners would find this quite helpful to choose the correct form to articulate their idea and decode the
utterances they hear. Much like the prediction phase of a classroom listening activity, we are trying to
boost the probability of success by seeding a level of understanding (extracted from structure and
pattern) prior to the last resort of word-level translation.

Mike Smith ACE

-1Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Basic Forms of Verb Complements

Examples of the various forms of verb complements are shown below. These form a starting point for
the discussion to follow.
Non-Finite verb complements (limited set of possible verbs forms)
The tense of the complement is independent of that of the main verb.
1.

a.
b.
c.

He wanted to see her again.

She told him to get lost.
He watched her walk away.

INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE
bare INFINITIVE

2.

a.
b.
c.

She continued walking.

He couldnt bear her leaving him
She resented his/him being such a wimp.

GERUND
possessive? GERUND
possessive GERUND

Finite verb complements (wide variety of verb forms possible)

3.

a.
b.

She hopes (that) he goes insane without him.

She regrets (that) she ever went out with him.

Table 1 - Forms with infinitive and gerund complements

Main verb
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP

V
V
V
V
V
V

NP object
NP object
NP object
NP possessive

Complement verb
to V
to V
V
V ing
V ing
V ing

Examples
I want to sing.
I want Joe/him to sing.
I heard Joe/him sing.
I hate singing.
I hate Joe/him singing.
I hate Joes/his singing.

Basic Meanings
It is possible to classify each verb according to its possible complements as in Table 2.
Table 2 - Verb categories according to infinitive and gerund complements
Finite complements
1 Only
that
argue
assume
believe
contend
guess
know
realize
say
state
suppose
think
wonder

Non-finite complements
2 Only
to V
agree
allow
arrange
beg
choose
decide
decline
hope
offer
promise
tell
want

3 Only
V ing
avoid
consider
detest
enjoy
fancy
finish
keep
postpone
practice
resent
resist
suggest

4 Both
to V / V ing
begin
cease
continue
dread
forget
hate
like
love
prefer
regret
remember
stop

In some texts this represents all the learner is supplied with. However we can help a little more by
illustrative examples which typify these categories.
Mike Smith ACE
-2Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Group 1 - Verbs with only finite (that ) complements

Verbs indicating mental states.
Complements are finite - they may contain tense information.
Complements represent thoughts, facts or propositions.
4.

a.
b.

He knew that she was seeing someone else.

She realized that he had been spying on her.

These meanings cannot be expressed using the other non-finite complements. Sentences like *He
knew her to see someone else and *He knew her seeing someone else are ungrammatical.

Group 2 - Verbs with only (to V) non-finite complements

Verbs indicate the action of the complement will be in the future (future possibilities).
Complement usually contains an infinitive.
5.

a.
b.

He hoped to change her mind.

She wanted him to forget her.

These meanings are not expressed via gerund complements For example *He hoped changing her
mind. When expressed as a finite clause the complement verb is usually marked by a modal indicating
non-fact: He hoped that he could change her mind.

Group 3 - Verbs with only (V ing) non-finite complements

Verbs indicate situation described by the complement is already established (fact).
Complement usually contains a gerund.
6.

a.
b.

She detested him spying on her.

He enjoyed watching her all the time.

These meanings are not expressed via infinitive complements For example *She detested him to spy
on her. When expressed as a finite clause they often contain nouns: She detested the fact that he
spied on her.

Group 4 - Verbs with both (to V) and (V ing) non-finite complements

Verbs which can indicate the complement contains either a future possibility or a situation already
established (fact). Verbs like forget and remember may clearly illustrate the different meaning
relationships with infinitive and gerund complements.
7.

a.
b.

He forgot to take his medicine.

He forgot taking his medicine.

The infinitive form indicates non-factual status - we know he didnt take his medicine.
The gerund form indicates factual status - we know he did.
From another perspective, the infinitive form represents an action which follows the main verb in time
(chronologically), whereas in the gerund form this chronological sequence is reversed.
8.

a.
b.
c.

You must remember to pay the bills.

He stopped to buy magazines.
I regret to say this.

(remember before pay)

(stop before buy) - infinitive of purpose
(regret before say)

9.

a.
b.
c.

Dont you remember paying the bills? (remember after pay)

He stopped buying magazines last year. (stop after buy)
We regret saying that.
(regret after say)

Mike Smith ACE

-3Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Limitations of the Method of Time Sequence Comparison

between Infinitive and Gerund Meanings
Group 4 verbs illustrate that one way to predict the choice of infinitive of gerund form might be to
consider the sequence of actions, however some Group 3 verbs run contrary to this hope. For example
if you suggest going to the park the suggest occurs before the going and so we might expect the
infinitive form. Similar for verbs like consider and fancy.
Also there are problems with some Group 4 verbs. The difference between I love to dance and I love
dancing isnt a matter future action versus past action. Nor is the difference between Ill begin to
cook dinner and Ill begin cooking dinner.
However this explanation might still be useful at Elementary levels or in restricted circumstances. If
you encounter a question about a group 4 verb where the choice between infinitive or gerund is a
matter of time sequence then you might well decide that this is the best answer.
In other circumstances a different explanation will be required, but then I believe it best to adopt an
approach which includes this previous explanation rather than one which says - Oh in this case you do
this, and in that case you do that, etc.

A More General and Useful Approach

In the examples above there is another way to distinguish the infinitives and gerund complements. For
all these examples it is possible to insert articles or possessive determiners
201.

a.
b.
c.

She continued her/the walking.

He couldnt bear her leaving him
She resented his/him being such a wimp.

601.

a.
b.

She detested his spying on her.

He enjoyed his/the watching of her all the time.

701.

b.

He forgot his/the taking of his medicine.

901.

a.
b.
c.

You must your/the remember paying of the bills.

He stopped his/the buying of magazines.
We regret our/the saying of that.

already possessive?

This doesnt work so well with the infinitive forms *You must remember your/the to pay of the bills.
The apparent affinity between gerunds and articles or possessive determiners suggests that gerunds are
more noun-like than verb-like.
The information expressed in gerunds is generally more event-like and feels more like a thing. It has
a greater feeling of reality. Something happened which is of interest. By contrast the information
expressed in infinitives is more act-like and feels more like a do. It feels less tangible. Somebody
does something and this act and/or its performer is of interest
This distinction in carried meaning is more fundamental than a simple analysis of time sequence, but it
still works for those situations. Something which is in the future cannot be real so we would expect an
infinitive complement. Whereas something in the past, even an action, can be considered an event with
fact-like status, favouring a gerund complement.

Mike Smith ACE

-4Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Meanings in Context
Both infinitives and gerunds are derived from verbs, but have a syntactic function normally associated
with nouns. We could expect them to retain some verb-like characteristics, but also perhaps to adopt
some noun-like characteristics. We can use these characteristics to distinguish between infinitive and
gerund complements, in terms of what meaning is carried, and therefore make appropriate choices
about which to use. Hopefully this can be taught to language learners more effectively than the
memorising of lists like Table 2.

Noun-like Events
The go element in both sentences of 10 is presented as a specific kind of event rather than as the
performance of an act.
10.

a.
b.

She resented his going there without her.

He enjoyed going there alone.

It is the definite sense of the going there (note the article) that conveys actually happened or
established activity. Often we can substitute a simple noun phrase for the gerund - We enjoyed the
walk to town or We enjoyed walking to town.
(Does this explain the choice of the gerund in the function of Present Continuous for future
arrangements, and Past and Future Continuous for established background information?)
With this perspective we can make better sense of:
11.

a.
b.

He considered going to the beach.

She suggested going to the museum.

In terms of time sequence the verbs consider or suggest would come before the go action, but these
main verbs dont take infinitive complements. Their object in each of these sentences is better thought
of as an event (something more noun-like) rather than the performance of an act. Also there is some
conceptual distance between the act/event and the performer in 11b. It is possible that she is not the
only person going, or even that she isnt going at all but that others might.

Verb-like Actions
With infinitive complements, it is the association with performing an action that creates implied
meanings. In the examples 12, the focus is on the go act, and not on the event. The agency or
performer of the act, is also mentioned in each case. There are no markers of definiteness (articles or
possessive determiners) possible.
12.

a.
b.

She told him to go without her.

He wanted her to go too.

Infinitive complements often carry characteristic meanings of indefinite potential performance. In

terms of information structure, infinitive complements are indefinite and gerund complements are
definite.

Mike Smith ACE

-5Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Deny and Refuse

The verbs refuse and deny are useful to illustrate the different types of information carried by infinitive
compared to gerund complements. They carry similar meanings, as well as being negative modifiers.
However they carry different types of information and this determines the choice of complement type.
13.

a.
b.

Peter denied going to the party.

Peter refused to go to the party.

Deny in 13a takes a complement which is presented as not true and must therefore be a statement of
fact or proposition. This could also be expressed as a finite (that) clause - He denied that he went
to the party.
Refuse in 13b is presented as the performance of an act which can be either done or not done, but an
act cannot be true or not true. This could not be expressed as a finite (that) clause - *He refused
that he went/goes/will go to the party.
Table 3 - Information carried by Infinitives versus Gerunds
Features

Meanings

to V
more verb-like
no possessive modifier
specified agent likely

V ing
more noun-like
possessive modifier possible
specified agent less likely

acts
more performance-like
performer assumed
less definite
possibly happens

events
more proposition-like
performer not assumed
more definite
actually happens

We can apply these characteristics to the previous examples and correctly predict which type of
complement is appropriate to the meaning.
8.

a.
b.
c.

You must remember to pay the bills.

He stopped to buy magazines.
We regret to say this.

9.

a.
b.
c.

You must remember paying the bills.

He stopped buying magazines.
We regret saying that.

Importantly we can also apply them to these previously problematic examples:

14.

a.
b.

I like to box / to dance / to swim / to ski.

I like boxing / dancing / swimming / skiing.

In 14a the speaker is mentioned and must be the performer of the action, whereas this is not necessary
in 14b. In 14a the act is in focus, whereas in 14b the event is in focus.
Also so, when the situation is current, the gerund seems more appropriate. For example when two
people are dancing together, one is more likely to ask Do you like dancing? rather than Do you like
to dance?

Mike Smith ACE

-6Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Types of Verbs
The range of verbs which can take complements can be described as:
commitment
self directed (eg decide)
other directed (eg allow)
aspectual (eg. start, stop, continue)
sensory-perception (eg. see, hear, smell)

Commitment Verbs
The largest group of verbs to take infinitive complements may best be described as involving some
form of commitment to future action. Conceptually the commitment is to perform an act. Also that
commitment comes before the act in time. So these verbs usually take infinitive complements.
15.

a.
b.

He ordered us to get out.

He convinced us to leave immediately

16.

a.
b.

We arranged for him to leave at once.

She longed for him to return.

17.

a.
b.

They threatened to shoot us.

We decided to surrender.

Table 4 - Commitment Verbs

Self-directed action
NP V to-V
demand
ask
beg
plead
pray

Other directed action

agree
consent
offer
decline
refuse

decide
aim
hope
want
wish

apply
attempt
prepare
plan
struggle

NP V NP to-V
order
tell
persuade
advise
permit

command
convince
urge
ask
beg

Sometimes we use verbs such as come and go in patterns similar to self directed commitment verbs.
They can also be thought as aspectual verbs (indicating beginning and concluding for example)
18.

a.
b.

The little boy went to open the door, but decided not to.
He had come to realize that the monster wanted to get him.

Perhaps this is the origin of going to for future arrangements, which often creates confusion with go
(travel).
1801. a.
b.

Im going to open the window, OK?

Im going to Paris this summer, wooHOO!

Mike Smith ACE

-7Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Aspectual Verbs
Situations can be described from perspectives that focus on their beginning, their continuing or their
ending. Aspectual verbs are used to indicate this, and consequently these situations dont denote
separate actions sequenced in time. Instead there is one event in focus, described from three different
perspectives.
19.

a.
b.
c.

We started working just after dawn.

We stopped working around noon.
Then we continued working after lunch.

There is a strong preference for gerund complements, with many aspectual verbs taking only gerunds
(particularly phrasal verbs).
20.

a.
b.
c.

She finished singing, but the band carried on playing.

He had to give up smoking, but the others kept doing it.
Many started out dancing, but by the end only a few remained standing.

In the examples 20, infinitive complements are not possible. Activities and processes seem to have
their starts, continuing and ends within an overall perspective that is ongoing. They have duration in
time for which the gerund is preferred.
Infinitives can be used with some aspectual verbs (eg begin, cease, continue and start) in examples
where a point in time is being referred to.
21.

a.
b.

I turned the key and the engine suddenly started to splutter into life.
Just as suddenly it died and ceased to make a sound.

The reference point in time can be the start of a possible series as in 22a, but if the series is perceived
as an ongoing event then the gerund is preferred as in 22b. Repeated action over time can be perceived
much like a continuous activity having duration.
22.

a.
b.

He begins to sneeze if a cat comes near him.

He begins sneezing if a cat even comes into the same room.

The infinitive is also preferred when the complement indicates a state, using non-dynamic verbs. You
could think of examples 23 as being similar in concept to 22a.
23.

a.
b.
c.

The old leader continued to be in charge.

We began to understand his political power.
And the people ceased to believe that things would change.

Mike Smith ACE

-8Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Table 5 - Aspectual Verbs and Complements

to-V

Both

point in time
single act
state

V-ing only
period of time
ongoing event (s)
activity process

begin
cease
commence
continue
start

discontinue
end up
complete
finish
give up
come out
burst out
carry on
go on
keep (on)
quit
remain
resume
stay
stop

If the aspectual verb is in the progressive the infinitive is preferred, possible on the grounds that it just
sounds better.
24.

a.
b.

The students are beginning to want change.

* The students are beginning wanting change.
The teachers are continuing to insist on the old ways.
*The teachers are continuing insisting on the old ways.

Mike Smith ACE

-9Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press

Sensory Perception Verbs

A small number of verbs can take either a bare infinitive or gerund. These generally convey sensory
experience (eg see, hear, feel).
25.

a.
b.

She saw him trip over the cat.

Seconds later she heard him cursing.

This may involve two people are involved, or just one.

26.

a.
b.

In the dream she saw herself falling.

Suddenly she felt herself jerk awake.

In the examples 26, the difference in meaning seems to be whether the event is ongoing at the time of
perception.
27.
Sunday morning in England. We could smell breakfast cooking as we lay in bed and listened
to the church bells ringing.
The gerund tends to express an event not having a time limit, and so favours the concept of noncompletion. The bare infinitive tends to express a perception completed.
28.

a.
b.

I saw you blink.

I saw you blinking.

Table 6 - Sensory Perception verbs and Complements

Sensory perception verbs
feel
hear
listen to

look at
notice
observe

overhear
see
sense

With complements
Bare infinitive (V)

Gerund (V-ing)

limited in time
completed
single act

unlimited in time
incomplete
series of acts

smell
spot
watch

Linguistic and Conceptual Distance

There is an explanation of why we use the bare infinitive with sensory perception verbs. It appears to
be a compromise between the characteristics of the infinitive. Other instances of the infinitive denote a
perceptual distance between the main verb and the complement verb. This is particularly clear in the
early examples of time sequence separation (eg infinitive of purpose). For sensory perception verbs
there is no time differential - both verbs act simultaneously. However the gerund is not useful for
situations which are finished and not ongoing.
In a bare infinitive construction the two verbs are not separated by the to and so are linguistically
closer. This seems to be the mechanism of compromise which reflects the lesser conceptual distance
between the two verbs.

Mike Smith ACE

- 10 Compiled 07/03/15
Adapted from Explaining English Grammar, George Yule, Oxford Uni Press