Studying Effectively

Effective Studying
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 - Why change your study method?
1.1
Memory
1.2
Consequences for the study process
Chapter 2 - Studying texts
2.1
Warning
2.2
The Six-step Plan
2.3
Knowledge maintenance in practice
14
2.4
Additional Techniques
16
Chapter 3 - Conditions for effective studying
24
3.1
Concentration problems
24
3.2
Planning
28
3.3
The solution: setting goals and self-monitoring
31
Chapter 4 - Taking examinations
34
4.1
Preparing for the examination
34
4.2
The examination itself
37
4.3
The postmortem
39
Afterword
40
Appendices
41
Appendix 1 - Previewing Checklist
42
Appendix 2 - Signal words
43
Appendix 3 - A TC diagram
44
Appendix 4 - Flowchart for studying a textbook
46
Appendix 5 - Examples of diagrams
47
Appendix 6 - What to do in case of insufficient motivation?
48
Useful addresses and literature
49
Preface
This coursebook accompanies the Effective Studying course organized by Studie
Ondersteuning. This course is intended for students who want to learn how to cope effectively
with the large or, for that matter, smaller amounts of subject matter they have to study,
and to do so in the available time. The course therefore consists of two elements that will be
given roughly equal attention during classes and in this coursebook: studying texts and planning
your studies.
In the text study component, you will learn the phased method of studying texts. This method is
the subject of Chapter 2 of this coursebook. Chapter 1 is about the only tool the student has
available: his or her memory. The relationship between the text study method and the
functioning of human memory will be dealt with implicitly and explicitly.
Planning is the subject of Chapter 3. However, this chapter will begin with a section on
concentration and motivation because in some cases a lack of one or other of these may be
solved by proper planning.
Various other topics will also be discussed. Chapter 2 will pay attention to techniques other than
the text study method that may make your studying easier or more effective.
Taking examinations is the subject of Chapter 4. The entire process of taking an exam, from the
preparations to the postmortem, will be discussed. If you read between the lines, you will notice
that a change of attitude is what this is all about: studying is work!
After completion of the course after studying
this coursebook you will know how to
assimilate subject matter effectively and you will
be able to plan in such a way that you will be
ready for the exam in time. This will make
studying much more pleasant, and you will no
longer feel that your studies are a burden.
Effectief Studeren
Studie Ondersteuning
Why change your study method?
This chapter will first explain what you can expect in this coursebook. We will then explore the
functioning of your memory. You will learn how information enters sensory memory, passes
through the working memory, and ultimately enters long-term memory, where it is stored. The
functioning of memory obviously has consequences for the study process. The chapter ends
with an explanation of these consequences.
When you embark on a university study, you undoubtedly assume that it will be a success.
Unfortunately, it often turns out that the amount of subject matter to be studied is so great and
the pace of studying so fast that the method you used with so much success in secondary
school no longer works.
This does not mean that all students fail their exams, but it does mean for many
students that what began as a study motivated by curiosity and an interest in the subject soon
becomes a burden. You lose sight of your original goal the acquisition of new knowledge
and only focus on passing your exams to get it over with. This is a shame, not only because the
enjoyment of studying is lost, but also because a more efficient study method would result in
better returns on investment. In other words, better results with the same effort, or the same
results with less effort!
In the Effective Studying course you will learn such a method. It is not a miracle cure but it
works! Why? Because this method of studying takes the functioning of memory into account
and uses it to your advantage. It has the following benefits:
Studying and recalling take less effort;
The time spent on studying will be more productive;
Studying will result in real knowledge that will also be of use later;
Studying will be fun again because you notice that your efforts lead to results.
Curious yet? Chapter 2 explains the details of this method for text study that works, while
Chapter 3 deals with various conditions and constraints for successful studying. We will discuss
study motivation and how to improve it, concentration problems, spending your valuable time
efficiently, and other aspects that should be in order if you are to make a success of your
studies. Chapter 4 deals extensively with examinations; we will provide various strategic tips
and pay attention to the various types of exam.
In this chapter we will first talk about the only instrument that you have available for reading,
understanding, retaining, and at a later time recalling the information in all the books you
have to study: your memory.
Chapter 1
1.1
Memory
Our brain is the result of an evolution spanning many thousands of years. Initially, it was not
designed to read books for several hours a day and to retain the complex information in them.
It is therefore important to know how your memory works and how you can use it best for
strategic studying.
Before we continue, we will therefore first present a model of memory that will provide an insight
into the functioning of memory and answer several questions that may be asked in connection
with the process of studying.
In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin formulated a structural model of human memory. Although 1968
is a while ago, it is still a good model to explain the processing of new information. The model
contains various memory stations that the new information must pass before it can be stored
permanently. These are the sensory memory, the working memory, and the long-term memory
respectively. Each has its own characteristics in terms of processing and capacity. A diagram of
the memory model of Atkinson and Shiffrin is shown below.
RETRIEVAL
SENSORISCH
sensory
GEHEUGEN
memory
WERKworking
GEHEUGEN
memory
ATTENTION
1.1.1
LANGElong-term
TERMIJNGEHE
memory
UNDERSTANDING
The memory stations pathway
The most frequent complaint about memory must be I was introduced to someone a minute
ago and Ive already forgotten his name! In fact, the speaker has not forgotten the name; he
simply never stored it for retrieval! What is retrieval (remembering)?
Everything our senses perceive first enters the sensory memory. It does not matter whether you
smell something, see something, feel something, hear something, or taste something: all these
impressions first enter this part of memory. Only when attention is paid to the information will it
be transferred to the working memory.
In the working memory, information (e.g. the subject matter you have to study) is understood
and processed, i.e. linked to things you already know. If you understand the material, the
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Effectief Studeren
chances are that the information will be stored in a structured manner in your long-term
memory. Not only will the information be stored there, but in such a way that you will be able to
recall it when doing the exam: you will remember it.
Sensory memory
Sensory memory is extremely volatile. This means that it picks up all the information entering
the senses from the environment (stimuli) and retains it for about one to two seconds. The
information is sorted immediately and only the information that you pay attention to at that
moment will be selected for transfer to the working memory. The rest will vanish without a trace,
like the name in the example above. This is sometimes a good thing, or you would never be
able to have a conversation in a noisy caf. Your brain is capable of filtering the words of the
person you are talking to from the indistinct background noise. This selection will only take
place if you pay attention to the person and to the conversation itself. By the same token, it is no
use reading a text while your mind is somewhere else.
From sensory to working memory: attention
Attention may be regarded as a searchlight that can only illuminate one spot at a time. You can
let your eyes wander across the pages for hours as if you are reading, but in the meantime you
may be thinking about last night or the shopping you still have to do. You will notice later that
you do not have sufficient command of the material, for example when doing assignments. You
may also suddenly find yourself three pages further down the book, while wondering what it is
really about. In retrospect, you realize that you have been thinking of other things. Those three
pages never reached your working memory.
The working memory
This part of the memory may be compared to the working memory (RAM) in your computer.
When you switch off the computer, the contents of the working memory are
lost. If you switch off the computer without saving your files in long-term
memory (i.e. on your hard disk), you will lose them. Thus, if you stop
studying without first having stored the information in an organized manner,
it will be lost in no time.
Unfortunately, the capacity of your working memory is rather limited. You can visualize the
working memory as a watering can. When it is full, water poured in from above will flow out
again from the spout and the side. Old information is continuously being replaced by new
information. Most people can only retain 7 information units in their working memory at any
time. You will notice this when you are trying to remember a telephone number for a moment
and someone asks you a question. You will not be able to remember the number and answer
the question at the same time. You will only succeed in doing so if you first pay attention to the
telephone number, process this information storing it in long-term memory and then pay
attention to the question you were asked.
Chapter 1
From working memory to long-term memory: storage

The only solution to these limitations is getting the information you are reading into long-term
memory quickly. You can achieve this by processing and organizing the information; in other
words, understanding it. The working memory is the only (!) gateway to your long-term memory.
You can compare the transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory to the door of a
packed concert hall. When the concert is over, everyone in the audience wants to go home
quickly. However, only a few people at a time can pass the door. The fastest way to empty the
hall is to do this in a controlled, orderly fashion. Dont push! It is no different in memory.
Long-term memory
The good news about long-term memory is that it is an information warehouse lasting your
whole life. Everything you know is stored in there be it the seven-times table, the memories
of your first boyfriend or girlfriend, the smell of spring, the road home, the material for the next
exam, or the taste of a sour apple.
This warehouse is fairly well organized. It works with a strongly categorized and hierarchical
system. Categorized means that similar information is stored as a group: smells with smells,
colours with colours, and holidays with holidays. This is the reason why the memory of a
particular holiday often reminds you of all kinds of things from other holidays. In addition, the
system is hierarchical, which means that you can find information in a logical place.
How retrieval works
Suppose you are in a museum. You are looking at a modern painting. Like most people, you are
trying to discover what it depicts. The following process occurs in your mind when you are
searching for resemblances. You ask yourself, What category does it belong to? Landscape?
People? Plant? Animal? YES, its an animal! But what kind of animal? Bird, fish, mammal? Its
got four legs, so I suppose its a mammal. What size is it? Etcetera.
When you are searching for information, you are using the hierarchical structure of your longterm memory. In fact, what you are doing is searching by keyword. In the example above, the
first keyword is probably images, the second animals, and the third mammals. A wellorganized memory makes it easier to retrieve the information stored in it when you need it.
The more complex the information you want to store becomes, the greater and more conscious
the effort you have to make to create that structure. In practice, this means that before you can
store new information (studying, learning, cramming), you have to create a table of contents in
your head that will enable you to retrieve what you have learned when you are taking the exam.
and forgetting
Again, you can only forget something if you have retained it first; in other words, if it has been
stored in long-term memory. Memory researchers usually regard forgetting as losing track.
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Effectief Studeren
The information is still present somewhere but you can no longer find the way to it. Things you
do not use slowly sink into the dark caverns of your memory. You can compare this with forest
trails. Trails that are used often become wide and can be found easily. Trails that are not walked
on become overgrown. It is the same with memory traces. Information that you use regularly
can be retrieved quickly, while unused information falls into oblivion. If you wish to retain
recently acquired knowledge you will have to repeat it. If you do not do this, the long-term
memory will protest: the storage capacity will appear to be much less, or you can no longer find
things when you need them.
1.2
Consequences for the study process
If you want to use your time and energy wisely, it is best to adapt the storage of subject matter
to the way in which your memory does this best. This may be achieved by structuring the
information in various steps. Contrary to the storage of simple information (holidays, the
topographic layout of the Netherlands, or the seven-times table), your memory will not
automatically do this correctly for study subjects. Often, a single section in a textbook contains
so many new concepts that you will not be able to get these through the gateway of your
working memory simultaneously. You should therefore first create categories and subcategories
and only then fit the new information into this structure. In other words, before you begin
studying for real, you should first look for the big picture.
How do you find this big picture, this framework? Certainly not by flipping through the book at
random but rather by specifically searching for this information. You will find it by only reading
those parts of the text that contain this kind of information, the so-called hot locations.
Hot locations of a
Book
Chapter
Section
Paragraph
table of contents, preface or introduction, blurb(s)

summary, first section or paragraph, headings
first and last paragraphs, subheadings, italicized text
first and last sentences
It is therefore not necessary to read the entire book to find out what it is about, i.e. what its main
arguments are. By the same token, you do not need to study a whole chapter to extract the gist
of it; you only have to read the introductory paragraphs or the conclusions. Only study the entire
contents thoroughly after you have identified the broad outlines and then fit the new information
into this structure.
Besides creating a structure, repetition is another necessary condition if you want to retrieve the
information later. You do not accomplish this by reading the same section three times in a row,
5
Chapter 1
but rather by repeating the material in different ways. This prevents you from thinking too
quickly Oh yes, I already know this, and this too, and that and then continue reading without
truly repeating. Does this seem vague? The next chapter will get down to the nitty-gritty of
studying, but we will first summarize the consequences of the functioning of memory for the
study process.
Property of memory
Consequence for the study process
limited capacity of the working memory
proceeding in stages is better than trying

to do everything in one go
hierarchical structure of the long-term

memory
structured storage makes it easier to both

retain and retrieve information learned
rarely travelled pathways become

overgrown = forgetting
repetition is an absolute condition for

retrieval
Effective Studying
Studying texts
This chapter explains a method for studying texts. This method forms the basis for the text
study component of the Effective Studying course. The six steps comprising this method will be
explained in detail. To begin with, you will "preview" a text. Then you will in turn "explore", "read
globally", "read in detail", "repeat and check", and finally "integrate" the information in the text.
In the last section of this chapter, several additional techniques will be described, for example
the creation of flowcharts, diagrams, charts, and tables. It will also give you some tips about
learning things by heart and explain something about speed-reading.
Everyone knows that you have to read a book at the very least to know what it contains.
Reading therefore seems to be an important element of studying. Many students simply begin
reading on page 1 and will revise extensively with or without a synopsis one week before
the exam. Is this the method you employ? It is by no means efficient. Students often violate
many of the principles discovered during a century of memory research. It is not easy to change
your study method. Still, it seems worthwhile to adapt your method to the way in which memory
functions.
2.1
Warning
Many students hope to learn a secret wonder method during the Effective Studying course.
Unfortunately, studying will always be hard work, no matter how you go about it. So far, we
have not heard any good reports about the "textbook-under-the-pillow" method. For the time
being, you will therefore simply have to go to work. This does not mean to say that you cannot
master speed-reading. Many institutes offer short courses in speed-reading. More about this in
section 2.4.5.
The text study method that you will learn in the Effective Studying course is probably more
efficient than the method that you have used so far, but initially it may take even more time.
Why should you try it then? The answer is simple: the time you invest in studying will produce
greater returns! Ultimately you will gain time!
Chapter 2
2.2
Studying Texts
The Six-step Plan
In this section, we will describe the basic method for

studying texts taught in the Effective Studying course.
This method consists of six steps. For each of these
steps, we will explain its goal and the way to go about
it.
The method we propose boils down to the
following: by studying the material several times in
different ways and at different levels, you will ensure that it will be stored in a structured manner
in long-term memory and can thus be retrieved easily. This method of studying is consistent
with the way in which information is stored in memory.
This method forces you to really think about what you read. Simply reading on and then thinking
that you have made a lot of progress is therefore no longer an option. The six steps are
visualized in the diagram on the next page. Steps one and six apply to the whole book. Steps
two to five should be repeated for each chapter. Does this still seem vague? In the rest of this
section, we will explain step by step how to make optimum use of your memory.
2.2.1
Step 1: Previewing
goal: obtaining an overview
N.B.: Steps 1 and 6 apply to the entire book.

Previewing is a preparatory step taken before you actually begin studying. Its main objective is
to get a global impression of the material. This step will give you a general picture of the
contents of the book and a first impression of its "construction". It also ensures that the
information will get stored in the proper place in your long-term memory, because it activates
what you already know.
How do you do this? By paying attention to the title, the preface, the introduction, the table of
contents, and the blurbs. Try to put yourself into the position of the author or authors. Ask
yourself why they are discussing these subjects and not others. And why have they done so in
this order?
Many students usually skip this phase, with the argument that it will not be covered by any
question in the exam. This is true. You may not yet be studying but you are laying the
foundations for your assimilation of the material.
Authors give much thought to their titles and subtitles. Take note of that. For example, if the
subtitle reads A Case Study, you will know that the conclusions drawn may not be applicable to
other cases.
8
Effective Studying
Information about the author may also be important. Does he or she write from practical
experience; is he or she a teacher, or a scientist? An old hand or a young talent? The text will
come alive when you know who has written it.
To help you on your way with this new activity, we have provided a Previewing checklist in
Appendix 1. Note that filling out such a checklist is not a goal in itself. It is a tool for creating an
overview and for quickly gaining insight into the material (15 to 30 minutes for the whole book!).
1 previewing
BOOK
Chapter 1
2 exploring
2
3
3 reading globally
4 reading in detail
revising and checking
6 integrating
2.2.2
Step 2: Exploring
goal: obtaining an overview at chapter level
Steps 2 to 5 apply to the level of the chapter or other complete unit that you can process in the
available time. This may therefore also be a section, or perhaps two consecutive sections. For
the sake of convenience, we will refer to chapters here.
Chapter 2
Studying Texts
It is important that you work through the four steps in turn and that the material you are studying
has a beginning and an end (for example, a chapter). It does not make a lot of sense to start or
stop in the middle of a section on a random page since memory works best with self-contained
chunks.
Therefore, step 2 begins with making an estimation: can I study this amount of material in the
time I have available now? How many pages will I study and how difficult are they? Before you
begin studying, you should roughly know how much time you need for a certain number of
pages. We will return to this issue in depth in section 3.2
about planning.
The next step is getting an impression of the subject
of the chapter by "scanning" it, more or less as you do with
the front page of the newspaper on a busy day or the cover
of a magazine in a shop. What is it about, what subjects
are discussed, etc.?
You should return briefly to the previous chapter or the tree diagram you have created
previously (see Appendix 1) and use this to give the chapter its place in the book as a whole.
This will ensure that you do not to lose sight of the overall picture and will (re)activate the things
you already know.
Exploring
Assessing whether the amount you wish to study fits the time you have available.
Scanning the text (hot locations) what is the text about?
Placing the text in the overall structure what is its relationship with the rest of the book or
chapter?
2.2.3
Step 3: Reading globally

goal: discovering the structure of the chapter
Now that you have obtained an overview, you should study the structure of the text, i.e. how the
information has been arranged. At this stage, you need not worry about the things you do not
yet know precisely, i.e. details. Instead, you should look for the big picture: what is the text
about (the theme) and how has the text been constructed (the structure). It is therefore not
10
Effective Studying
important that you understand everything. What is important is that you know what the author is
talking about here, how the sections or paragraphs are related, and where the argument is
leading.
You will probably remember the signal words you learned in secondary school. These will come
in handy now. If you can quickly recognize the main propositions, enumerations, and
conclusions, you will quickly recognize the structure of the text. A list of frequent signal words is
given in Appendix 2.
When you arrive at this stage, it is handy to take notes again, preferably according to a set
method. A highly appropriate method is making a so-called Topic-Comment (TC) diagram.
When you are reading a text globally, you should create a global TC. A global TC does not
contain details, only the topics discussed in the text and the most important comments about
these topics. In a TC diagram, the most important topics should be entered at the extreme left of
the page; the farther you go to the right, the deeper you enter into the structure, and the more
detailed your notes will become.
The objective of the global TC is to create an impression of the structure of the text; it will serve
as a mnemonic device when you study the text in detail. It is not a synopsis! The creation of a
global TC should hardly take any time, particularly when you make use of the hot locations and
signal words you already know.
A global TC only states what the text is about. Again, the specifics are not important yet. These
will only come into play in the next step (reading in detail), when you expand the global TC into
a detailed TC. Examples of a global TC and a detailed TC can be found in Appendix 3.
2.2.4
Step 4: Reading in detail

goal: information processing and storage (= understanding)
In fact, we only now arrive at what most students regard as studying. This involves reading the
text thoroughly, understanding it, and retaining the information it contains. This concerns what
the text contains exactly. You should always ask yourself various questions at this stage. Is this
a main topic or a minor detail? What is the relationship with the previous chapter, section,
paragraph? Why does the author devote so many words to this issue?
Here, too, you should read with pen in hand. With your global TC diagram in front of you, you
should look for the answer to the question "What is this precisely about?" The result of this effort
is a detailed TC diagram (Appendix 3).
11
Chapter 2
Studying Texts
Studying is the making of a detailed TC diagram. It is information processing, and the TC

diagram is a tool for this purpose. The making of a detailed TC diagram requires a lot of thought
and is therefore a relatively slow process. Do not be discouraged about this. Thinking about the
material is the only way to really master and retain it!
Reading in detail
Expand the global TC diagram that you have
created while reading globally. It will then
become a detailed TC. Here, you should in
principle not continue reading if you do not
understand everything. You should no longer
think, "I will look into that later." There is no
later anymore. This is the actual studying, in
conjunction with step 5.
When making a detailed TC, stick to the

following rules:
Never use more than six levels;

Do not lose your overview; make use of
blank lines and be consistent in your
notes;
Do not copy sentences (copying does not
require thought!);
Use your own keywords.
See Appendix 3 for an example of a detailed TC diagram
2.2.5
Step 5: Repeating and checking what you know

Goal: permanent storage
There is a simple way of seeing whether you have paid sufficient attention to what you have
read: checking your knowledge. After studying each section, page, or other logical unit of the
material, look up from your book to check whether you know what you have just read. Be very
critical! You cannot remember what you have read two minutes after the fact? Then you will
certainly not know it three weeks from now either, which means that you will not be able to
answer any exam questions about it. Conclusion: redo it! Of course, you can also omit this
check, under the pretext that "it will take me too much time." However, this excuse is not good
enough. Immediately ask yourself when you will restudy what you do not know!
The real reason, incidentally, why students neglect to check their knowledge is that it confronts
them with their inability to reproduce what they have just read. This confrontation is so tough
that you cannot ignore it: you feel stupid. And let's be frank, who wants to feel stupid? Of
course, the question is really which confrontation is worse: the examination mark or checking
what you know. When would you prefer to feel stupid: while studying or after the examination?!
It takes a while to get used to the idea of checking your knowledge while you are studying, but
you can start to fill in any holes in your knowledge any day you are studying. Students who do
not check their knowledge are like ostriches sticking their heads into the sand to ward off
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Effective Studying
danger. Ostrich behaviour is the supreme way of deluding yourself. People should be smarter
than ostriches.
Repeating and checking
2.2.6
Read a section
Close the book
Reproduce the section from memory
Write down the content in your own (key)words
Check what you have written by re-examining the book
Reread the parts that you have not remembered correctly
Step 6: Integrating
Goal: updating the big picture, long-term storage
Like step 1, step 6 applies to the whole text you study. During Previewing (Step 1), you obtained
an insight into the main arguments presented in the book before studying it in detail. In the sixth
and final step, you will place all those details into the big picture. At this stage, you will really
see the relationships between the chapters. And not only that, the relationships between the
details too! If you have done well, you will feel that you have completely mastered the subject
matter at this stage. In this step you will, as it were, paste the detailed TC diagram of each
chapter into the global TC that you have created (or are creating now) for the entire book.
Integrating
Identify the main topics discussed in the chapter and the way they are related.
After the final chapter: identify the main arguments in the book and how they are related.
Review the tree diagram that you have created during Previewing.
Studying may be regarded as a process of tidying up and stowing away.
The enormous amount of information contained in a book must be stored
conveniently in memory. The tree structure created during Previewing has
given you a kind of cupboard in your head that will now enable you to
pigeonhole the information.
During the Integration step, you noted where a chapter was situated in
your structure. This chapter has now become a pigeonhole in a clearly
labelled cupboard. Should you have to find the information again during
the exam, you will know exactly where to look for it.
Appendix 4 contains a convenient flowchart for studying a book.

13
Chapter 2
Studying Texts
You have now read this coursebook up to section 2.2. It is now the time to relate this chapter to
the previous one. Ask yourself why this method for studying texts is consistent with the
functioning of memory. Of course, the previewing you have done has also shown you that there
are constraints acting on the study process. And you have seen that there is a fourth chapter
that is separate from Chapters 1 to 3.
2.3 Knowledge maintenance in practice

2.3.1
Repetition is the soul of advertising!
"Repetition is the soul of advertising" is the slogan of this section. Obviously, admen are no
fools; they know the iron laws of memory. Forgetting is just as much a property of memory as
remembering. The only way to retain information over time is repetition, in exactly the same way
as advertisers do: often and frequently.
Memory research has shown that if you do not use information, you will forget it. The longer you
wait before you use what you know, the deeper it "sinks" into the morass of memory. This can
be prevented by repetition. Remember the forest trail from section 1.1.1?
How should you repeat knowledge? By reproducing it actively, so not by mindlessly rereading it.
No, what you should do is cover your synopsis and try to reproduce the material from memory.
How often should you do this? As with advertisements, let the first repetition follow quickly: at
the end of the section. Take increasingly longer intervals between the second and any further
repetitions; after you have repeated the second section, repeat the first one also, and repeat
again before you take a break, at the end of the day, at the end of the week, and just before the
examination.
Another way to ensure that you can locate a piece of information in your brain is to construct
several pathways. Besides simply reading the text, you could read it aloud, so that you have
also heard it. When you are writing a synopsis you feel the text, as it were, and you see it in a
different way. You will also see the information in a different light when you turn it into a diagram
(see section 2.4.1).
So, repetition: the phased method of studying.
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Effective Studying
The phased method of studying

This method is based on the functioning of memory and proceeds from the general to the
particular. Make sure you know the big picture before you start reading; if necessary, create a
diagram. After each stage, briefly (for 5 minutes) check what you know and, if necessary, write
down a few keywords. Repeat at logical moments: after a section or chapter, before you take a
break, at the end of the morning, at the end of the day, and at the end of the week.
Step I
Previewing:
Identify the main arguments in the book with the help of the table of
contents, the preface, and the introduction.
Step II
Identify the main arguments in the chapter with the help of the headings,
introductory paragraphs, conclusions, and summaries.
Step III
Identify the main arguments in the section with the help of the headings,
the first and last paragraphs, and the first and last sentences of
paragraphs and conclusions.
Step IV
Read in detail.
Step V
Repeat and check what you know:

Repeat with ever increasing intervals.
Reproduce from memory. If you cannot do this, return to the text.
If you succeed, you can increase the length of the interval until the next
repetition.
Practice the skills that will also be required during the exam: answering
questions and reproducing information from memory.
Step VI
Integrating.
I can hear your protests now: "My old study method takes a lot less time!" But no, no, no: that is
not true! More than a century ago, Ebbinghaus discovered the relationship between learning
and repeating. His discovery that the more thoroughly you study, the more time you need is of
course an obvious one. Much more exciting is his conclusion that the combination of thorough
learning of the material the first time and brief repetitions, to "refresh" the material, takes less
time than the combination of superficial learning the first time and thorough learning the second
time.
Do not forget that if you do not know something immediately after you have studied it, the
chance is very small that you will remember it during the exam!
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Studying Texts
Repetition in practice
(Repeating by reproducing from memory)
2.3.2
immediately after you have read a section (5 minutes)

immediately before a break: everything you have read (15 minutes)
at the end of the day: everything you have read
at the end of the week: everything you have read
check if you have reproduced the material correctly
The difference between knowing and doing
Attention: OK; structuring: OK; repeating: OK; practising with the things that will be required
during the exam: OK. Now there is nothing more to learn. You know exactly what you should
do. Unfortunately, and strangely enough, everyone falls back on his or her own familiar study
routines in times of stress.
Would you rather do familiar stupid things than new smart things? By all means stick to your old
habits, but remember one thing: if you do not change things, your results will not change either!
However, if you make a habit of this new and more efficient method, the chances are that your
results will improve!
2.4
Additional techniques
No doubt you will have realized that the text study method explained in the previous sections is
not exhaustive. There are situations and types of subject matter that require something extra.
This section will explain the following additional techniques:
Diagrams for complex information;
Tables and charts for specific information;
Learning lists, enumerations, and other unorganized material by heart;
Standard structures;
Speed reading.
When dealing with complex texts, it is often convenient to make a diagram. Section 2.4.1
explains how to do this. In section 2.4.2, you will learn how to make a chart or table. This is a
method for conveniently arranging and relating two variables that are dependent on each other.
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Effective Studying
The advantage of these techniques is that they force you to deal with the material in a different
way, so that the information reaches your brain through several senses. You can read (see) the
text, for example, or read it aloud (hear). When you write a synopsis, you could say that you
"feel" the text. Therefore, these techniques give you opportunities to experience the text in
different ways. The more pathways you create in your brain, the easier it is to remember the
material!
Learning unorganized material by heart is a completely different matter. You will read all about
this in section 2.4.3, while section 2.4.4 briefly discusses speed reading.
2.4.1 Complex information: diagrams

Schematizing is the succinct representation of text in the form of a diagram. In this technique,
the text is regarded as a string of concepts and relationships between these concepts.
During schematization, you select the most important concepts from the text and the
relationships that the author has established between these concepts and arrange them in a
conveniently laid-out diagram.
The following is a diagram of the above paragraph:
Concepts
Text
Diagram
Relationships
You can use various symbols to represent relationships within a diagram. A dynamic
relationship can be used in cases where A leads to B, or when A precedes B, when A is a
condition of B, and so on.
A static relationship does not have a direction. An example of such a relationship is A consists
of B. Sometimes the difference between a static and a dynamic relationship is not very clear.
We then recommend that you display the relationship as static: the dynamics are often less
important.
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Chapter 2
Studying Texts
When two concepts are to some extent similar, you can use the equivalency relationship. This
may also be done when the similarity is not 100 percent, as shown, for example, by the
statement "The structure of an atom can be visualized as a star and its planetary system."
The interaction relationship can be used when two concepts mutually influence each other.
Finally, there are negation relationships. Essentially, these are the relationships listed above in
cases where they are explicitly not applicable.
When you create a diagram, you should again read the text globally first and only then choose
labels (give names to concepts) and relate these labels. This may soon lead to a chaotic
diagram. It is therefore important to obey the uniqueness rule: any concept should only
appear in the diagram once. There are several other recommendations about diagrams that
we will briefly explain below.
Relationship symbols
Symbol
Description
Dynamic relationship
Static relationship
Equivalency relationship
Interaction relationship
Negation relationship
A diagram will help you to clearly see the relationships in a text at a glance and will provide a
visual coding that will help you to remember the information better.
Making a graphical diagram has the same advantages as making a TC diagram: it forces you to
actively process the material and it is a way to check your understanding of the text.
The words chart, flowchart, and diagram are sometimes used as synonyms. However, this is not
entirely correct. A chart or flowchart is always a diagram, but a diagram is not always a
(flow)chart. There are the well-known histograms, to name just one example. To visualize sets,
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Effective Studying
so-called Venn diagrams may be used. Appendix 5 provides various examples of diagrams, for
example a Venn diagram.
Recommendations for creating diagrams

Recommendation
Description
1. Reading direction
Work from left to right, from the top downwards, or from a central point.
2. Crossing lines
Avoid crossing lines or arrows as much as possible.
3. Long lines
Avoid long lines and arrows, particularly if they cross the boundaries of
the diagram.
4. Summarize
Describe the concepts in as few words as possible. However, do not add

new concepts for this purpose!
5. Prune
Lateral branches may be pruned, unless they fulfil a support function in

the diagram.
2.4.2 Specific information: tables and charts

For tables and charts, the same is true as for diagrams: they help you to see relationships at a
glance. They, too, provide visual coding, which means they may help you to remember the
information better. Again, they force you to actively process the material and provide a way to
check your understanding of the text.
As in a diagram, a chart also concentrates on the relationship(s) between two or more variables.
A chart is a graphic representation of a relationship that consists of a co-ordinate system (with
an X axis and a Y axis).
Each of the axes represents a variable; in the following example, the X axis represents age and
the Y axis body length. For each age (X value), there is a certain body length (Y value). The line
connecting the corresponding X and Y values is the graphic representation of the relationship
between age and body length.
It is not a coincidence that body length has been placed on the (vertical) Y axis and age on the
(horizontal) X axis in this example. Body length is "caused by" (i.e. is dependent on) age. The
causative variable, also known as the independent variable, is placed on the horizontal axis.
Because body length depends on age, body length the dependent variable is placed on
the vertical axis in this example.
In many cases, the relationship between two variables for several cases can be visualized in
one chart. Take the example of the age of several persons (for example men and women) that
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Chapter 2
Studying Texts
may be plotted in one chart, with age on the X axis, body length on the Y axis and two lines
one for men, one for women in the chart area.
Step-by-step plan for making a chart
in this example, average body length as a function of age
1.
Draw a co-ordinate system (if necessary, with the axes intersecting to create quadrants for
representing negative values).
see below: neither age nor body length have negative values
2.
Select the variables to be plotted.

length and age
3.
Determine which variable influences the other.
4.
Place the independent variable on the horizontal X axis.
length is dependent on age
see below: age

5.
Place the other (dependent) variable on the vertical Y axis.

see below: length
6.
Choose the scale values and enter these in a table.

see the table below
7.
Determine which values should be placed on the X and Y axes.

enter the values along the axes and place the points in the chart area
8.
Draw a line between the points in the chart area.

see below
Table
Length in meters
2.0
Age
(in years)
Body length
(in meters)
0
4
5
10
15
17
25
0.50
1.00
1.10
1.45
1.75
1.78
1.78
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 4 5 10 15 17 25
Age in years
Not all relationships between two variables are characterized by the fact that one depends on
the other. Nevertheless, they can still be plotted. In that case, it does not matter which variable
is placed on which axis.
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2.4.3 Learning by heart: Lists, enumerations, and other unorganized material

The most terrible aspect of studying must be learning lists off by heart. This will
occur with differing frequency in different fields of studies but no student will
be able to avoid it completely! In the case of learning by heart, it will be clear
that simply reading the material is not sufficient. The annoying thing is that
lists usually do not contain a main argument either. You will therefore have to
use a different method. On the next page, you will find several tricks to make this
slightly easier. A good method for learning by heart is the so-called "strategy of
expanding rehearsal."
Learning by heart
To begin with, eliminate everything from the list that you already know.
If elements in the list resemble each other, concentrate on the differences.
Use as many senses as possible. Read (see), speak aloud (hear), and write down
(sensorimotor processing). Each sense will leave its own memory trace. The more traces
there are in memory, the easier it will be to retrieve the information.
Try to create mnemonics. A sound resemblance can function as a mnemonic (e.g.

"many legs a myriapod has"), or an acronym (SMART planning), or a new sentence with
the initial letters ("My Very Easy Method: Just Set Up Nine Planets" to remember the
names and order of the planets in the solar system Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto).
The following poem is also a nice mnemonic:

Pie
I wish I could determine pi
Eureka cried the great inventor
Christmas pudding Christmas pie
Is the problem's very centre.
To remember the first 20 decimals of pi, you only have to count the letters in each word
of the poem: 3.14159265358979323846.
When learning separate words by heart, it sometimes helps to make a sentence or little
story that contain those words.
Use the Strategy of Expanding Rehearsal.
The strategy of expanding rehearsal:

Step 1: Repeat the material by recalling from memory some or all of the items you have just
learned.
Step 2: Is this successful? Then increase the interval for the next repetition.
Step 3: Is this no longer successful at a certain point? Then study the material again and
decrease the interval for the next repetition.
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Chapter 2
Studying Texts
2.4.4 Standard structures

Some texts, particularly scientific articles, have been written along the lines of a fixed structure.
It is to your advantage if you can recognize such standard structures. They make it easy to
formulate Topics and Comments and are easy to remember. A standard structure consists of
several questions that are answered in that order in the text. Below you will find the four most
common standard structures.
Research structure
Problem structure
What is researched and why?

Which research method is used?
What are the results?
What are the conclusions?
Action structure
What is the problem?

Why is this a problem?
What are the causes?
How can this be solved?
Evaluation structure
What exactly is the action?

Why is this action necessary?
How is the action carried out?
What are the effects?
What are the relevant features?

What are the positive aspects?
What are the negative aspects?
What is the final judgement?
What can or should therefore be done?
Standard structures can usually be found in short pieces of texts. Longer texts may consist of
several embedded structures. A research proposal, for example, will usually start with a
description of the problem (problem structure). The last question in the problem structure will
then lead to a proposed action (action structure) that should be researched (research structure)
and ultimately evaluated (evaluation structure).
2.4.5 Speed reading

It is true that practice will enable you to increase your reading speed! When you read, your eye
does not glide over the page, as is often thought, it makes small jumps. Each jump overlaps
part of the previous one. The size of these jumps and the time you stick to one point determine
your reading speed. Slow readers make small jumps with a great deal of overlap and take a lot
of time between jumps. Faster readers make bigger jumps, have less overlap, and do not stick
to any point longer than necessary. Faster readers literally see the relationships between words
at a glance.
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Effective Studying
All this sounds highly interesting, and yet there are doubts about the benefits of speed reading
for students, at least for new scientific texts to be studied in detail. Such texts often have such a
high information density that taking big steps is inadvisable. Of course, when you are working
on your thesis you will have to check large numbers of articles to see if they are relevant. This
means that you do not have to remember everything you read and that you can jump through
the text quickly without paying too much attention. By this stage you should not have any
problems with scanning a text for statistics, for example, or for a particular word.
However, if you want to learn speed reading or find out more about it, you could follow a speed
reading course (take a look at http://www.photoreading.nl/). It is also possible to learn it from a
book; check out the university library for publications on the subject. Such courses, incidentally,
also start with our reading cycle, so it would be sensible to start with that. Once again, it is not
slower! Initially this may be the case, but that is why we emphasize practice. It is like driving a
car: at first you have to think about what you should do at every intersection. Youre exhausted
after every driving lesson! After a while, it becomes increasingly easy, until driving takes hardly
any effort at all. It is the same with studying, as long as you learn a good method.
Rob Neuteling wrote an article about speed reading in NRC Handelsblad (29 September
1997, p. 9) entitled "Speed reading at the expense of understanding":
"[the reader] does indeed move through the text faster, but he would understand the text much better if he
were to read it at his own pace.
These conclusions are based on American research, for example a study described by Just & Carpenter in
their book The psychology of reading and language comprehension. This study compared trained speed
readers with untrained readers who were encouraged to read a text as fast as possible. When complex texts
were involved, there was hardly any difference in reading speed (the trained speed readers were slightly
faster) and there was no difference in comprehension. Both the trained and the untrained speed readers
understood less of the text than the readers who had read the text at leisure.
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Chapter 3
Conditions for effective studying
This chapter discusses the conditions to be fulfilled before you can start studying. In section 3.1,
we begin by discussing concentration and everything that may influence it. Motivation is an
important factor, but what is it precisely, how do you become motivated, and how do you stay
motivated? We will see that planning may help you to stay motivated. The study environment,
other things on your mind, and your physical condition also influence concentration. Section 3.2
deals with planning, while section 3.3 describes the practical side of planning how to stick to
the plan.
In the previous chapter, you learned how you can best study a textbook. However, before you
bury yourself in your books, several conditions will have to be met. This chapter discusses all
kinds of things that may directly or indirectly influence your studies.
We will first investigate the possible causes of problems such as I always begin, but I can't
seem to stay focused, and I want to study, but I just don't seem to get round to it and their
solutions. The first problem has to do with attention and concentration, the second is more
related to your planning and implementation skills.
Behind all this is the spectre of reality: studying is work! Although you may sometimes get the
impression that all students are just living it up, every student will have to study to obtain the
precious degree certificate he or she craves. This attitude is an overriding condition.
3.1
Concentration problems?
Many students claim to have concentration problems, but what exactly is concentration? Is it
possible to improve your concentration? Fortunately, the answer to the latter question is Yes!!
As far as the former question is concerned, concentration is nothing more or less than
focused attention. In this case attention directed at the processing and understanding of the
subjects you are studying. You will immediately recognize the enormous relevance of
concentration when you look back at the memory model explained in section 1.1.1. Without
attention, i.e. without concentration, information will not even enter memory!
If you find it difficult to concentrate, it means that you are distracted, that your attention is
elsewhere. In terms of memory, some part of your already limited working memory is being
taken up by other things than the material to be studied, which means that the gateway to your
long-term memory is clogged. This may have something to do with motivation, the place where
you work, other things on your mind, or not feeling a hundred percent. Below, we will discuss
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Effective Studying
possible causes and give you some ideas about what you can do to solve this problem. You will
not find a ready-made answer here either; ultimately, as with many issues related to studying,
you will have to do it yourself.
3.1.1
Concentration and motivation
When you are studying, you cannot assume that the author will think for you! To concentrate
properly, you will have to be active in the same way as when you are attending a debate. Think
along with the author and respond to what you read: This is clear, I understand your position,
but I do not agree with it, Why don't you give an example?, Now I understand what you are
after.
Studying requires study motivation. If you are not motivated, you and your studies will not click!
Why should you take the trouble to master difficult material if you have no desire at all to do
so?! Unfortunately, it is not a matter of simply deciding to be better motivated from now on.
What you can do is try to find out where your motivation is failing and what you can do to
remedy this.
There are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. You can regard your motivation as the
sum of these two, which also means that they can compensate each other. Intrinsic motivation
has to do with the amount of enjoyment you derive from a specific subject or discipline. The
reward is the activity itself; your fascination lies in discovering how something works. Usually,
the motivation behind the selection of a particular field of study is intrinsic; you chose that
discipline because it seemed interesting!
Extrinsic motivation is motivation derived from rewards earned through factors outside yourself.
Examples of such rewards are the good job you expect to find later, the fact that the subject is
obligatory for studying something you do enjoy, the expectations of others, your own
expectations.
As we have seen, your motivation for a particular subject or discipline is always the sum of
these two types of motivation. This means that you may compensate your lack of intrinsic
motivation for a particular subject by thinking about the extrinsic rewards that await you. How to
do this? Obviously, by concentrating on the factors listed in the previous paragraph (I must get
a pass mark for this (boring) subject, otherwise I cannot follow that other (interesting) subject
next term!). But you can also achieve this by setting concrete and attainable goals for yourself
and rewarding yourself when you achieve a goal (Today I will make a summary of Chapter 3
and when I'm done I will [think of something pleasant]). How to set these goals how to
make a good study plan is the topic of section 3.2.
25
Chapter 3
Things will become completely different when you realize that your intrinsic motivation for the
entire discipline is insufficient. Of course, you may then decide to bite the bullet and finish your
studies, but perhaps it would be wiser to reconsider your choice. If not, you may run the risk that
you will have to find a job in that same unsatisfactory field. A study choice workshop may
help you to discover what you are interested in and which fields of study or jobs are compatible
with your interests.
Appendix 5 contains a questionnaire that can help you to learn more about your motivation.
3.1.2
Concentration and study environment
Some people work best in the joint living room with the television and the radio on, but most
people benefit from a quiet environment. Wherever you study, make sure there is a separate
place for your work. Not only will you then know that everything you need is at hand, but it will
also serve as a reminder that when you are there, you are at work. Provide good lighting, a
clear filing system (and use it!) and a temperature of about 18 C (a higher temperature will
make you drowsy; if it is colder, you will begin to shiver). Music accompanying your studies is
often harmless, as long as you do not become tempted to sing along. Listening to the radio is
unwise, because the sound of voices will distract you.
Housemates and other friends are often a major source of distraction too. Tell
your housemates that you will be studying during the day so that they can bear
that in mind. And put a DO NOT DISTURB sign on the door of your room!
You can discourage friends from trying to pry you from your desk by saying No
every time they try to do so. If that does not work, you can always study at the
university library or some such place.
3.1.3
Concentration and other things on your mind
If you notice that your mind is constantly occupied with other things than the book you are
studying, ask yourself if you really want to pay attention to these thoughts at this time.
Distracting thoughts can roughly be divided into two main categories. There are many things
that could be done at a different time, but there are also issues that you will have to resolve
before you can begin to study with any chance of success again. What both categories have in
common is that they take up space in your working memory that you could use more profitably.
The first category consists of household affairs and daydreams. Household thoughts, for
example Oh yes, we've run out of milk, Have to call Charles this evening, or I still haven't
cleaned the toilet can simply be eliminated by making a list and deciding when you will deal
with the items on that list. This not only has the advantage that it frees up your working memory
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Effective Studying
for the things you have to study, but it also prevents you from forgetting things that would
distract you in the evening or the following day because you still have not done them.
Daydreams are more difficult to tackle because they often concern things that are important to
you. Try to be strict with yourself and regard your study hours as working hours. If this does not
help, it may be better to take an hour off, have a cup of tea, and dream away. There is a good
chance that afterwards you will be able to motivate yourself again to get working in earnest.
The second category of distracting thoughts concerns things that occupy or bother you so much
that tricks will no longer help you to start working. A quarrel with a good friend, problems with
your parents, wondering if this is the right field of study for you, or other personal problems may
absorb you to such an extent that studying is not a realistic option at this time. In that case, you
will first have to tackle the problem before you can go on.
Your options: talk to someone you trust, for example a good friend. A few interviews with one of
the student psychologists may also help you on the right track again.
NB:
If you suspect that you will be out of it for more than a few weeks,
always notify STAG (the student guidance office) as soon as possible. If
you only do so after the fact, you will encounter major problems in terms
of study time and money.
3.1.4
Health, physical condition, and concentration
Obviously, you do not need the stamina of a marathon runner to study successfully, but
everyone also knows that you will only be able to study comfortably if you feel all right. At the
risk of sounding patronizing, we should like to give you a few tips.
Find out if you are a morning or an evening person and adjust your working hours accordingly.
Try to bring regularity in your working week and try to work as much as possible at the same
hours every day. Does this sound dull? Well, studying is often dull, but there is always the
weekend.
Never begin studying before you have eaten something. Your brain and memory require the
same energy as the rest of your body. Especially in the morning, after a whole night without
food, your body needs nutrients that can be converted into energy quickly.
Because studying is mostly an indoor activity during which you sit quietly, some type of sport or
other physical activity is a must. Even when you are tired after a whole day of studying hard,
physical exertion will provide you with new energy.
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Chapter 3
Take regular shorter and longer pauses while you are studying. It is only possible to really
concentrate on your studies for 20 minutes at a time! Alternate reading and memorizing with
doing assignments. This will make it easier to keep going.
The major distracters
and their remedies
An untidy desk
Noisy housemates
Clean desk management

Make clear arrangements with them or study
at a study hall
Switch the thing off!
A list of priorities on your desk
Talk with friends, parents, study advisor,
psychologist
Ask them to come back later
Take care of these first (no more than 30
minutes before you start)
Soap series on TV
Thoughts of other priorities
Personal problems, etc.
Unexpected visitors
The cat, plants, laundry or dishes, clutter
3.2 Planning
Nothing is easier than planning. Any moron is capable of making a plan. You look at what you
have to do and spread the work over the available time. A thousand pages in five weeks: 200
pages per week. That's 40 pages a day and every weekend off. Planning is not difficult.
What is difficult is assessing whether this planning is feasible and if you can realize it. And
finally, it seems very difficult to stick to the plan. Of course, the next question must be How do I
make a plan that is feasible (for me) and that I can realize? First you have to know several
things: how much time a subject will take and how much time you have available.
3.2.1
Gathering information
In The Netherlands, the number of credits awarded for a particular subject is a reasonably good
indication of the number of hours that you should spend on it. Students are assumed to be able
to study a four-credit subject in 4 times 40 hours. These 160 hours contain everything: reading,
repeating, attending lectures and classes, doing assignments, and so on.
We will give you another guideline for the number of pages that you could study per hour. Note
that this is different from ordinary reading! The result of studying is knowing. You will only know
the material after you have devoted a lot of time and attention to it. Of course, just reading is a
lot faster, but that will not help you if you really need to know your stuff .
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Effective Studying
Literature
Studying/knowing (p/hour)
Just reading (p/hour)
Easy
7-8
20-30
Average
5-6
15-20
Difficult
3-4
10-15
Those 40 pages a day mentioned in the previous section therefore seem reasonable. Whether
you can accomplish this remains to be seen, of course. Research has shown that a good
student works around 49 hours per credit point. It takes the average student approximately 68
hours to earn one credit (De Jong et al. 1990)!
The next question you should ask yourself is Is a particular planning feasible for me? You can
easily test this experimentally.
How many hours do you spend on your studies per week (on average)
(private study + classes)?
(A)
There are 42 study weeks in a year
(B)
How many credits did you earn last year?
(C)
The number of hours you worked for each credit
AxB:C=
Divide the material over the weeks and see if you can finish the weeks allotment in the first
week. If you cannot do this, you have no alternative but to study harder or to plan less
ambitiously. There are no excuses. Or rather, you should only come up with excuses that will
also be acceptable to the lecturer organizing the exam. If he agrees that you do not have to take
some part of the exam because your friend had to move house, because you had to attend a
party, because you had to clean the house, because your friends dropped by, or because your
bicycle was stolen, these excuses are valid. If not, do not mention them!
3.2.2
The difference between planning and doing
Unfortunately, the urge to come up with excuses is hard to suppress. Such thoughts are often
accompanied by the argument I can still do it. Sadly, this idea is usually wrong! When was the
last time you finished revising well in advance of an exam? Why is it that the feeling that you will
still be able to finish in time is often wrong? Why is it that while you know that it would be wise to
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Chapter 3
go on studying you will still go to the pub with your girlfriend five minutes later? Apparently,
there is a big difference between rationally knowing what is good for you and the feeling that
you will be missing something pleasant.
Our brain is an amazing thing. The struggle between emotion and reason is all in the head. This
conflict seems to be hardwired in the structure of our brain; our emotions are located in a
different part of our brain than our reason. Reason is located in the cortex while emotions are
mainly situated in the limbic system. These two parts of the brain, it is assumed, are not
properly connected. They do not communicate in the best possible way. Rational thoughts do
not seem to have much influence on the emotions. This is why we can do something that makes
us feel good while we know that it is unwise. However, you should not regard this division in the
brain as an excuse that you cannot do anything about it. Now that you know this pitfall, you can
no longer use it as an excuse!
The brain has more twists and warps. The exam you have to take tomorrow feels much more
important than the exam that will come up in 14 weeks. If you think rationally, this is of course
not true. One six-credit exam is one 28th of your whole study program, whether you take it
tomorrow or in three months. Nevertheless, an exam in three months' time does not feel so
important that you will start working hard at it today; you postpone the work. The phenomenon
that an event in the long term is experienced as less important than the same event in the short
term is called discounting. The following diagram shows the discounting curve.
Discounting
Importance
( in % )
15 14 13 12 11 10
Weeks until the exam
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Effective Studying
As you can see, the perceived importance of an exam, for example, depends on the time until
that exam. It is difficult to change this feeling by using the rational argument that it is wise to
begin studying in time. The conclusion of this sonmewhat theoretical argument is that it is
difficult to start studying for an exam weeks in advance because it does not feel important
enough yet; that is simply the way our brain works. In other words, you are not highly motivated
to begin studying. You can accept this of course, but you can also do something about it...
3.3
The solution: setting goals and self-monitoring
An organizational psychologist called E.A. Locke has conducted many studies into motivation.
The main conclusion from this research is that people work hardest if they set goals for
themselves that are concrete, feasible, and limited in time. In short, set yourself clever goals.
Goals that are SMART. This acronym stands for:
Specific
Measurable
Acceptable
Realizable
Time-bound
Thus, a good study plan very specifically indicates what you will do. I will read and underline
Chapters 5 and 6 of this book, I will summarize Chapter 1 of this handout, and I will do
assignments 1 to 6 of Statistics Chapter 3. If you are this specific, what you want to do is also
measurable, at least, if you set a time frame. And I will do all this before Monday next by
studying on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
If this is also realizable (I have sufficient time to do this) and acceptable (I will really take the
time to do this and I see myself doing it), then you will have made a proper study plan.
3.3.1
Smart planning in practice
Those 40 pages a day do not seem so bad, therefore. This goal is measurable, acceptable,
and realizable. You can make it more specific in time by deciding that you want to realize it
between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m.
Your study goal will approach perfection if you also decide which 40 pages you will study and
how you will do this: doing assignments, repeating, making a synopsis, and so on. Now the goal
is specific too. You will know exactly where you are every minute you are studying.
The discounting phenomenon can therefore be circumvented, not only by realizing that the endof-term exam is important, but in particular by your weekly planning. No, I can't go to the pub
31
Chapter 3
this afternoon, I haven't finished my study plan for today yet. You counter the feeling that the
examination is not yet important with the rational awareness that you will have studied all the
material for the exam in time. By setting your goals in a SMART way, you prevent the ultimate
goal passing your examination from being subjected to the principal of discounting
hardwired in your brain. Moreover, you will have created the conditions for self-monitoring.
3.3.2
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring keeping track of how you are doing is a term frequently used by
educational scientists. Setting goals is a condition for self-monitoring. People who do not set
themselves goals can easily fool themselves by believing that they can still do it (whatever this
it may be). After all, if you have no plan, you will always be on time. If you have made a plan,
you will know that you can still attain your goal or, conversely, that this is no longer possible.
In previous sections, we have argued that your feelings are usually wrong. The feeling that you
can still do it is therefore a kind of ostrich feeling. You stick your head so deep under your
textbooks that the lack of light there prevents you from noticing that you have far too little time to
finish in time for the exam. Blessed are the ignorant seems an appropriate motto here.
Goal setting is nothing more than confronting yourself continuously with your ultimate study goal
graduation. If you want to graduate, the smart thing to do is to look up from your books and
begin setting study goals.
3.3.3
Proviso
In view of the above, you may get the impression that all we want you to do is to study
incessantly. Nothing could be further from the truth. However, we put the emphasis on studying
here because you yourself will probably put your leisure time first. And to be fair, as a student
you have a lot of freedom, and we certainly approve of that. However, besides all this freedom
you have another goal in life: graduation. The one (leisure time) will necessarily be at the
expense of the other (studying) because there are, after all, only 24 hours in a day.
Self-monitoring is a way to keep an eye on the balance between the useful and the enjoyable. It
seems evident that the setting of study goals is a necessary condition for a rational method of
checking how you are doing, since leisure time always occupies the here and now, while
studying is always a long-term affair. With the phenomenon of discounting still fresh in mind, it
seems rational to make the unfair rivalry between long-term studying and short-term pleasure a
little less unfair by setting goals. Finally, the previous paragraph ended with the words only 24
hours in a day, but you can also look at this from a different perspective. If you sleep for 8
hours and study for 8 hours you still have 8 hours left in the day to do whatever you like.
32
Effective Studying
Moreover, you will have the whole weekend off. In short, 40 hours of work and 56 hours of sleep
leave you with 168 - (40 + 56) = 72 hours of leisure time per week. Enjoy them!!
A week contains
168 hours
Suppose:
You study for
You sleep for
40 hours
56 hours
Remainder
72 hours
That is more than ten (10) hours per day for the laundry, for cooking, for lounging. Or
eight (8) hours a day with the whole weekend off!
3.3.4
Reasons for planning
To sum up, there are many reasons why you should plan your studies. Firstly, you will maintain
control over the material. You know exactly what you have already done and what you still have
to do. This ensures that you will have sufficient time to respond to any problems you may
encounter. If you realize that you still have to do a lot because you have not achieved your
study plan more than once (for whatever reason), there are several things you can do. You
could, for example, study more hours each day. Or you could decide to study the material faster
and thus less well, and settle for a lower mark. And if these solutions should fail or appear
impossible, you may have to decide to drop a subject. Thats just the way it is it is better to
pass one exam than to fail two by a narrow margin.
However, if your planning is solid and you stick to it, you will notice that you will not experience
any stress. You will sit the exam confidently and calmly, in the certainty that you have studied
the material in time (and in the right way, of course).
The main reason for planning, however, is that it gives you real leisure time. In the old days,
when you were doing something pleasant there was always a voice at the back of your head
whispering, I should really be studying, which spoiled your enjoyment of your leisure time to
some extent. Now, when you are done with your plan, your free time is truly your own!
33
Chapter 4
Taking examinations
Taking examinations
1
In this chapter we will discuss the various phases of taking an examination : preparation, the
exam itself, and the postmortem (the evaluation of your work). We will give various tips for each
of these phases. For each phase, we will discuss the various types of written examination the
essay question and the multiple-choice exam and what you should keep in mind with each of
these.
After weeks of planning and studying, swotting and sweating, the time has finally come to
demonstrate your hard-won knowledge. You will finally get the opportunity to prove that you
have spent your time profitably. All those hours at home with your books, lecture notes, and
handouts will culminate at this point in time. This is what you have made the effort for .
It would be nice if each exam was a joyful event; however, for most students, taking an exam
means something like "I am finally done with this subject" or "Let's get it over with and hope for
the best, I might be able to guess my way to a pass mark."
This chapter will examine whether things might be otherwise. If you have learned to make a
realistic study plan and stick to it, to tackle the material in a systematic manner, to process the
information and to store it in memory, it would be a shame to waste all this at the final hour. In
this respect, taking an exam may be compared to a sporting achievement. There, too, you
prepare for a long period and perform optimally for a relatively short time.
4.1
Preparing for the examination
The preparation for the exam begins at the same time that a block or term begins. Of course
you start with a SMART plan that enables you to study, understand, and repeat the material. If
you want to be well-prepared, you should pay close attention to the issues discussed in sections
4.1.1 to 4.1.6.
4.1.1
A term or block planning
You will know this already if you have studied the previous chapter, but we will nevertheless
repeat it here. If you only start studying a few days before the exam, you will not have sufficient
time to really absorb the material. If you try to cram everything in at the last moment, you may
1
This chapter refers to exams/examinations, by which we mean end-of-term examinations.

Obviously, the information given here also applies to mid-term exams, tests, and other forms of
formal evaluation.
34
Effective Studying
be able to reproduce facts at the examination, but you will certainly not be able to distinguish
relationships. Moreover, you will soon forget what you have learned. It is wise to plan in such a
way that you will not have to study new material shortly before the exam. If you do, the chances
are that this will make you forget previously learned material.
4.1.2
The examination syllabus
It is important that you quickly find out the examination syllabus because you will then know
how to prepare for it. A lot of information can be obtained from the study guide. You should of
course at least know what subject matter is covered by the exam: which textbooks, which
handouts, which articles, and so on. The type of exam (essay exam, open-book exam, multiplechoice test, or oral exam) is obviously also important. It is also important to know what demands
will be made on your knowledge. Should you only know the main points, or details as well;
should you only know the theory or be able to complete assignments too?
Be aware that a day only has 24 hours. You will sometimes realize that the material is so
extensive that you will never be able to study it all in the available time. To still pass the exam, you
will have to divide the exam syllabus into material that you should know completely and in detail
and material that you only need to study superficially.
Always study the lecturer's pet subjects. This will usually be the material he or she covers during
the lectures. A handout, particularly if the lecturer has compiled it, will often contain important
information too. Finally, you would do well to check any books or articles published by the lecturer
in this particular field. You can be certain the exam will contain one or more questions about these
publications!
4.1.3
Attending lectures
During a lecture, you need to do many things at the same time: listening, watching, and writing. Of
course you want to take clear and organized notes and understand everything as well. If a lecture
is presented effectively, this is not too difficult, but if this is not the case (and it often isn't), this is not
an easy task.
Should you attend all lectures?
If all the lecturer does boils down to reading aloud from the textbook, it would seem that there is not
much point in going. Even then, however, the lecture is not a waste of time. The lecturer will not be
able to "read" all chapters and will choose the most important ones. Certain topics will be
discussed at greater length than others, so that you know which topics the lecturer considers
important.
35
Chapter 4
Taking examinations
Fortunately, the lecturer will usually also provide additional information. There are therefore several
advantages to attending lectures. To begin with, the exam will often contain questions about the
lectures. Moreover, as you know by now, repetition can do no harm. Often the material you will
have to study will also be discussed during lectures. By going to the lectures, you will in effect cover
the material once again, and in a different way. Particularly if you are an auditive person, this is very
convenient.
In addition, information about the exam e.g. which elements of the material are important, what
kind of questions will be asked, etc. will often be given during the lectures. The first lecture is
often used for this purpose. Always go to at least the first two lectures, therefore, so that you can
find out whether you can afford to miss the rest of the series.
Lectures also give you the opportunity to ask questions about passages in the literature that you
have not understood completely or about which you are uncertain. Finally, lectures have a social
function.
You may decide to stop attending a lecture series, for example because the lecturer does not
introduce any new material, because the exam syllabus has been described in detail in the study
guide, or because the lecture is bad and the lecturer is not prepared to change this. If, for one
reason or another, you are unable to attend a particular lecture, you could ask fellow students
whether you can copy their notes.
Attending a lecture
If you do attend a lecture, prepare yourself for it. Explore the material that will be covered in the
lecture in advance. This will familiarize you with the structure of the material in the textbook and will
make it easier to follow the arguments presented by the lecturer. This need not take more than ten
minutes for any lecture, and will ultimately result in a huge gain in time!
Follow the lecturer's words actively and critically. Note any signal words he or she uses. As in a text
you read, these words point to important things. Only write something down if you understand it,
and ask for clarification if you do not.
Try to include only the heart of the matter in your notes instead of writing down everything that is
said. Also, make use what you already know since you do not have to write this down in detail. As
with the TC diagram, use your own words but retain any specific terminology used by the lecturer.
4.1.4
Mid-term tests and practice exams
Once you have studied the text, its a good idea to practice with old exams and other practice
assignments. This will give you an idea of the exam requirements, the level of difficulty, and the
way in which questions are asked. It will also give you an opportunity to discover what you do
not know yet, which you can then put right. Some subjects have mid-term exams that will
enable you to earn one or more credits for the (final) examination. Use these opportunities. Not
36
Effective Studying
only because this will give you a percentage of your final score, but also because they provide a
good incentive for beginning your preparations for the exam in time!
4.1.5
The period just before the exam
This is a slightly different issue. However, we are mentioning this period around one to two
weeks before the exam separately because certain things are particularly important at this
time: discovering your weak spots and getting rid of them, for example by working with previous
examination papers.
In so far as you have not done this yet, acquire an overview of the subject matter and obtain an
insight into the relationships between the elements. Create diagrams and synopses and repeat
what you have to learn by heart.
Several other things need no explanation but we will mention them anyway for the sake of
completeness. Make sure that you know the correct time and place of the exam. Also check the
amount of time you have for the whole exam as well as for each of its components, and what
you should bring with you (calculator, law book, dictionary, tables, etc.).
4.1.6
Your physical condition
The exam can be compared with a sporting event. You have been in training for weeks. For a
good performance, you will have to be able to concentrate well, and good concentration
requires good physical condition. Make sure, therefore, that you have eaten well and slept
sufficiently. We strongly advise you not to work deep into the night before the exam, while
hanging around in the pub until the small hours of the morning is of course completely wrong.
Do not drink alcohol at all or only a very moderate quantity the evening before the exam and be
careful with medication: some drugs lower your concentration. Sedatives can make you drowsy.
4.2
The examination itself
The way in which to tackle the examination itself will depend on the type of exam. This will
become clear when we discuss specific aspects of the various types. There are, however,
certain general issues that are relevant to any exam, with the exception of the oral exam.
4.2.1
Written examinations
For both essay question and multiple-choice exams, the first thing you should do is count the
number of questions and roughly determine what they are about. In the case of an essay exam,
37
Chapter 4
Taking examinations
you can also look at the weight of the various questions. In the meantime, jot down some ideas
about possible answers on a piece of paper.
The next thing to do is make a plan. This will prevent you from spending too much time on a
particular question and then having insufficient time left for answering a few "freebies." Keep
track of the time you spend on each question. If you think you will have sufficient time to answer
all questions, simply begin at the beginning. If not, make sure that you at least answer the
"easy" questions and then the answers that will earn you most points. An additional advantage
of starting with a few easy questions is that you will get the hang of the exam and activate what
you know.
If the answer to an essay question will be long, create a writing plan a reverse TC diagram
before you begin. This will help you keep track of your arguments and make it easier to monitor
the amount of time you spend.
No one is able to concentrate for two hours at a stretch. Keep this in mind, also when taking an
exam. Take short breaks, therefore, because you will work more effectively after you have had
a break. Even if you do not have enough time, this is a sensible thing to do.
If you finish before your time is up, check whether you have omitted any questions or failed to
answer parts of questions. Have you done what you were asked to do? Also check whether you
have really understood the questions and interpreted them correctly and whether you have
numbered your answers correctly. You should also correct serious spelling mistakes because
these may have a negative impact on the mark. Before you hand in your work, check whether
you have put your name and student number in all the relevant places.
Many students do not like multiple-choice exams. "I simply cannot answer multiple-choice
items correctly," is a frequent complaint. Although this problem is often caused by a lack of
preparation (i.e. studying), the following guidelines may make things easier (Topman, 1995).
Adopt a "round system": first answer the questions that you are certain of and then work on the
more difficult questions. Conclude with the most difficult questions. If there are four possible
answers, there is usually one that is patently wrong. After some deliberation, you will probably
be able to eliminate a second answer, so that the choice will now be between the two remaining
answers. Search for keywords ("provided", "always", "never", etc.) and key concepts in these
answers. Read the question carefully, but do not start "digging": most of the questions are not
meant to be profound.
The principle underlying multiple-choice questions is the search for the best answer. This
answer need not be perfect; it should simply be better than the alternatives. These alternatives
may sometimes be truly nonsensical, sometimes only slightly less correct than the right answer.
If you have mastered the subject matter and you have carefully read the question and the
38
Effective Studying
answers, your first impression will often be correct. Change your answer only if there is no doubt
in your mind after you have carefully re-examined the item.
With multiple-choice questions, too, you should not stick to a particular question too long.
Always keep track of your time.
4.3
The postmortem
You would prefer to forget a failed examination as soon as possible. Picking up the pieces and
starting all over again often seems the best advice, but this may lead to regular failure without
knowing why.
Immediately after you have taken the exam, you should briefly assess for yourself what went
well and what went wrong during the exam. If you can discover the mistakes you have made,
you can avoid them the next time. If you wait too long before evaluating the exam, you may
already have forgotten how things went.
Once you know your mark, you can compare it with the mark you expected to score. If your
mark differs from your expectation, you should try to discover the reason.
Students often say that there is no point in checking one's examination paper because different
questions will be asked the next time. However, exams are often similar and a postmortem will
therefore often provide you with useful insights. Facing up to your mistakes is not a pleasant
experience, but failing a resit is even less pleasant.
Although the chances are remote that you will be given the same questions at another multiplechoice exam, we strongly advise you to have a look at your answers and check your mistakes
for this type of exam too. Did you simply not know enough or have you given too many wrong
answers to questions that you could have answered correctly? Easy questions should also be
read carefully! If you have given wrong answers to many easy questions, you were probably too
quick to assume that you understood the question. Or perhaps you made a series of mistakes
at a certain stage during the exam, for example at the end. Could this have something to do
with your concentration? In that case, take more breaks during the exam. Did you run out of
time? Make a better plan.
39
Chapter 4
Taking examinations
Afterword
You have reached the end of this coursebook. By now, you should know how to study
effectively. In Chapter 2, you learned a method for studying texts that may be time-consuming
now but will eventually enable you to gain a lot of time. This is not surprising because this
method takes into account the only instrument you have available: your memory. This method
for studying texts combined with proper planning will undoubtedly reduce the number of resits
you will have to take, so that you will have more time for pleasant things.
That was also the main goal of planning, as we saw in Chapter 3: leisure time. When you finish
your weekly planning, you silence that annoying voice at the back of your head that whispers, "I
should really be studying now " every time you do something pleasant, which spoils your
delight in the good things in life you could and should enjoy.
With proper planning and a good text study method you will go a long way. Chapter 2 has
explained several additional techniques that may help you even more, while Chapter 3
discussed concentration problems. Low motivation influences concentration. You have seen
that proper planning may in some cases increase motivation.
For a long time, the exam seems a vague and distant target, but this moment of truth will
undoubtedly come. Chapter 4 provided information about the various phases of taking an exam:
preparation, the exam itself, and the postmortem. You now know exactly what you should do.
The only thing that is left now is for you to really use this information. That is something nobody
can help you with; you are on your own. Of course, you can make an appointment with Studie
Ondersteuning to go over your planning together. You can also join a study acceleration group
to find the "big stick" that will help you keep to your planning. But ultimately the information will
have to find a home in your head. This means that it is up to you to do most of the work. This
attitude is the overriding condition for success. If you do not sow, you will not reap! However, if
you take all our advice to heart, you will get the better of your books!
40
Effective Studying
Appendices
41
Appendices
Appendix 1: Previewing Checklist

Previewing Checklist
During previewing, your aim is to discover as quickly as possible what the book is about, for
whom it has been written, and what structure it has. If you roughly know what to expect,
reading will be much easier. You will also be able to retain information longer if you have
mnemonics that will constantly help you to identify relationships between specific information
and the big picture. If you begin with the big picture (the table of contents) and use this to
discover the structure of the book, you will create a framework in which you can place the
specific information from the various chapters. To do so, use these guidelines and questions.
1. What is the complete title?
What is the book about?
What do the various words in the title mean?
2. Who is/are the author(s), and in what year was the book written?
3. Read the Preface and/or Afterword, the Introduction, and any blurbs. Identify what you
regard as the most important information.
4. Make a tree diagram of the various chapters.
Identify the relationships between the various chapters
and/or parts of the book.
Relationships between chapters

Suppose you have a textbook with 11 long chapters. These chapters may be related to each
other in various ways. Below you will find two examples. Of course, there are countless other
possibilities. During Previewing, you try to find the relationships between the chapters, but also
between the topics discussed, of course.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Topic 1
Chapter 3 Topic 1
Chapter 4 Topic 1
Chapter 2 Topic 1
Chapter 3 Subtopic 2.1
Chapter 5 Topic 2
Chapter 6 Topic 2
Chapter 7 Topic 2
Chapter 5 Topic 2
Chapter 8 Topic 3
Chapter 9 Topic 3
Chapter 10 Topic 3
Chapter 8 Topic 3
Chapter 11 Conclusion
Chapter 11 Conclusion
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Effective Studying
Appendix 2: Signal words

You can use the signal words in a text to discover the structure of that text more quickly. They
will help you to interpret the information in the text.
Signal word:
Points to:
what is most important is

relevant here is
the main issue is
Main argument
for example
e.g.
Example
therefore
after all,
because
since
Reason or motive
and
besides
in addition
but also
the more so because
incidentally
furthermore
Next reason or motive
firstly/secondly
in the first place
Enumeration
however
but
otherwise
Contrasting argument
by
because of
as a result of
Cause
thus
consequently
accordingly
Consequence
apparently
to sum up
therefore
thus
so
it follows that
that is why
Conclusion
From: Vorst, H.C.M. Leren & Studeren: Schriftelijke cursus leer- en studievaardigheid. Nijmegen, Berkhout, 1993
43
Appendices
Appendix 3: A TC diagram
Text: The Career interview
As a career consultant, one can opt for various methodical roles. One can either act as adviser, as
counsellor, and as coach. The boundaries between these three roles cannot be drawn sharply.
Nevertheless, there are differences.
The adviser
The adviser thinks about the career issues at stake, forms an opinion, and points out options to resolve
these issues. Contrary to what one might expect about this role, a good adviser is someone who has the
ability to pose the right questions. Particularly when accompanying a learning process, the career
consultant will be able to formulate proposals about the steps to be taken after he has asked sufficient
relevant questions. The questions asked show that he has thoroughly explored the client's situation, that
he has sufficient expertise, and that he knows what the client needs. Often the adviser is able to give
advice that the client has more or less put into his mouth, so to speak. If off-the-shelf advice is given, there
is a risk that the client will not be forced to think for himself and thus will learn nothing about his situation.
In that case, the responsibility may come to lie too much with the adviser. Nevertheless, clients may
strongly urge him to do so, and then afterwards ignore the advice, claim that it is not what they had
expected, or blame the career adviser if they fail. Still, it is important that the "adviser" dares to express his
own opinion, provided he clearly states that it is his own.
The counsellor
The counsellor focuses on the development of the individual. He is an expert in the field of consciousnessraising and attitude change processes. He is able to penetrate to the core of the individual, to what moves
and inspires him. His questions make the client think. Because the counsellor listens selectively and
constantly poses questions with an unexpected angle, the client will begin to question his own functioning.
The counsellor listens "behind the words" and is sensitive to the fears and insecurities of his client. The
counsellor also has a feeling for the "dark side" of the individual: aspects of his personality that he is not
yet familiar with or would rather deny. The counsellor lets the client do the work; he listens, observes, asks
questions, and confronts the client with contradictions. The counsellor works at a fundamental level with
the barriers and resistances of his client. This is also the dangerous side of this role. The "counsellor" will
have to be able to assess how far he can go, what is relevant to the client's career. Otherwise, he will
trespass on the territory of other experts.
The coach
In this role, the career consultant is someone who is able to supervise the client in such a way that he will
"pull out all the stops." He knows how to challenge the client to make a greater effort (and this need not
always be done gently!), has a sense for what the client can cope with, what he wants, what he
experiences; he is particularly keen on the special talents and capabilities of "his" client. The coach is
quick on the uptake, has a lot of imagination, and never loses faith in his client. As in sports, he is
someone who prepares his client for a fight, develops specific exercises and training sessions, and if
necessary acts as "sparring partner." He knows the market and the negotiation arena from experience, he
knows other actors, and is up-to-date on current developments. Above all, the coach is a practical person
and a realist. He is primarily a hands-on expert who has gradually learned his stuff by taking risks and
extending his limits. The career consultant who tries to act as a "coach" will fail if he starts to spout book
learning and lets himself be guided too much by theories and prescripts.
In principle, the career consultant is capable of operating in all three roles. He should be able to switch
roles if the supervision requires this.
A feature of these roles is what is known as bilateral expertise. The individual asking for the advice or
support of the career consultant knows everything about his own unique career situation. He has access
to his biography and is able to talk about his past, present, and future. The career consultant knows
career issues in general and has mastered interview techniques that will enable him to organize a career
interview and steer it in a direction that will benefit the client. Both parties need each other. Co-operation
is required. The result of the supervision process depends on it.
From
Spijkerman, R. & Admiraal, DDT. (2000): Loopbaancompetentie; management van mogelijkheden. Alphen
aan de Rijn, Samson.
44
Effective Studying
Global TC
The Career interview
3 Methodical roles
The adviser
The counsellor
The coach
Switching between roles
Bilateral expertise
Detailed TC
The Career interview
3 Methodical roles
The adviser
Characteristics
Makes up his own mind
Identifies possible approaches
Asks the right questions
Empathizes
Knows his stuff
Pitfalls
Client doesn't think for himself
Too much responsibility at the feet of the adviser
The counsellor
Characteristics
Focuses on the development of the client
Consciousness-raising
Attitude change
Knows what truly motivates the client
Encourages the client to think for himself / client does the work
Has an antenna for the unknown side of the client
Tries to remove barriers
Pitfall
Going too deeply into barriers and resistance
The coach
Characteristics
Stimulates, challenges
Knows what the client can cope with / client does his utmost
Practical, realistic person
Hands-on expert
Pitfalls
Spouting book learning
Too theoretical
Consultant switches between these roles
Bilateral expertise (each needs the other)
Client knows all about himself
Career expert knows all about
Career issues
Interview techniques
45
Appendices
Appendix 4: Flowchart for studying a textbook
Explore the book

Begin in Chapter 1
Explore the chapter
Begin in first section
Explore the section
Begin with first subsection
Process the subsection
Integrate the subsection
Recite the subsection
Proceed to the next
subsection
No
Have you covered all

subsections in this section?
Yes
Integrate the section
Proceed to the next

section
No

sections in this chapter?
Yes
Integrate the chapter
Repeat the chapter
Proceed to the next

chapter
No

chapters in the book?
Yes
Integrate the book
Repeat the book
Source: Stuyvenberg, J.H. (1988). Studievaardigheden voor intelligente studenten. Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.
46
Effective Studying
Appendix 5: Examples of diagrams
Examples of diagrams
The Arbo Office has several departments, i.e.: Corporate Health, Environment, and
Corporate Safety.
Corporate Health
Arbo Office
Environment
Corporate Safety
The lower the temperature, the greater the air density.
Temperature <
Air density >
The attitude towards a particular behaviour and social norm together determine one's
behavioural intention. An individual may or may not display a particular behaviour (X) and
may then encounter certain obstacles.
Attitude towards
behaviour X
Social norm
towards behaviour X
Possible
obstacle
Intention with
respect to
behaviour X
Behaviour X
A Venn diagram:
Some wines can be purchased at either the liquor store or the supermarket.
Where A = wines in the supermarket and B = wines at the liquor store; C = can be purchased in both shops
47
Appendices
Appendix 6: What to do in the event of insufficient motivation?

Area of motivation
Intrinsic / Extrinsic
Action
A particular subject
Not interested (intrinsic)
Chop the material into little bits
Difficult / hard (extrinsic)
Make a study plan

Reward yourself after each part you
have finished
Alternate with studying an interesting
subject
Not interested (i)
Compensation in attractive career

perspective?
If no, look for another field study
(Study Choice workshop)
Your field was chosen by your

parents (e)
Try to make your studies interesting

for yourself
If you do not succeed in this: see Not
interested
Too difficult / hard (e)
Final secondary school examination

mark > 7? You can do it
Work with a study plan and give
yourself rewards
Disappointing career prospects (e)
Try to make your studies interesting

for yourself
Inquire about realistic career
prospects at the Student Advisers
Office LAC
If necessary, choose a different field
of study
You would rather study something

more practical
Ask the study adviser for more

practical graduation options or look
for a more practical study program
(perhaps switch to Higher
Professional Education?) at the
Infotheek Studie en Beroep
See the previous area of motivation
(Your studies)
Your studies
Studying at university
The university was chosen by your

parents (e)
Too difficult / hard (e)
Academic status unimportant (e)
Intellectual pursuits
You would rather work with your

hands
No joy in studying (e)
Being forced to achieve
Fear of failure (i)

Laziness (i)
48
Try to find compensation in your

hobbies or enquire about more
practical study programs (Higher
Professional Education?)
See the first area of motivation (A
particular subject)
Try to get the better of this by
following a remedial training program
Try to solve this by attending a Task
Management Group

Studying Effectively

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Studying Effectively

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Effective Studying

Chapter 1 - Why change your study method?

Consequences for the study process

Chapter 2 - Studying texts

The Six-step Plan

Knowledge maintenance in practice

Chapter 3 - Conditions for effective studying

The solution: setting goals and self-monitoring

Chapter 4 - Taking examinations

Preparing for the examination

The examination itself

Appendix 1 - Previewing Checklist

Appendix 2 - Signal words

Appendix 4 - Flowchart for studying a textbook

Appendix 5 - Examples of diagrams

Appendix 6 - What to do in case of insufficient motivation?

Useful addresses and literature

Why change your study method?

Why change your study method?

The memory stations pathway

Why change your study method?

From working memory to long-term memory: storage

Consequences for the study process

table of contents, preface or introduction, blurb(s)

Why change your study method?

Consequence for the study process

limited capacity of the working memory

proceeding in stages is better than trying

hierarchical structure of the long-term

structured storage makes it easier to both

rarely travelled pathways become

repetition is an absolute condition for

The Six-step Plan

In this section, we will describe the basic method for

N.B.: Steps 1 and 6 apply to the entire book.

revising and checking

Scanning the text (hot locations) what is the text about?

Step 3: Reading globally

Step 4: Reading in detail

Studying is the making of a detailed TC diagram. It is information processing, and the TC

When making a detailed TC, stick to the

Never use more than six levels;

See Appendix 3 for an example of a detailed TC diagram

Step 5: Repeating and checking what you know

Repeating and checking

Appendix 4 contains a convenient flowchart for studying a book.

2.3 Knowledge maintenance in practice

Repetition is the soul of advertising!

The phased method of studying

Repeat and check what you know:

immediately after you have read a section (5 minutes)

The difference between knowing and doing

Diagrams for complex information;

Tables and charts for specific information;

Learning lists, enumerations, and other unorganized material by heart;

2.4.1 Complex information: diagrams

Recommendations for creating diagrams

Avoid crossing lines or arrows as much as possible.

Describe the concepts in as few words as possible. However, do not add

Lateral branches may be pruned, unless they fulfil a support function in

2.4.2 Specific information: tables and charts

Select the variables to be plotted.

Determine which variable influences the other.

Place the independent variable on the horizontal X axis.