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Forensic Science International 179 (2008) e45e49

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Case report

The experience of the Forensic Anthropology Service of the Medical

Examiners Office in Porto Alegre, Brazil
Marcia Vaz a,*, Francisco Silveira Benfica b,c,a
b

a
Medical Examiners Office, Av. Ipiranga, 1807 Porto Alegre, Brazil
Legal Medicine, School of Law, Centro Universitario Ritter dos Reis (UniRitter), Rua Santos Dumont, 888 Canoas, Brazil
c
Legal Medicine, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), Sao Leopoldo, Brazil

Received 8 August 2007; received in revised form 27 February 2008; accepted 13 May 2008
Available online 1 July 2008

Abstract
The Forensic Anthropology Service of the Medical Examiners Office of Porto Alegre was created in September 1997 to examine human
skeletons, establish identification and identify lesions that may explain death. From September 1997 to December 2006, 344 skeletons were
examined (mean: 37 examinations/year), and 322 were human remains. Most skeletal remains belonged to men (61%) whose age was estimated at
2150 years (61%). The most frequent bone lesions were caused by fractures (71%), firearm projectiles (11%) and the effects of weather (10%).
Antemortem bone changes due to consolidated fractures, degenerative bone processes, congenital bone diseases, and medical procedures were
found in 38 skeletal remains (14%). Identification was possible in 83 cases (26%); of these, 78% were identified by DNA analysis, 16% by dental
examination, and 6% by anatomic changes associated with healed fractures.
# 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Forensic anthropology; Medicolegal; Anthropology; Human identification

1. Introduction
The objective of forensic anthropology is to establish
identity, determine cause and circumstances of death, analyze
useful information for a case, and make use of all available
scientific resources for these purposes [1]. The determination of
identity is one of the most important tasks of forensic medicine
as it is associated with legal aspects of determination of death,
such as the extinction of civil and criminal responsibility and
family rights to public and private compensation and insurance
[25].
The first forensic task is to determine whether remains are
human to avoid the waste of time and public resources in the
analysis of decomposing and skeletonized animal bodies [3].
Medicolegal examiners are qualified to differentiate animal
from human bones by their anatomic (morphologic) features in
most situations; in a few cases, complementary tests may be
necessary [3,6]. The process of identification is based on

* Corresponding author at: Rua Mostardeiro 1035/1002, CEP 90430-001,

Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. Tel.: +55 51 3332 4245; fax: +55 51 3331 6780.
E-mail address: marvaz@terra.com.br (M. Vaz).
0379-0738/$ see front matter # 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.05.004

anthropometric measurements and the evaluation of bone

changes that may lead to the establishment of identity, such as
traumatic lesions (old or recent fractures) and anatomic
changes caused by medical procedures (prostheses, bone
scars) or by degenerative (osteophytes) or pathologic (arthritis)
conditions [7].
Cause of death is often impossible to determine when the
body is partially or completely skeletonized, particularly when
evidences of cause of death are only found in soft tissues, such
as pathologic processes that may lead to sudden death.
Examinations, in these cases, should begin by excluding signs
of violence. Radiological studies of bodies in advanced states of
putrefaction and the careful analysis of several bones of the
skeletonized body may show prostheses or changes in bone
morphology that may lead to the identification of an individual,
or projectiles and fractures that may suggest cause of death [4].
The peculiarities and specificities of medicolegal examinations of remains in advanced states of putrefaction, especially
skeletonized bodies, translate into a growing specialization of
anthropology experts all over the world. The development of
anthropology in specific regions, particularly those where there
is great miscegenation, is extremely important because the
identification of a native individual may be severely

e46

M. Vaz, F.S. Benfica / Forensic Science International 179 (2008) e45e49

From its creation in 1997 to December 2006, 344 skeletal

remains (mean: 37 examination/year) were examined. Of these,
22 (6.4%) were remains of small- and middle-sized animals.
The 322 human skeletal remains underwent the process of
identification and possible determination of cause of death. In
all cases, efforts were made to establish gender, age at time of
death, ethnic affiliation, stature, time of death [10], dental
changes, previous and recent traumatic bone lesions, and bone
changes in consequence of medical procedures or degenerative
or pathologic processes that may explain death or support
identification [7]. Material for DNA analysis was only collected
and sent to the Forensic Laboratory when requested by police
authorities that suspected that the skeletal remains under
examination belonged to a certain victim.
Male gender was established for 61% of the skeletal remains
(Table 1). To determine gender, descriptive methods found in
the literature were used, such as morphology and morphometry
of cranium and pelvis, and anthropometry of long bones,
clavicle, stern, scapula and sacrum [4,1114]. The determination of gender of fetal and preadolescent skeletons was not
attempted because it is not accurate or reliable [15,16].
Although women correspond to 51% of the population in the
State of Rio Grande do Sul [17], female skeletal remains
accounted for only 21% of all remains examined.
Ages ranged from fetuses to ages greater than 50 years. The
ages of most skeletal remains (61%) could be estimated
[7,18,19] and most ranged from 21 to 30 years (28%) and 30 to
50 years (33%). Distribution according to age is shown in
Table 1.
In 56 skeletal remains (17%), no lesions were found
(Table 2). The types of bone lesions identified in the cases
examined are summarized in Table 3, in which numbers reflect
the fact that some skeletal remains might have more than one
type of traumatic lesion or antemortem change; in such cases,
all changes were recorded. Bone lesions due to the effect of
weather were identified in 28 (10%), and due to the action of
animals in 24 (9%). Traumatic bone lesions, which may explain
cause of death fully or partially, were found in 243 skeletons
and were caused by fractures (71%), firearm projectiles (11%),
calcined bones (7%), cutting, piercing or blunt trauma (2%) and
strangulation/hanging (0.4%). Antemortem bone changes
resulting from consolidated fractures, degenerative bone

compromised if experts use standards obtained in populations

with different ethnic characteristics [8].
In Brazil, forensic medical and dental examinations of human
bodies and remains are the responsibility of Forensic Services,
and are requested by police, judicial or military authorities in
charge of investigations or criminal cases under their jurisdiction.
Forensic Services are public institutions under state responsibility and suffer no direct interference from private institutions in
the performance of forensic examinations [9].
Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state of Brazil, has
about 10 million inhabitants. The headquarters of our Medical
Examiners Office are located in its state capital city, Porto
Alegre. 36 other units are located in other cities in the state. All
highly specialized forensic anthropology examinations have
been centralized in our headquarters since 1997, and are
performed by medicolegal experts assisted by legal dentists.
Bone remains of criminal interest from all over the state are sent
to our service.
This report describes the role of forensic anthropology in the
medicolegal services in the State of Rio Grande do Sul by
presenting an analysis of cases examined by the two authors
while in charge of the Forensic Anthropology Service of the
State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
2. Case reports
Up to 1997, examination of bone remains in the State of Rio
Grande do Sul were performed by any of the medicolegal
experts of the State Forensic Service, who had little or no
training in forensic anthropology. Most examinations were
limited to determining whether bones were human or not, and
to describing evident traumatic lesions. Dental remains were
examined by dental experts that described changes. Therefore,
identity could not be determined for most bone remains, which
were interred as unidentified individuals.
The Forensic Anthropology Service of the Medical
Examiners Office of Porto Alegre was created in September
1997 to qualify medicolegal examinations conducted by the
institution. Since that time, a growing number of skeletal
remains and bodies in advanced states of putrefaction have been
sent to the service for identification and determination of
lesions that might explain death.
Table 1
Distribution of human skeletal remains according to gender and age

Human skeletal remains

Male gender
Female gender
Undetermined gender
Fetus
010 years
1120 years
2130 years
3150 years
>50 years
Undetermined age

1997
n (%)

1998
n (%)

1999
n (%)

2000
n (%)

2001
n (%)

2002
n (%)

2003
n (%)

2004
n (%)

2005
n (%)

2006
n (%)

Total
n (%)

6
4
0
2
1
0
0
1
2
0
2

30
18
6
6
2
1
5
13
7
1
1

26
19
4
3
0
0
0
13
9
3
1

28
18
6
4
2
1
4
9
6
3
2

36
21
11
4
3
1
4
13
5
8
2

35
25
4
6
2
0
7
7
13
2
4

47
28
8
11
4
4
5
5
22
5
3

44
24
13
7
3
0
2
12
20
1
6

38
18
11
9
2
1
5
13
10
0
7

32
21
4
7
1
1
6
5
11
2
6

322
196
67
59
20
9
38
91
105
25
34

(100)
(67)
(0)
(33)
(17)
(0)
(0)
(17)
(33)
(0)
(33)

(91)
(60)
(20)
(20)
(7)
(3)
(17)
(43)
(23)
(3)
(3)

(96)
(73)
(15)
(12)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(50)
(35)
(11)
(4)

(85)
(64)
(21)
(14)
(8)
(4)
(14)
(32)
(21)
(11)
(8)

(100)
(58)
(31)
(11)
(8)
(3)
(11)
(36)
(14)
(22)
(6)

(95)
(71)
(11)
(17)
(6)
(0)
(20)
(20)
(37)
(6)
(11)

(94)
(60)
(17)
(23)
(8)
(8)
(11)
(11)
(47)
(11)
(6)

(98)
(55)
(29)
(16)
(7)
(0)
(4)
(27)
(45)
(2)
(14)

(95)
(47)
(29)
(24)
(5)
(3)
(13)
(34)
(26)
(0)
(18)

(87)
(66)
(12)
(22)
(3)
(3)
(19)
(16)
(34)
(6)
(19)

(100)
(61)
(21)
(18)
(6)
(3)
(12)
(28)
(33)
(8)
(11)

M. Vaz, F.S. Benfica / Forensic Science International 179 (2008) e45e49

e47

Table 2
Distribution of bone lesions and methods of identification of skeletal remains

Human skeletal remains

No lesions
With lesions
Positive identification
Positive dental identification
Positive healed fractures
Positive DNA
Requested DNA
Exclusion/inconclusive DNA exam

1997
n (%)

1998
n (%)

1999
n (%)

2000
n (%)

2001
n (%)

2002
n (%)

2003
n (%)

2004
n (%)

2005
n (%)

2006
n (%)

Total
n (%)

6
3
3
1
1
0
0
0
0

30
7
23
4
1
1
2
2
0

26
4
22
1
1
0
0
2
1

28
3
25
9
3
3
3
5
2

36
12
24
7
2
1
4
7
1

35
3
32
12
0
0
12
14
0

47
7
40
17
1
0
16
17
0

44
4
40
13
0
0
13
24
1

38
6
32
9
1
0
8
17
1

32
7
25
10
3
0
7
19
0

322
56
266
83
13
5
65
107
6

(50)
(50)
(17)
(100)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(0)

(23)
(77)
(13)
(25)
(25)
(50)
(7)
(0)

(15)
(85)
(4)
(100)
(0)
(0)
(8)
(50)

(11)
(89)
(32)
(33)
(33)
(33)
(14)
(40)

(33)
(67)
(19)
(29)
(14)
(57)
(19)
(14)

(9)
(91)
(34)
(0)
(0)
(100)
(40)
(0)

(15)
(85)
(36)
(6)
(0)
(94)
(36)
(0)

(9)
(91)
(29)
(0)
(0)
(100)
(54)
(4)

(16)
(84)
(24)
(11)
(0)
(89)
(45)
(6)

(22)
(78)
(31)
(30)
(0)
(70)
(59)
(0)

(17)
(83)
(26)
(16)
(6)
(78)
(33)
(6)

Table 3
Distribution of types of bone lesions and antemortem changes in 266 skeletal remainsa

Human skeletal remains with lesions

Effect of weather
Action of animals
Fractures
Firearm projectiles
Calcined bones
Cutting, piercing or blunt trauma
Strangulation/hanging
Antemortem changes

1997
n (%)

1998
n (%)

1999
n (%)

2000
n (%)

2001
n (%)

2002
n (%)

2003
n (%)

2004
n (%)

2005
n (%)

2006
n (%)

Total
n (%)

3
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0

23
3
1
19
1
1
1
0
7

22
6
3
15
3
2
0
0
0

25
1
3
19
2
1
0
0
6

24 (67)
1 (4)
2 (8)
18 (75)
4 (17)
1 (4)
0 (0)
0(0)
4 (11)

32
2
3
25
4
0
0
0
1

40
5
7
31
5
2
0
0
5

40
3
1
26
5
4
2
1
8

32
3
2
18
4
4
1
0
5

25
4
1
17
1
3
1
0
2

266
28
24
189
29
19
5
1
38

(50)
(0)
(33)
(33)
(0)
(33)
(0)
(0)
(17)

(77)
(13)
(4)
(83)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(0)
(30)

(85)
(27)
(14)
(68)
(14)
(9)
(0)
(0)
(0)

(89)
(4)
(12)
(76)
(8)
(4)
(0)
(0)
(24)

(91)
(6)
(9)
(71)
(11)
(0)
(0)
(0)
(3)

(85)
(12)
(17)
(77)
(12)
(5)
(0)
(0)
(11)

(91)
(7)
(2)
(65)
(12)
(10)
(5)
(2)
(20)

(84)
(9)
(6)
(56)
(12)
(12)
(3)
(0)
(16)

(78)
(16)
(4)
(68)
(4)
(12)
(4)
(0)
(8)

(83)
(10)
(9)
(71)
(11)
(7)
(2)
(0,4)
(14)

a
Skeletal bone lesions due to the effect of weather, the action of animals, traumatic lesions or antemortem changes were recorded, and each skeleton might have
more than one type of lesion.

processes, congenital bone diseases and medical procedures

were found in 38 skeletal remains (14%). Such changes might
lead to identification if antemortem medical records were
available; however, this only occurred in 6% of the cases
identified.
Of the 322 human skeletal remains examined, identification
was possible in 83 cases (26%); in the cases identified, DNA
analysis was responsible for 78% of the identifications, the
examination of teeth for 16% and anatomic changes associated
with healed fractures for 6% (Table 2). Bone lesions resulting
from consolidated fractures, degenerative bone processes,
congenital bone diseases and medical procedures were found
in 38 (14%) of the skeletal remains examined, but these
findings led to identification in five cases only because no
antemortem medical records were available for comparisons in
most cases.
DNA analyses were requested in 107 cases (33%). Results
led to exclusions, or were inconclusive due to technical reasons
in 6 cases (6%); in 36 (34%), results were still under analysis at
the Forensic Laboratory at the time this report was written
(Table 2).
3. Discussion
One of the important elements for the resolution of a
criminal case is the victims identity. The establishment of a
deceased individuals identity may be especially difficult when
remains are decomposing or already skeletonized. Age, gender,

population affinity (ethnic group) and stature may provide

essential information to begin a criminal investigation [20,21].
Gender, age and stature of victims may be estimated, and
possible signs of disease or antemortem trauma may be
identified using morphologic and dental methods [11,22].
However, in the case of our service, the parameters for age,
gender, ethnic and stature estimations were obtained in places
other than Brazil [7,11,16,18,19,21], where widespread
miscegenation has taken place.
In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, as in all of the southern
region of Brazil, settlement and miscegenation occurred
primarily by immigration of Europeans (Portuguese, Spaniards,
Jews, New Christians, Germans and Italians), which resulted in
a population with different characteristics from those in the rest
of the country. In this state, there were about 95,000 native
Brazilian in the 16th century [23], but only 12,298 people were
living in Native reservations in 1998 [24]. Of all the countries in
the Americas, Brazil received the greatest number of African
slaves, and the southern region definitely inherited characteristics of that population. The total Brazilian population in 1991
was 146,521,661 and an estimation of ethnic distribution
showed that 52% were white, 5% black, 42.5% mixed, 0.4%
Asian, and 0.4% not identified [24]. In Brazil, no studies have
validated the use of tables or formulas for the identification of
ethnic groups (race). Therefore, the parameters used in our
forensic services were originally determined for populations in
the USA and Europe [7,11,16,18,19,21], where miscegenation
was not similar to the one that occurred in Brazil. This fact

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M. Vaz, F.S. Benfica / Forensic Science International 179 (2008) e45e49

should be taken into consideration when interpreting data on

ethnic affiliation.
Of the skeletons examined, 61% corresponded to male
individuals. Although women correspond to 51% of the
population in the State of Rio Grande do Sul [17], only 21%
female skeletal remains were examined. Morphologic features
and anthropometric measurements of the pelvis and cranium
established gender in most skeletal remains. When these bones
were not available, the scapula, clavicle, stern, humerus, radius,
ulna, sacrum, femur, and tibia [11,14,16,25,26] were used
according to the conditions of each skeleton.
The ages of most skeletal remains (61%) were estimated at
2130 years (28%) and 3050 years (33%), which are the age
brackets of 45% of the population in the State of Rio Grande do
Sul [24]. Age was estimated using one or more methods
described in the literature depending on the conditions of each
case. The techniques used were examination of growth cartilage
in long bones, of osteophytes in the spine, and of the pubic
symphysis [2,4,5,7,14,26,27]. The pattern of closure of
ectocranial and endocranial sutures [7] was used when the
cranium was the only bone available for examination, taking
into consideration the limitations of this method.
No specific osteometric patterns to estimate gender and age
are available for the Brazilian population, and previously
published patterns based on other populations were not
validated for our population. The parameters established for
American and European populations [7,11,16] were routinely
used in our service and may have affected the accuracy of the
methods used [6].
Bone changes resulting from consolidated fractures were
found in 46 (14%) of the 322 skeletal remains. However, these
findings established identity in only 5 cases because no
antemortem medical records were available for comparisons in
89% of these cases. Comparisons of medical records are
reliable, rapid and inexpensive to investigate the identity of a
large number of victims. However, the possibilities of
identification are often limited because antemortem data are
not usually available. Therefore, DNA analysis has become the
most efficient method of identification. The lack of or the
difficulty in obtaining medical and dental records in our region
is similar to that described in other countries [8,22]. Positive
identifications were established for 26% of the skeletal remains
examined using DNA analysis, dental arch examination, and
anatomic changes associated with fractures. Our identification
rates were similar to those found in other services described in
the literature [8].
Antemortem pathologies may often be identified by signs of
bone remodeling or response to pathologic processes, may limit
the number of missing people to be considered, and may lead to
identification if antemortem medical and dental records are
obtained [1,6]. Fractures or bone diseases tend to individualize
features of an unidentified body and, thus, increase chances of a
positive identification [6,28].
Radiology is commonly used as a complementary method in
the identification of decomposing, fragmented or burned human
remains. Radiographs may provide evidence of pathological
changes, physical characteristics, or lesions. Antemortem and

postmortem radiographs may be compared to analyze

pathologic bone changes, antemortem trauma, prostheses and
orthopedic surgery. However, if previous radiographs and other
antemortem data are not available, radiographs only support the
assessment of age, gender and stature. Moreover, antemortem
medical and dental records often do not exist [6,29].
Several parts of the human skeleton may serve as a bone
print for the identification of human remains and, in certain
aspects, are similar to fingerprints. Several bone changes, such
as degenerative, traumatic or already consolidated trauma,
congenital malformations, results of orthopedic surgeries,
endoprostheses and, at times, slow-growing bone neoplasias,
are used as individual markers that provide data for
identification [2,30]. Osteosynthesis plates and other surgically
implanted orthopedic devices may have designs or brand names
that indicate their manufacturer, and, sometimes, the patient
[1]. Radiology is a widely used method by dentists, hospitals
and healthcare services. Most healthcare institutions keep
radiographs for some time. In the literature, data show that
radiographic comparisons are one of the most common
techniques in forensic anthropology and provide useful data
for positive identifications [2,30]. Such findings cannot be
corroborated in our region, where it is always very difficult to
obtain dental records or radiographs. However, whenever
available, they are a practical, rapid and inexpensive technique,
and only one to four concordant points in the absence of any
discordant data are enough for a positive identification [2,30].
Making any radiographs (cranium, thorax, abdomen, limbs and
dental arch) available to the forensic anthropologist is
important technically, scientifically and legally because they
provide data for comparison with direct or radiographic
forensic findings [4,31]. The efficacy and usefulness of any
identification technique depends on the speed that antemortem
data are obtained [2,30].
4. Conclusion
Forensic examination of skeletons, because of their
specificity and peculiarities, require specialization from
medicolegal and anthropology experts, which can be confirmed
in medicolegal services throughout the world. The Medical
Examiners Office of Porto Alegre, in Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil, identified the need to qualify their services in this area,
and organized its Forensic Anthropology Service in 1997. As
any new service, it has several limitations, such as the experts
learning curve, the use of parameters not specific to the
population under study, technical problems, and difficulties in
obtaining medical, hospital and dental records for comparisons.
Notwithstanding, our identification rates are similar to those
reported for services worldwide.
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