Synchronous Counters

Questions and Answers

Lee Chin Wei
and
Andrew Long

Questions
Answers
References

Questions :
Note : there may be more than one right answer.

1. What advantages do synchronous counters have

over asynchronous counters?
A. Less likely to end up in erroneous states.
B. Simpler to construct.
C. Faster
D. Consumes less power.
Answer

2. The combinational element of a counter can be

made with...
A. Flip-flops.
B. Logic Gates.
C. PLA (Programmable Logic Array)
D. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
Answer

3. What types of flip-flops can be used to implement

the memory elements of a counter?
A. T flip-flips.
B. JK flip-flops.
C. D flip-flops.
D. XY flip-flops.
Answer

4. What are the advantages of using a microprocessor

to implement a counter rather than the
conventional method (flip-flop and logic gates)?
A. Speed.
B. Cost.
C. Flexibility.
D. Simpler to construct.
Answer

5. Take a look at the diagram below.

What kind of counter is it?

A. Ripple counter.
B. Johnson counter.
C. BCD counter.
D. Twisted-ring counter.
Answer

6. What is the principal advantage of Gray Code over

straight (conventional) binary?
A. No intermediate states occur during transition.
B. Bit positions in Gray Code have greater weights.
C. Gray Codes are much easier to process.
D. All of the above.
Answer

7. Convert 3267 to its BCD equivalent.

A. 0011 0010 1111 0000
B. 0011 1111 0110 0111
C. 0011 0010 0110 1110
D. None of the above.
Answer

8. What is the principal function of the prescaler in

the "pulse swallowing" technique?
A. To divide a fast incoming clock.
B. To divide a binary number.
C. Stops counter when too many pulses are received.
D. None of the above.
Answer

9. What does Pipelining do?

A. Predicts an event.
B. Separates the detection of an event and the setting
of certain output/s resulting from the event into two
different clock periods.
C. To store a value that is required in the next clock
period.
D. None of the above.
Answer

10.
In Xilinx synchronous counters, how does the
use of a prescaler increase the speed of the
counter?
A. It increases the speed at which the bits toggle.
B. It predicts subsequent values.
C. It allows the carry ripple chain time to settle.
D. All of the above.
Answer

Answers :

A1:
A. True. Since all inputs are synchronised with a common
clock, no interrupts can occur in the middle of a state
transition.
B. False. Asynchronous counters are actually easier to
construct as they usually require less combinational logic.
C. True. In synchronous counters, all flip-flops change
simultaneously and in asynchronous counters, the
propagation delay of the flip-flops add up to produce the
overall delay. Although synchronous counters usually have
more combinational logic, the propogation delay through
these gates are small compared to the propogation delay
through many stages of flip-flops.
D. False. Both types of flip-flops are made with similar
components.
A2:
A. False. Flip-flops are the memory elements of a counter.
They cannot be used to implement combinational logic.
B, C & D. True. All of these can be used to implement
combinational logic. The PLA and ROM are similar except
that the ROM needs to have every minterm defined, even
though the system may never enter that state. The PLA only
needs to have the minterms which are actually used
defined.
A3:

A, B & C. True. Flip-flops are used mainly to "remember"

the state of a sequential machine. All of these flip-flops can
be used to implement this memory function.
D. False. There is NO SUCH THING as an XY flip-flop.
A4:
A. False. A microprocessor is usually much slower than a
dedicated hardware device. A dedicated device can produce
an output immediately on receiving an input signal while a
microprocessor has to read in the signal, process the signal,
increment program counter and write output etc. A
dedicated device is usually a few orders of magnitude faster
than a microprocessor.
B. True/False. Whether a counter is more cost efficient to
implement using a microprocessor or dedicated hardware
depends on the size of the counter(s). For small systems, if
would be cheaper to use dedicated hardware and vice versa.
This is because for larger systems, a dedicated hardware
system would need to add more flip-flops and logic gates
whereas for microprocessors, we only need to write a
different program for it. The number of states that can be
implemented in a microprocessor is only limitted by the
size of the program and the available memory area.
C. True. A microprocessor is much more flexible. A
dedicated hardware device, as its name suggests, can only
perform the function it was designed to do. A single
microprocessor can perform many different functions.

D. False. A microprocessor often needs several support

chips, such as memory chips, to create a functioning
system. It also needs to be programmed before it can be
used.
A5:
B & D. True. The diagram shows a Johnson counter, which
is also known as a twisted ring counter. It has a feedback
from the negated output back to its JK/T input.
A6:
The answer is A. It is not only the principal advantage of
Gray Code over straight binary but also the defining
characteristic of Gray Code. The use of such a code limits
errors to one bit position. This reduces the likelihood of
unwanted transients during a state transition. This code is
particularly suitable when analogue(continuous) data is
being represented in binary.
A7:
The answer is D. The BCD equivalent is 0011 0010 0110
0111. To calculate this, each decimal digit is simply
converted to its binary equivalent.
A8:
The answer is A. The main function of the prescaler is to
divide a fast incoming clock and thereby provide a slower
"clock" to the different sections(units and tens). The
different sections only respond to this "clock" depending on
the prescaler Mode(divide-by-11 or divide-by-10 etc).
A9:

A,B and C are essential functions of Pipelining. It predicts

an event by detecting the state preceeeding the required
state. Following this detection, a value is set and fed to the
input of a Flip-flop(usually D-type). This effectively stores
the value. The value will appear as the required output on
the next clock pulse. The separation of the two
events(detection and output setting) into two clock periods
results in a much shorter clock period. Had the above
actions been performed in a single clock period, the
minimum clock period would have been significantly
limited.
A 10 :
The answer is C. The prescaler generates an enable signal
at a rate lower than(usually a factor of) the incoming clock
rate. This difference in speed will give the carry ripple
chain time to settle. If this were not done, the time taken for
the carry ripple chain to settle has to be taken into account.
This significantly limits the minimum clock period.

Rotary encoder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality

standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may
contain suggestions. (January 2008)

A Gray code absolute rotary encoder with 13 tracks. At the top can be seen the housing, interrupter disk, and light
source; at the bottom can be seen the sensing element and support components.

A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that

converts the angular position of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code, making it
an angle transducer. Rotary encoders are used in many applications that require
precise shaft unlimited rotationincluding industrial controls, robotics, special
purpose photographic lenses[1], computer input devices (such as
optomechanical mice and trackballs), and rotating radar platforms. There are two
main types: absolute and incremental (relative).
Contents
[hide]

1 Absolute rotary encoder

1.1 Construction

1.2 Mechanical absolute encoders

1.3 Optical absolute encoders

1.4 Standard binary encoding

1.5 Gray encoding

1.6 Single-track Gray encoding

1.7 Encoder output formats

2 Incremental rotary encoder
3 Incremental versus absolute encoder terminology

3.1 Traditional absolute encoders

3.2 Traditional incremental encoders

3.3 Battery backed incremental encoders

4 Sine wave encoder
5 Use in industry

5.1 Encoders used on servomotors

6 Encoder technologies
7 See also
8 External links
9 References

[edit]Absolute

rotary encoder

Absolute rotary encoder ROD 425

[edit]Construction

Absolute digital type produces a unique digital code for each distinct angle of the
shaft. They come in two basic types: optical and mechanical.
[edit]Mechanical absolute encoders

A metal disc containing a set of concentric rings of openings is fixed to an insulating

disc, which is rigidly fixed to the shaft. A row of sliding contacts is fixed to a stationary
object so that each contact wipes against the metal disc at a different distance from

the shaft. As the disc rotates with the shaft, some of the contacts touch metal, while
others fall in the gaps where the metal has been cut out. The metal sheet is
connected to a source of electric current, and each contact is connected to a
separate electrical sensor. The metal pattern is designed so that each possible
position of the axle creates a unique binary code in which some of the contacts are
connected to the current source (i.e. switched on) and others are not (i.e. switched
off).
[edit]Optical absolute encoders

The optical encoder's disc is made of glass or plastic with transparent and opaque
areas. A light source and photo detector array reads the optical pattern that results
from the disc's position at any one time.
This code can be read by a controlling device, such as a microprocessor or
microcontroller to determine the angle of the shaft.
The absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated
into an absolute angle of the shaft (by using a special algorithm).
[edit]Standard

binary encoding

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring devices marked in 3-bit binary. The inner ring corresponds to Contact 1 in the
table. Black sectors are "on". Zero degrees is on the right-hand side, with angle increasing counterclockwise.

An example of a binary code, in an extremely simplified encoder with only three

contacts, is shown below.
Standard Binary Encoding

Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3

Angle

off

off

off

0 to 45

off

off

ON

45 to 90

off

ON

off

90 to 135

off

ON

ON

135 to 180

ON

off

off

180 to 225

ON

off

ON

225 to 270

ON

ON

off

270 to 315

ON

ON

ON

315 to 360

In general, where there are n contacts, the number of distinct positions of the shaft is
2n. In this example, n is 3, so there are 2 or 8 positions.
In the above example, the contacts produce a standard binary count as the disc
rotates. However, this has the drawback that if the disc stops between two adjacent
sectors, or the contacts are not perfectly aligned, it can be impossible to determine
the angle of the shaft. To illustrate this problem, consider what happens when the
shaft angle changes from 179.9 to 180.1 (from sector 4 to sector 5). At some
instant, according to the above table, the contact pattern changes from off-on-on to
on-off-off. However, this is not what happens in reality. In a practical device, the
contacts are never perfectly aligned, so each switches at a different moment. If
contact 1 switches first, followed by contact 3 and then contact 2, for example, the
actual sequence of codes is:
off-on-on (starting position)
on-on-on (first, contact 1 switches on)

on-on-off (next, contact 3 switches off)

on-off-off (finally, contact 2 switches off)
Now look at the sectors corresponding to these codes in the
table. In order, they are 4, 8, 7 and then 5. So, from the sequence
of codes produced, the shaft appears to have jumped from sector
4 to sector 8, then gone backwards to sector 7, then backwards
again to sector 5, which is where we expected to find it. In many
situations, this behaviour is undesirable and could cause the
system to fail. For example, if the encoder were used in a robot
arm, the controller would think that the arm was in the wrong
position, and try to correct the error by turning it through 180,
perhaps causing damage to the arm.
[edit]Gray

encoding

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring devices marked in 3-bit binary-reflected Gray code
(BRGC). The inner ring corresponds to Contact 1 in the table. Black sectors are "on".
Zero degrees is on the right-hand side, with angle increasing anticlockwise.

To avoid the above problem, Gray encoding is used. This is a

system of binary counting in which adjacent codes differ in only
one position. For the three-contact example given above, the
Gray-coded version would be as follows.
Gray Coding

Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3

Angle

off

off

off

0 to 45

off

off

ON

45 to 90

off

ON

ON

90 to 135

off

ON

off

135 to 180

ON

ON

off

180 to 225

ON

ON

ON

225 to 270

ON

off

ON

270 to 315

ON

off

off

315 to 360

In this example, the transition from sector 4 to sector 5, like all

other transitions, involves only one of the contacts changing its
state from on to off or vice versa. This means that the sequence
of incorrect codes shown in the previous illustration cannot
happen.
[edit]Single-track

Gray encoding

If the designer moves a contact to a different angular position (but

at the same distance from the center shaft), then the
corresponding "ring pattern" needs to be rotated the same angle
to give the same output. If the most significant bit (the inner ring in
Figure 1) is rotated enough, it exactly matches the next ring out.
Since both rings are then identical, the inner ring can be omitted,
and the sensor for that ring moved to the remaining, identical ring
(but offset at that angle from the other sensor on that ring). Those
two sensors on a single ring make a quadrature encoder.

For many years, Torsten Sillke and other mathematicians

believed that it was impossible to encode position on a single
track so that consecutive positions differed at only a single
sensor, except for the two-sensor, one-track quadrature encoder.
However, in 1994 N. B. Spedding registered a patent (NZ Patent
264738) showing it was possible with several examples.
See Single-track Gray code for details.
[edit]Encoder

output formats

In commercial absolute encoders there are several formats for

transmission of absolute encoder data, including parallel
binary, SSI, "BiSS", ISI, Profibus, CAN
DeviceNet, CANopen, Endat and Hiperface, depending on the
manufacturer of the device
[edit]Incremental

rotary encoder

Encoder ROD 420

An incremental rotary encoder, also known as a quadrature

encoder or a relative rotary encoder, has two outputs called
quadrature outputs. They can be either mechanical or optical. In
the optical type, there are two gray coded tracks, while the
mechanical type has two contacts that are actuated by cams on
the rotating shaft. The mechanical type requires debouncing and
is typically used as digital potentiometers on equipment including
consumer devices. Most modern home and car stereos use
mechanical rotary encoders for volume. Due to the fact the
mechanical switches requiredebouncing, the mechanical type are
limited in the rotational speeds they can handle. The incremental

rotary encoder is the most widely used of all rotary encoders due
to its low cost: only two sensors are required.
The fact that incremental encoders use only two sensors does not
compromise their accuracy. One can find in the market
incremental encoders with up to 10,000 counts per revolution, or
more.
There can be an optional third output: reference, which happens
once every turn. This is used when there is the need of an
absolute reference, such as positioning systems.
The optical type is used when higher RPMs are encountered or a
higher degree of precision is required.
Incremental encoders are used to track motion and can be used
to determine position and velocity. This can be either linear or
rotary motion. Because the direction can be determined, very
accurate measurements can be made.
They employ two outputs called A & B, which are called
quadrature outputs, as they are 90 degrees out of phase.
The state diagram:
Gray coding for
counter-clockwise rotation

Phase

Gray coding for

clockwise rotation

Phase

Two square waves in quadrature (clockwise rotation).

The two output wave forms are 90 degrees out of phase, which is
all that the quadrature term means. These signals are decoded to
produce a count up pulse or a count down pulse. For decoding in
software, the A & B outputs are read by software, either via an
interrupt on any edge or polling, and the above table is used to
decode the direction. For example, if the last value was 00 and
the current value is 01, the device has moved one half step in the
clockwise direction. The mechanical types would be debounced
first by requiring that the same (valid) value be read a certain
number of times before recognizing a state change.
If the encoder is turning too fast, an invalid transition may occur,
such as 00->11. There is no way to know which way the encoder
turned; if it was 00->01->11, or 00->10->11.
If the encoder is turning even faster, a backward count may occur.
Example: consider the 00->01->11->10 transition (3 steps
forward). If the encoder is turning too fast, the system might read
only the 00 and then the 10, which yields a 00->10 transition (1
step backward).
This same principle is used in ball mice to track whether the
mouse is moving to the right/left or forward/backward.

Rotary sensors with a single output are not encoders and cannot
sense direction, but can sense RPM. They are thus
called tachometer sensors.
[edit]Incremental

terminology

versus absolute encoder

There seem to be some grey areas as to what constitutes an

incremental encoder as opposed to an absolute encoder.
[edit]Traditional

absolute encoders

Traditional absolute encoders have multiple code rings with

various binary weightings which provide a data word representing
the absolute position of the encoder within one revolution. This
type of encoder is often referred to as a parallel absolute encoder.
The distinguishing feature of the absolute encoder is that it
reports the absolute position of the encoder to the electronics
immediately upon power-up with no need for indexing.
[edit]Traditional

[2]

incremental encoders

A traditional incremental encoder works differently by providing an

A and a B pulse output that provide no usable count information in
their own right. Rather, the counting is done in the external
electronics. The point where the counting begins depends on the
counter in the external electronics and not on the position of the
encoder. To provide useful position information, the encoder
position must be referenced to the device to which it is attached,
generally using an index pulse. The distinguishing feature of the
incremental encoder is that it reports an incremental change in
position of the encoder to the counting electronics. [2]
[edit]Battery

backed incremental encoders

Some encoder manufacturers, such as Fanuc, have taken a

different approach to this terminology. These manufacturers use
absolute as their terminology for incremental encoders with a
battery backed up memory to store count information and provide
an absolute count immediately upon power up.[2]
[edit]Sine

wave encoder

A variation on the Incremental encoder is the Sinewave Encoder.

Instead of producing two quadrature square waves, the outputs
are quadrature sine waves (a Sine and a Cosine). By performing
the arctangent function, arbitrary levels of resolution can be
achieved.

[edit]Use

in industry

[edit]Encoders

used on servomotors

Rotary encoders are often used to track the position of the motor
shaft on permanent magnet brushless motors, which are
commonly used on CNC machines, robots, and other industrial
equipment. Incremental (Quadrature) encoders are used on
Induction Motor type servomotors, but absolute encoders are
used in Permanent Magnet Brushless Motors, where applicable.
In these applications, the feedback device (encoder) plays a vital
role in ensuring that the equipment operates properly. The
encoder synchronizes the relative rotor magnet and stator
winding positions to the current provided by the drive. Maximum
torque results if the current is applied to the windings when the
rotor magnets are in a particular position range relative to the
stator windings. The motor will perform poorly or not at all if this
timing is not adjusted correctly. Improper encoder alignment on
the motor can actually cause it to run backwards sometimes
resulting in a hazardous run away condition. Correct alignment is
absolutely essential to proper operation of these motors. [3]
[edit]Encoder

technologies

Hall-effect quadrature encoder, sensing gear teeth on the driveshaft of a robot vehicle.

Encoders may be implemented using a variety of technologies:

Conductive tracks. A series of copper pads etched onto a PCB

is used to encode the information. Contact brushes sense the
conductive areas. This form of encoder is now rarely seen.

Optical. This uses a light shining onto a photodiode through

slits in a metal or glass disc. Reflective versions also exist.
This is one of the most common technologies.

Magnetic. Strips of magnetised material are placed on the

rotating disc and are sensed by a Hall-effect sensor
or magnetoresistive sensor. Hall effect sensors are also used
to sense gear teeth directly, without the need for a separate
encoder disc.

[edit]

Position encoders

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring devices marked in 3-bit binary-reflected Gray code (BRGC)

A Gray code absolute rotary encoder with 13 tracks. At the top can be seen the housing, interrupter disk, and light
source; at the bottom can be seen the sensing element and support components.

Gray codes are used in position encoders (linear encoders and rotary encoders), in preference to
straightforward binary encoding. This avoids the possibility that, when several bits change in the
binary representation of an angle, a misread will result from some of the bits changing before
others. Originally, the code pattern was electrically conductive, supported (in a rotary encoder) by
an insulating disk. Each track had its own stationary metal spring contact; one more contact made
the connection to the pattern. That common contact was connected by the pattern to whichever of
the track contacts were resting on the conductive pattern. However, sliding contacts wear out and
need maintenance, which favors optical encoders.
Regardless of the care in aligning the contacts, and accuracy of the pattern, a natural-binary code
would have errors at specific disk positions, because it is impossible to make all bits change at
exactly the same time as the disk rotates. The same is true of an optical encoder; transitions
between opaque and transparent cannot be made to happen simultaneously for certain exact
positions. Rotary encoders benefit from the cyclic nature of Gray codes, because consecutive
positions of the sequence differ by only one bit.

Gray code
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2-bit Gray code

00
01
11
10
3-bit Gray code
000
001
011
010
110
111
101
100
4-bit Gray code
0000
0001
0011
0010
0110
0111
0101
0100
1100
1101
1111
1110
1010
1011
1001
1000

The reflected binary code, also known as Gray code after Frank Gray, is a binary
numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit.

The reflected binary code was originally designed to prevent spurious output
from electromechanical switches. Today, Gray codes are widely used to
facilitate error correction in digital communications such as digital terrestrial
television and some cable TV systems.
Contents
[hide]

1 Name
2 History and practical application

2.1 Position encoders

2.2 Tower of Hanoi

2.3 Genetic algorithms

2.4 Karnaugh maps

2.5 Error correction

2.6 Communication between clock domains

2.6.1 Gray code counters and arithmetic

3 Motivation

4 Constructing an n-bit Gray code

5 Special types of Gray codes

5.1 n-ary Gray code

5.2 Balanced Gray code

5.3 Monotonic Gray codes

5.4 BeckettGray code

5.5 Snake-in-the-box codes

5.6 Single-track Gray code

6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 External links

[edit]Name

Gray's patent introduces the term "reflected binary code"

Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray introduced the term reflected binary code in his
1947 patent application, remarking that the code had "as yet no recognized name".
[1]

He derived the name from the fact that it "may be built up from the conventional

binary code by a sort of reflection process".

The code was later named after Gray by others who used it. Two different 1953
patent applications give "Gray code" as an alternative name for the "reflected binary
code";[2][3] one of those also lists "minimum error code" and "cyclic permutation code"
among the names.[3] A 1954 patent application refers to "the Bell Telephone Gray
code".[4]
[edit]History

and practical application

Reflected binary codes were applied to mathematical puzzles before they became
known to engineers. The French engineer mile Baudot used Gray codes
in telegraphy in 1878. He received the French Legion of Honor medal for his work.
The Gray code is sometimes attributed, incorrectly,[5] to Elisha Gray (in Principles of
Pulse Code Modulation, K. W. Cattermole,[6] for example).
Frank Gray, who became famous for inventing the signaling method that came to be
used for compatible color television, invented a method to convert analog signals to
reflected binary code groups using vacuum tube-based apparatus. The method and
apparatus were patented in 1953 and the name of Gray stuck to the codes. The
"PCM tube" apparatus that Gray patented was made by Raymond W. Sears of Bell
Labs, working with Gray and William M. Goodall, who credited Gray for the idea of
the reflected binary code.[7]

Part of front page of Gray's patent, showing PCM tube (10) with reflected binary code in plate (15)

The use of his eponymous codes that Gray was most interested in was to minimize
the effect of error in the conversion of analog signals to digital; his codes are still
used today for this purpose, and others.
[edit]Position

encoders

Rotary encoder for angle-measuring devices marked in 3-bit binary-reflected Gray code (BRGC)

A Gray code absolute rotary encoder with 13 tracks. At the top can be seen the housing, interrupter disk, and light
source; at the bottom can be seen the sensing element and support components.

Gray codes are used in position encoders (linear encoders and rotary encoders), in
preference to straightforward binary encoding. This avoids the possibility that, when
several bits change in the binary representation of an angle, a misread will result
from some of the bits changing before others. Originally, the code pattern was
electrically conductive, supported (in a rotary encoder) by an insulating disk. Each
track had its own stationary metal spring contact; one more contact made the
connection to the pattern. That common contact was connected by the pattern to
whichever of the track contacts were resting on the conductive pattern. However,
sliding contacts wear out and need maintenance, which favors optical encoders.

Regardless of the care in aligning the contacts, and accuracy of the pattern, a
natural-binary code would have errors at specific disk positions, because it is
impossible to make all bits change at exactly the same time as the disk rotates. The
same is true of an optical encoder; transitions between opaque and transparent
cannot be made to happen simultaneously for certain exact positions. Rotary
encoders benefit from the cyclic nature of Gray codes, because consecutive
positions of the sequence differ by only one bit.
[edit]Tower

of Hanoi

The binary-reflected Gray code can also be used to serve as a solution guide for
the Tower of Hanoi problem, as well a classical Chinese-rings puzzle and a
sequential mechanical puzzle mechanism.[5] It also forms a Hamiltonian cycle on
a hypercube, where each bit is seen as one dimension.
[edit]Genetic

algorithms

Due to the Hamming distance properties of Gray codes, they are sometimes used
in Genetic Algorithms. They are very useful in this field, since mutations in the code
allow for mostly incremental changes, but occasionally a single bit-change can cause
a big leap and lead to new properties.
[edit]Karnaugh

maps

Gray codes are also used in labelling the axes of Karnaugh maps.[8]
[edit]Error

correction

In modern digital communications, Gray codes play an important role in error

correction. For example, in a digital modulation scheme such as QAM where data is
typically transmitted in symbols of 4 bits or more, the signal's constellation diagram is
arranged so that the bit patterns conveyed by adjacent constellation points differ by
only one bit. By combining this with forward error correctioncapable of correcting
single-bit errors, it is possible for a receiver to correct any transmission errors that
cause a constellation point to deviate into the area of an adjacent point. This makes
the transmission system less susceptible to noise.
[edit]Communication

between clock domains

Digital logic designers use Gray codes extensively for passing multi-bit count
information between synchronous logic that operates at different clock frequencies.
The logic is considered operating in different "clock domains". It is fundamental to
the design of large chips that operate with many different clocking frequencies.

[edit]Gray code counters and arithmetic

A typical use of Gray code counters is building a FIFO (first-in, first-out) data buffer
that has read and write ports that exist in different clock domains. The input and
output counters inside such a dual-port FIFO are often stored using Gray code to
prevent invalid transient states from being captured when the count crosses clock
domains.[9] The updated read and write pointers need to be passed between clock
domains when they change, to be able to track FIFO empty and full status in each
domain. Each bit of the pointers is sampled non-deterministically for this clock
domain transfer. So for each bit, either the old value or the new value is propagated.
Therefore, if more than one bit in the multi-bit pointer is changing at the sampling
point, a "wrong" binary value (neither new nor old) can be propagated. By
guaranteeing only one bit can be changing, Gray codes guarantee that the only
possible sampled values are the new or old multi-bit value. Typically Gray codes of
power-of-two length are used.
Sometimes digital buses in electronic systems are used to convey quantities that can
only increase or decrease by one at a time, for example the output of an event
counter which is being passed between clock domains or to a digital-to-analog
converter. The advantage of Gray codes in these applications is that differences in
the propagation delays of the many wires that represent the bits of the code cannot
cause the received value to go through states that are out of the Gray code
sequence. This is similar to the advantage of Gray codes in the construction of
mechanical encoders, however the source of the Gray code is an electronic counter
in this case. The counter itself must count in Gray code, or if the counter runs in
binary then the output value from the counter must be reclocked after it has been
converted to Gray code, because when a value is converted from binary to Gray
code, it is possible that differences in the arrival times of the binary data bits into the
binary-to-Gray conversion circuit will mean that the code could go briefly through
states that are wildly out of sequence. Adding a clocked register after the circuit that
converts the count value to Gray code may introduce a clock cycle of latency, so
counting directly in Gray code may be advantageous. A Gray code counter was
patented in 1962 US3020481, and there have been many others since. In recent
times a Gray code counter can be implemented as a state machine in Verilog. In
order to produce the next count value, it is necessary to have some combinational
logic that will increment the current count value that is stored in Gray code. Probably
the most obvious way to increment a Gray code number is to convert it into ordinary

binary code, add one to it with a standard binary adder, and then convert the result
back to Gray code. This approach was discussed in a paper in 1996

[10]

and then

subsequently patented by someone else in 1998 US5754614. Other methods of

counting in Gray code are discussed in a report by R. W. Doran, including taking the
output from the first latches of the master-slave flip flops in a binary ripple counter. [11]
Perhaps the most common electronic counter with the "only one bit changes at a
time" property is the Johnson counter.
[edit]Motivation

Many devices indicate position by closing and opening switches. If that device
uses natural binary codes, these two positions would be right next to each other:
...
011
100
...

The problem with natural binary codes is that, with real (mechanical) switches, it is
very unlikely that switches will change states exactly in synchrony. In the transition
between the two states shown above, all three switches change state. In the brief
period while all are changing, the switches will read some spurious position. Even
without keybounce, the transition might look like 011 001 101 100. When the
switches appear to be in position 001, the observer cannot tell if that is the "real"
position 001, or a transitional state between two other positions. If the output feeds
into a sequential system (possibly via combinational logic) then the sequential
system may store a false value.
The reflected binary code solves this problem by changing only one switch at a time,
so there is never any ambiguity of position,
Dec
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Gray
000
001
011
010
110
111
101
100

Binary
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

Notice that state 7 can roll over to state 0 with only one switch change. This is called
the "cyclic" property of a Gray code. A good way to remember Gray coding is by
being aware that the least significant bit follows a repetitive pattern of 2. That is 11,
00, 11 etc. and the second digit follows a pattern of fours.
More formally, a Gray code is a code assigning to each of a contiguous set
of integers, or to each member of a circular list, a word of symbols such that each
two adjacent code words differ by one symbol. These codes are also known
assingle-distance codes, reflecting the Hamming distance of 1 between adjacent
codes. There can be more than one Gray code for a given word length, but the term
was first applied to a particular binary code for the non-negative integers, thebinaryreflected Gray code, or BRGC, the three-bit version of which is shown above.
[edit]Constructing

an n-bit Gray code

The first few steps of the reflect-and-prefix method.

The binary-reflected Gray code list for n bits can be generated recursively from the
list for n1 bits by reflecting the list (i.e. listing the entries in reverse order),
concatenating the original list with the reversed list, prefixing the entries in the
original list with a binary 0, and then prefixing the entries in the reflected list with a
binary 1. For example, generating the n = 3 list from the n = 2 list:
2-bit list:

00, 01, 11, 10

Reflected:

Concatenated:

10, 11, 01, 00

00, 01, 11, 10,

10, 11, 01, 00

Prefix old entries with 0:

000, 001, 011, 010, 10, 11, 01, 00

Prefix new entries with 1: 000, 001, 011, 010, 110, 111, 101, 100

The one-bit Gray code is G1 = (0, 1). This can be thought of as built recursively as
above from a zero-bit Gray code G0 = { } consisting of a single entry of zero length.
This iterative process of generating Gn+1 from Gn makes the following properties of
the standard reflecting code clear:

Gn is a permutation of the numbers 0, ... , 2n1. (Each number appears

exactly once in the list.)

Gn is embedded as the first half of Gn+1.

Therefore the coding is stable, in the sense that once a binary number
appears in Gn it appears in the same position in all longer lists; so it makes sense
to talk about the reflective Gray code value of a number: G(m) = the m-th
reflecting Gray code, counting from 0.

Each entry in Gn differs by only one bit from the previous entry. (The
Hamming distance is 1.)

The last entry in Gn differs by only one bit from the first entry. (The code is
cyclic.)

These characteristics suggest a simple and fast method of translating a binary value
into the corresponding Gray code. Each bit is inverted if the next higher bit of the
input value is set to one. This can be performed in parallel by a bit-shift and
exclusive-or operation if they are available: the nth Gray code is obtained by
computing
A similar method can be used to perform the reverse translation, but the computation
of each bit depends on the computed value of the next higher bit so it cannot be
performed in parallel. Assuming gi is the ith gray-coded bit (g0 being the most
significant bit), and bi is the ith binary-coded bit (b0 being the most-significant bit), the
reverse translation can be given recursively: b0 = g0, and
To construct the binary-reflected Gray code iteratively, start with the code 0, and at
step i find the bit position of the least significant '1' in the binary representation of i -

flip the bit at that position in the previous code to get the next code. The bit positions
start 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 3, ... (sequence A007814 in OEIS).
[edit]