Introduction to 3G/UMTS
Networks
Training Document
Nokia Networks Oy
1 (42)
The information in this document is subject to change without notice and describes only the product
defined in the introduction of this documentation. This document is intended for the use of Nokia's
customers only for the purposes of the agreement under which the document is submitted, and no
part of it may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or means without the prior written
permission of Nokia. The document has been prepared to be used by professional and properly
trained personnel, and the customer assumes full responsibility when using it. Nokia welcomes
customer comments as part of the process of continuous development and improvement of the
documentation.
The information or statements given in this document concerning the suitability, capacity, or
performance of the mentioned hardware or software products cannot be considered binding but
shall be defined in the agreement made between Nokia and the customer. However, Nokia has
made all reasonable efforts to ensure that the instructions contained in the document are adequate
and free of material errors and omissions. Nokia will, if necessary, explain issues which may not be
covered by the document.
Nokia's liability for any errors in the document is limited to the documentary correction of errors.
NOKIA WILL NOT BE RESPONSIBLE IN ANY EVENT FOR ERRORS IN THIS DOCUMENT OR
FOR ANY DAMAGES, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL (INCLUDING MONETARY LOSSES),
that might arise from the use of this document or the information in it.
This document and the product it describes are considered protected by copyright according to the
applicable laws.
NOKIA logo is a registered trademark of Nokia Oyj.
Other product names mentioned in this document may be trademarks of their respective
companies, and they are mentioned for identification purposes only.
Copyright Nokia Oyj 2004. All rights reserved.
2 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
Contents
1
Module objectives.................................................................................
2
2.1
2.2
3
3.1
3.1.1
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.4
3.4.1
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.8
Network evolution...............................................................................
Starting with the basic GSM..................................................................
GSM network elements.........................................................................
Adding value to GSM networks.............................................................
Adding value with GSM phase2+ and IN services.................................
IN services............................................................................................
Increasing data transfer in existing GSM networks................................
Benefits of faster data and services......................................................
Evolving GSM to packet core................................................................
Increasing speed with EDGE.................................................................
Evolving towards to the universal mobile network (Service platform)
..................................................................................................
UMTS development...............................................................................
Service potential in the mobile information society................................
3G end-to-end IP solutions....................................................................
4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.2.1
4.1.2.2
4.1.2.3
4.1.2.4
4.2
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.4
4.4.1
User Services......................................................................................
Review questions................................................................................
Nokia Networks Oy
3 (42)
Module objectives
The aim of this module is to give the participant the introductory knowledge needed
for explaining how the UMTS network has evolved. Topics to be covered in this
module include understanding the historic factors driving the system development
and the evolution of the mobile networks. Furthermore, the student should gain a
basic understanding of the different types of the air interface and list the key benefits
of UMTS for the operator and the end user.
After completing this module, the participant should be able to:
List at least three key benefits of WCDMA and identify at least three
advantages of 3G networks for both the operator and the end user
4 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
The system must bring clear added value when comparing to the GSM in all
aspects. However, in the beginning phase(s) the system must be backward
compatible at least with GSM and ISDN.
The services for the end users must be independent: Radio access and the
network infrastructure must not limit the services to be generated. That is, the
Nokia Networks Oy
5 (42)
technology platform is one issue and the services using the platform totally
another issue.
In order to appreciate the work in creating standards like UMTS, it is helpful to
understand the history and background of wireless communications in general, as
well as GSM and CDMA. A timeline of significant GSM and CDMA events is
contained in the following table.
Table 1.
Significant events
Year
Event
1900
1906
1948
1949
1956
1970s
1980s
1981
1982
1983
1985
1986
1987
1989
1990s
1991
First official GSM call in the world was made on January 7th using
Nokia equipment.
1992
6 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
2.1
Year
Event
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
In June, ITU receives 10 proposals for terrestrial RTTs and five for
satellite RTTs. These include CDMA2000 from the USA, ARIB
W-CDMA from Japan, and UTRA from Europe.
3GPP formed to co-ordinate the development of a joint 3 rd
generation system based on evolved GSM core and UTRA air
interface.
1999
2003
Nokia Networks Oy
7 (42)
Figure 1.
3G specification bodies
8 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
IMT-2000
radio
interface
options
TDMA
CDMA
Direct Spread
Multi Carrier
(on paired
frequency
spectrum)
(on paired
frequency
spectrum)
Time Code
(on unpaired
frequency
spectrum)
3G systems
Figure 2.
UMTS
(on paired
frequency
spectrum)
UWC-136
(EDGE)
cdma2000
FDD mode
Single Carrier
FDMA
Time Code
(on unpaired
frequency
spectrum)
(DECT)
TDD mode
This organisational body has had a very strong role when GSM Specifications were
developed and enhanced. ETSI is divided into workgroups named SMG (number),
and every workgroup has a specific area to develop. Because of the GSM
background, ETSI is in a relatively dominant role in this specification work.
ARIB (Alliance of Radio Industries and Business)
ANSI is the American specification body that has issued a license for a subgroup to
define telecommunication-related issues in that part of the world. Because of some
political points of view, ANSIs role is relatively small as far as UMTS concerned.
The ANSI subgroup is mainly concentrating on a competing 3G air interface
technology selection called cdma2000.
In order to maintain globalisation and complete control of the UMTS specifications,
a separate specification body called 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) was
established to take care of the specification work in co-operation with the previously
listed institutes. The outcome of the 3GPP work is a complete set of specifications
defining the 3G network functionality, procedures, and service aspects.
Nokia Networks Oy
9 (42)
OHG
UMTS
3G.IP
Figure 3.
Because there are some political desires involved, the issue is not as simple as
described; global system means global business and this is why there has been a lot
of pressure to select or emphasise certain solutions more than others. This political
debate actually delayed the specification work remarkably, and finally an
organisation was established to take care of the harmonisation issues. This
organisation, OHG (Operator Harmonisation Group) aims to find a common
understanding concerning the global issues. The results of this organisation are used
as inputs in 3GPP work as well as in 3G future implementations. The OHG made its
maybe the most remarkable decision in April-May 1999, when it decided the
common-for-all-variants code word (chip) rate in the 3G WCDMA air interface.
This issue has a direct effect on the system capacity and implementation and it was
maybe the biggest delaying factor concerning the UMTS specifications.
The aim of the OHG work is to affect the specifications so that all radio access
variants are compatible with all the variants meant for switching; this will ensure
true globalisation for 3G systems.
The first UMTS release was frozen in December 1999. This release is called UMTS
Release 99. In UMTS Release 99, the specification body 3GPP concentrated on two
main aspects:
10 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
2.2
The next version of the 3GPP Specifications is Release 4, which was frozen March
2001, and Release 5, which was frozen in March/June 2002. In Release 4 and 5, the
upgrades in the radio access and radio access network were minor. The main focus
lay on the core network and the service infrastructure. UMTS Release 4 included a
specification of the Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), a new radio interface
solution for China called low chip rate TDD mode (or TD-SCDMA). While in
UMTS Release 4 the first steps toward a 3G All IP could be found, this was fully
specified in UMTS Release 5, including the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).
Nokia Networks Oy
11 (42)
ATM
WCDMA
Uu
Iu
RAN
RAN
UE
UE
Service
Service
Platform
Platform
CN
CN
O&M
UE = User Equipment
RAN = Radio Acces Network
CN = Core Network
NMS = Network Management System
Figure 4.
NMS
NMS
The multiple access method used between the User Equipment (UE) and the RAN
(Radio Access Network) is called Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
(WCDMA). The 3GPP is aiming to specify open interfaces also within the RAN in
order to guarantee multivendor scenarios. Despite this, it is reasonable to believe that
operators will not select a large number of suppliers for the RAN, nor for the Core
Network (CN) implementation.
In GSM, we use TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) as the transmission method
between the different network elements. For UMTS, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) has been chosen as the transmission method in the radio access network. The
basic difference between TDM and ATM is that in TDM, we use timeslots for
conveying information between network elements. In ATM, on the other hand, the
data is transmitted in cells (packets) of fixed size across the network. (An ATM cell
has 48 octets of payload, 5 octets of headers.)
Also the interfaces within the CN and between the CN and the other networks can be
considered as open, but there may be several national limitations / enhancements /
extensions present. The 3G network can also be presented as a collection of
management layers, which cover certain parts of the network.
12 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
UE
Figure 5.
RAN
CN
The radio resource management (RRM) is completely covered between the RAN and
the user equipment (UE) and it involves managing how the channels are allocated.
The core network (CN) domains control the mobility management (MM), session
management (SM) and call control layers. The functions depend on whether the core
network domain is the CS (circuit switched) or PS (packet switched). The higherlayer functions performed between the UE and CN are often called communication
management (CM). The CM entity covers the topics like call control (CC),
supplementary services (SS) and short message service (SMS). In the module UMTS
Traffic Management, these management layers are further explained.
The added value that the WCDMA brings into the 3G network is the wideband radio
access, thus enabling a situation, in which the operator is able to offer completely
new services to the end users. The planned access rates to be offered with WCDMA
are roughly presented in Figure 6. In 3G networks, the user access rate will vary as a
function of the speed. It should be noted that the bit rates presented here are mainly
points of interest when data services are in question. The very basic circuit-switched
services, such as a plain voice calls, do not require these bit rates, but when the user
chooses to use e.g. fast Internet or video phone services, the bit rates face the limits
as expressed in Figure 6.
The 3GPP Specifications have been designed to divide the service platform from
the physical platform. This means that the services are independent from the
physical network. In GSM, we use traffic channels to carry data from the terminal to
the core network. In UMTS, the physical network routes a bearer between the
terminal and the core network. The bearer is variable in terms of speed and quality,
and it is allocated depending on the services the subscriber wishes to use. The
subscriber may also be using different bearers for different services simultaneously.
Nokia Networks Oy
13 (42)
3G Radio Access
Figure 6.
3G access rates
As indicated already, the 3G network will have the means and readiness for data
transfer in all forms. The traffic to be delivered through 3G can be divided into two
categories: Circuit Switched and Packet Switched. The circuit switched traffic
normally has a high real-time requirement (that is, no delay or the delay occurring
must be constant). Normal speech and video phoning are examples of this kind of
traffic. The packet switched traffic normally does not have such exact real-time
requirements, and a good example of this kind of traffic is an Internet connection.
Based on this traffic division, the services generating traffic are either Real-Time
(RT) or Non-Real-Time (NRT) services. The following values are defined for the
3G and services to be used.
Table 2.
14 (42)
Environment
Rural outdoor
(Speed < 250 km/h)
Urban/Suburban
(Speed < 150 km/h)
- 2 Mb/s
(Special conditions)
- 2 Mb/s
(Special conditions)
Nokia Networks Oy
3.1
TypeUnitOrDepartmentHere
TypeYourNameHere
TypeDateHere
Introduction to 3G/UMTS Networks
Network evolution
How can GSM as a system be converted or upgraded further on to face the increased
requirements set by the cellular operators and their subscribers? When studying this
matter, it is relatively easy to realise that there are several steps as to how things will
be implemented. On the other hand, there are several "clans" being either for or
against certain technical development step(s).
The majority of networks will support UMTS by evolving from GSM backbones.
Several public authorities have announced that it is not necessary to implement every
single step described here, but, by experience, a complicated technical concept must
be done in phases in order to guarantee final quality and better working equipment.
BTS
BSC
TCSM
MSC&VLR
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
Figure 7.
BSC
TCSM
Nokia Networks Oy
15 (42)
1.1
BSC (Base Station Controller) is responsible for radio path and radio resource
management.
BTS (Base Transceiver Station) is the network radio terminal forming the air
interface that the MSs (Mobile Stations) use for network access and
communication purposes.
NSS (Network Switching (Sub) system), the switching part of the GSM network,
contains the following elements:
MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) performs the traffic path connections and is
responsible for the majority of the connection management related entities.
HLR (Home Location Register) is the static data storage of the subscription
information. The HLR also contains the subscriber location information, but
the accuracy of this information is on the VLR level.
16 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
3.2
BTS
BSC
TCSM
MSC&VLR
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
Figure 8.
BSC
TCSM
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
The Short Message Service (SMS) has proven its potential in commercial use.
Originally, the SMS was not seriously considered as a service at all and thus it was
very cheap to use. However (and partly surprisingly), the subscribers adopted this
service and nowadays a remarkable share of the traffic in the GSM networks is SMS
based.
Another issue is the capacity offered. In this phase the capacity of the network is
(normally) drastically increased, and a clear difference between the analogue and
digital technology in this respect becomes evident.
Nokia Networks Oy
17 (42)
BTS
BSC
TCSM
MSC&VLR
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
BSC
TCSM
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
IN
Figure 9.
3.1
IN services
Fraud management is a very essential issue for the operators. For this purpose, the
basic GSM has two registers: AuC and EIR. However, these registers cannot
guarantee that the subscribers pay their bills.
IN is maybe the most common and flexible way to create a service called Prepaid,
where the prepaid customers have their own account (paid in advance) with a call
credit balance. During each call the account balance is regularly checked. When the
balance is 0 it is not possible to establish any calls. Naturally, the subscribers are
able to buy more airtime, thus increasing their account balances.
The Intelligent Network has the following advantages:
18 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
3.4
.4.1
HW/SW
Changes
BTS
BSC
TCSM
MSC&VLR
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
BSC
TCSM
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
IN
Figure 10.
Nokia Networks Oy
19 (42)
HW/SW
Changes
BTS
BSC
MSC&VLR
TCSM
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
BSC
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
TCSM
SGSN
IN
GGSN
IP Networks
Figure 11.
The traffic through the packet core is not equal when comparing to the MSC side:
the packet core traffic uses free air interface slots and thus the capacity of the packet
connection varies all the time. This is the basic reason why the 2G packet traffic does
not have exact QoS (Quality of Service) classification in use; it is said that 2G packet
connection QoS is best effort.
From the operator point of view, the packet connections increase traffic anyway and
the time slots not used by circuit switched services are in effective use.
Fast, wireless access to the Internet is enabled; theoretically, bit rates of 150 kb/s in
optimal circumstances are possible. A subscriber can expect nowadays data rates of
about 30 to 40 kb/s. Packet data transfer does not waste the capacity (as the HSCSD
does on one physical channel). WAP and SMS will be utilised very effectively in the
context of different services either provided by the operator or a 3 rd party.
20 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
3.6
HW/SW
Changes
BTS
BSC
MSC&VLR
TCSM
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
BSC
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
TCSM
SGSN
TRX Change & Transmission
Upgrade
IN
GGSN
IP Networks
Figure 12.
GSM - EDGE
This step will probably be the end point for several operators due to the licensing
policy (country-specific regulations). On the other hand, some operators may skip
this phase and move on to the next step in this development path. EDGE utilises
everything built in the GSM, including the multiple access method used in the air
interface (TDMA, Time Division Multiple Access).
Because the channel coding methods experience remarkable changes in this step, the
spectral efficiency does not change: same kinds of time slots are still in use, carrying
traffic like they have been carrying in a normal GSM. Also from the network
planning point of view, the use of radio frequencies will not change. The changes in
the system are related to transmission and multiple time slot allocation required in
PSTN connections.
Nokia Networks Oy
21 (42)
HW/SW Changes
HLR & AC & EIR
IP Networks
BTS
BSC
MSC&VLR
TCSM
PSTN
ISDN
BTS
BSC
Value Added
Service Platform(s):
SMSC, VMS
TCSM
IN
SGSN
GGSN
IP Networks
BTS
Figure 13.
RNC
MGW
If there is a possibility (as well as requirements and license), the operator may move
to a completely new level in service offering. This phase introduces new wideband
radio access technology, which, in the beginning, roughly equals the bit rates the
EDGE concept is able to provide. The new radio access require new network
elements in the radio network: RNC (Radio Network Controller) and BS (Base
Station) The BS is referred to as Node B in the 3GPP specifications.
The new radio access introduced in this phase is, however, utilising the frequency
spectrum more efficiently; the data flow and its bit rate is not dependent on time
slots any more. When the radio access method was planned, the packet type of traffic
was especially considered.
22 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
.7.1
.7.2
3.8
UMTS development
UMTS will be developed in releases like GSM. When the technology is more
mature, the services will be more sophisticated and involved in every area of life.
The structure of the network will change considerably. There will be several radio
access technologies in use in parallel. The wideband communication has changed the
structure of the network equipment and transmission.
The trend is that packet switched traffic volume soon will dominate over circuit
switched. It is expected that circuit switched traffic is used only in special cases,
such as for real time services that have high Quality of Service (QoS) requirements.
3G end-to-end IP solutions
With UMTS Release 99, a radio interface solution was introduced to allow the
transport of a wide range of multimedia services. The transmission network solution
Nokia Networks Oy
23 (42)
of the UMTS radio access network is based on ATM (and an alternative specification
of IP transport partly exists), which guarantees flexible bearer establishment in the
radio access network. But the UMTS CN solution is still rooted in GSM, and this
may impose limitations for multimedia applications. In UMTS Rel. 4 and 5, callprocessing server solutions combined with media gateways were specified for circuit
and packet switched services to allow flexible bearer establishment also in the core
network. The specifications explicitly mention IP and ATM as potential transmission
solutions for the core network.
This means a core network evolution.
IS D N
P S T N
Figure 14.
The majority of the traffic is expected to be packet switched data transfer over IP
(its more mature variant(s)). That is, the IP is expected to fully support mobility
management (if expressed in telecommunication terms). Additionally, in this kind of
environment the IP must fully support QoS (Quality of Service) thinking. These two
conditions are essential if cellular IP terminals are going to be used.
24 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
4.1
.1.1
Wireless principles
Duplex transmission
There are three ways to accomplish communications:
Simplex
Half-duplex
Duplex
Simplex has been used since the early 1900s. It is communication in a one-way
direction, such as AM and FM broadcast stations. Simplex uses one frequency
broadcast to one or multiple receivers.
Half duplex is communication in a two-way direction. However, only one person
may talk at a time, since half duplex uses only one frequency. Half duplex is often
referred to as push-to-talk (PTT).
Duplex is communication in a two-way direction on two frequencies. One frequency
is used to talk and the other one to listen. This is the modern way of cellular
communication.
There are two common ways to realise duplex transmission:
Nokia Networks Oy
25 (42)
each time frame, some time resources are used for uplink transmission,
while the remaining ones are used for downlink transmission.
Frequency Division Duplex
frequency
Figure 15.
1.2
frequency
Radio communication
There are two basic formats used in the radio communication: analogue and digital.
The commercially available analogue format has been used since 1900, while the
commercially available digital format was introduced in 1990. The difference
between the analogue and the digital format is that when using analogue, a persons
voice signal is transmitted over the air, while the digital format uses a string of 1s
and 0s to represent the voice signal (Figure 16). If someone would lock on to the
frequency used for an analogue conversation, he/she could actually hear the users
voices. For that same situation in the digital format the observer would need to
decode the 1s and 0s before hearing the conversation.
There are four basic air interface technologies used for communication:
Both FDMA and SDMA were introduced in the analogue format. TDMA and CDMA
technologies are based on the digital format.
26 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
.1.2.1
Analogue
Digital
Figure 16.
Nokia Networks Oy
27 (42)
carrier band
Figure 17.
frequency
Early cellular systems (1940s - 1960s) used higher power and lower frequencies
compared to todays cellular systems.
.2.2
In 1946, Bell Telephone System planners started submitting proposals for a largescale system that would satisfy the growing customer demand for more wireless
access. The idea behind the proposals was to break a huge geographical region into
smaller areas called cells. Each cell would use a frequency different than those of
its nearest neighbours to prevent any interference.
That is the idea behind the Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), the same
frequency can be used multiple times in the same geographical region.
The advantage to this technology is increased network capacity. The easiest way for
FDMA broadcasters to increase their coverage area is to increase their transmitting
power. However, increased power causes interference problems and increases the
distance before a frequency can be reused. SDMA can increase coverage by adding
more cells. Modern cellular uses higher frequencies and lower power. This causes
less interference and reduces the frequency reuse distance. This technology emerged
with the offering of Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the early 1980s.
Although this was a big capacity improvement, it soon ran into its limits. The
network planners made a few modifications to this design to increase capacity. One
solution was to reduce the cell size even further and to add more cells to fill in the
newly created uncovered areas. A second alternative was to add another frequency to
28 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
.1.2.3
the existing cell, so that two calls could be placed from the same cell. Both of these
solutions, however, did not overcome the basic limit of one call per frequency.
Figure 18.
The next step in providing greater network capacity was not only to divide
frequencies into different cells, but also to divide this frequency into different slices
of time. Originally, the frequency could only carry one conversation, but with the
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technology, multiple users could carry on
conversations using the same frequency in the same cell or space.
That is the idea behind TDMA; dividing the frequency into multiple time slices so
that multiple users can access the same frequency at the same time.
The commercially available products associated with this new technology are Digital
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS) and Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM). D-AMPS was introduced in the late 1980s, and GSM
became available in 1990. These two products are not compatible. D-AMPS is a
digital overlay to the existing analogue system AMPS for the purpose of increasing
capacity. GSM is standalone product with a digital format at its core.
Nokia Networks Oy
29 (42)
f3
f1
f6
f2
f4
f2
f7
f5
f3
f1
Figure 19.
Mobile Phone 3
Mobile Phone 2
Mobile Phone 1
Mobile Phone 4
Mobile Phone 3
Mobile Phone 2
TDMA frame
Mobile Phone 1
Mobile Phone 4
Mobile Phone 3
Mobile Phone 2
Mobile Phone 1
carrier band
Figure 20.
30 (42)
TDMA frame
frequency
Nokia Networks Oy
.1.2.4
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) also uses digital format. In CDMA
systems, several transmissions via the radio interface take place simultaneously on
the same frequency bandwidth. The user data is combined at the transmitters side
with a code, then transmitted. On air, all transmission get mixed. At the receivers
side, the same code is used as in the transmitters side. The code helps the receiver to
filter the user information of the transmitter from the incoming mixture of all
transmissions on the same frequency band and same time. This is often represented
by layers, as can be seen in the figure below.
In contrast to classical FDMA and TDMA systems, the same carrier frequency band
can be used in neighbouring cells. Frequency reuse factor in CDMA is one.
Figure 21.
Nokia Networks Oy
31 (42)
Power (P)
Time
Codes
Frequency
Figure 22.
CDMA background
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a type of spread-spectrum; a family of
digital communication methods that the military has used for some time dating back
to World War II. It is particularly useful to the military for two reasons:
Even though CDMA was hypothetically possible in the late 1940s, it was not
available to the civilian market for another four decades. A primary reason for this
was that low cost, high-density digital integrated circuits had to be developed to keep
the cost and the weight of the units down.
Principles of CDMA
CDMA can be compared to a room with people speaking different languages.
32 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
Let us imagine that a corporate CEO is hosting a large multinational gathering. Our
host, having mastered many languages, is primarily the one making the conversation.
Our host demands that his guests speak in their native tongues.
Our host, a true mediator, is able to interpret the conversations between guests if they
wish to talk with each other; he can fluently follow several conversations at the same
time. He can understand different speakers, all talking at the same time, because they
speak in different languages.
He occasionally has to tell some guests, who tend to get carried away, to speak a
little softer; and he has to ask the soft speakers to talk more loudly so that he can
hear them better.
The party starts to mature and many more guests arrive. The overall volume begins
to rise, because there are more people speaking at the same time. The host asks the
guests nearest to him to speak more softly, while he asks the ones further away to
please speak up.
CDMA functions are much like our party. The CEO hosting the party is our Base
Station (BS) and the guests are the Mobile Stations (MS). The different languages
correspond to codes in a CDMA system. The BS can tell the mobiles apart, even
though they are transmitting at the same time, by the codes that they use. Each MS
uses a separate code.
Figure 23.
Nokia Networks Oy
33 (42)
3.1
O r ig in a tin g B it
R e c e iv e d B it
W CDM A
F re q u e n cy
B and
Pow er
S p re a d in g
F a c to r
Figure 24.
In direct sequence CDMA, the transmission takes place continuously. If one user
data bit has to be transmitted from the transmitter (e.g. the mobile phone) to the
receiver (e.g. the base station), a certain amount of energy is required. The amount of
energy depends on the distance of the transmitter from the receiver, the obstacles in
the transmission path, etc. The energy can be represented like a box having
specific volume. The energy/volume is constant - but the dimensions of the box can
be change. As can be seen above, the boxs volume is made of the frequency band,
transmitter power, and time for the transmission. In UMTS, the frequency band is
constant. The other two dimensions, power and duration for the transmission, are
subject to change. A high data rates means many bits in one second, so the duration
for each information bit is short. Consequently, the output power for each bit must be
high to keep the boxs volume at a specific, constant level. If the data rate goes
down, less information bits are transmitted in one second, and therefore the duration
of one information bit is longer. If the energy for the transmission of the information
bit has not changed, the volume of the box is the same. Consequently, less output
power is required at the transmitters side.
34 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
.3.2
Power (P)
Time
Codes
Frequency
Figure 25.
In direct sequence CDMA technology based systems (like WCDMA), every user is
assigned a code/codes varying per transaction, i.e. the different users use separate
codes. These codes are called spreading codes. It should be noted that one user may
also use several spreading codes in certain situations. The user data is directly
multiplied with his code. This processes is called spreading. Then the user data is
transmitted via the common frequency band.
If the originating bit rate is low, the power required for transmission is small.
This kind of case can be seen as a narrow layer in Figure 25.
If the originating bit rate is high, is higher. This kind of case can be seen as a
thick layer in Figure 25.
Nokia Networks Oy
35 (42)
The direct sequence (DS) spread spectrum method is used in both the 2nd generation
CDMA systems (that is, IS-95) and in the new 3rd generation Wideband CDMA
(WCDMA) (UMTS and cdma2000).
Let us visualise the spreading process. We have the information bits with some
power per bits. The spreading signal is like a monster truck driving over the bits. The
bits get squashed and spread over the ground. The power that previously defined
the height of the bits is also flattened. The power is spread over the spectrum, that is,
the power per unit bandwidth is small. This is our goal. For someone not knowing
how the information was actually squashed, it is very difficult to detect the presence
of a spread spectrum user. All one would hear is an increased amount of noise.
User A
f
Data
P
User B
Figure 26.
In a spread spectrum system all the users are in the same frequency band. The
frequency band is not divided in time to the users as in GSM. All users may send at
the same time at will. The users information is spread over the whole frequency
band with a user-specific pseudo-noise (PN) signal, the spreading code. The
transmitted signal occupies a much wider bandwidth than would be necessary to
send the information. The bits in the spreading code are called chips.
In a multiple access environment, we will have at the receiver our spread spectrum
signal summed with the other user signals. Our receiver will decode the original
message fine as long as the noise caused by the other signals present is not too high.
This is why we can say that each user is sharing a pool of power in the system.
36 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
4.4
.4.1
FDD mode
FDD stands for frequency division duplex. Two separate 5 MHz frequency
bands are used one for uplink transmission and another one for downlink
transmission.
TDD mode
TDD stands for time division duplex. Hereby, one frequency band is used
both for uplink and downlink transmission.
In the FDD mode a continuous transmission in one transmission direction can take
place. The TDD mode is more similar to GSM. Bursts are transmitted. The reason
for that is routed in the fact, that uplink and downlink transmission must be managed
on the same frequency bands at different times. The FDD mode is seen as a very
good solution to get coverage. The TDD mode is especially efficient, when there is
asymmetric traffic. Because of this and its bursty nature, it use is seen mainly in the
pico and micro cell environment.
Both in the FDD and TDD mode, direct sequence CDMA is applied. The radio
interface solution is called Wideband CDMA (WCDMA), because 5 MHz carriers
are used.
Different technologies, which improve the spectrum usage, are easy to apply to
CDMA. E.g. in GSM, one physical channel is dedicated to one user for speech
transmission. If discontinuous transmission is applied, several timeslots of the
physical channels are not used. These timeslots cannot be used otherwise. In UMTS,
the transmission of several mobile phones takes place on the same frequency band at
the same time. Therefore, each transmission imposes interference to the
transmissions of other mobile phones on the same carrier frequency band. UMTS
supports discontinuous transmission via the radio interface. Consequently, if mobile
phones are silent, when there is nothing to transmit, the interference level is reduced
Nokia Networks Oy
37 (42)
and therefore the radio interface capacity increased. Another option allowed in
UMTS is the multiplexing of packet switched traffic with circuit switched traffic. If
there is no speech to transmit for a subscriber, the silent times are used for packet
switched traffic.
Limited frequency management
CDMA uses the same frequency in adjacent cells. There is no need for the
FDMA/TDMA type of frequency assignment that can sometimes be difficult. This is
the main reason for increased radio interface efficiency of WCDMA
Low mobile station transmit power
Different bit rates for uplink and downlink can be allocated to each user. CDMA thus
supports asymmetric communications such as TCP/IP access.
Wide variety of data rates
The wide bandwidth of WCDMA enables the provision of higher transmission rates.
Additionally, it provides low and high rate services in the same band.
Improvement of multipath resolution
The wideband carrier of the WCDMA system allows more channels/users in one
carrier. The statistical multiplexing effect also increases the frequency usage
efficiency. This efficiency drops in narrowband systems with fast data
communications, because the number of the users on one carrier is limited.
Increased standby time from higher rate control channels
The wideband carrier can enhance the transmission of the control channels. The MS
only listens to the control channels part of the time, thereby increasing the standby
time.
38 (42)
Nokia Networks Oy
User Services
Subscribers are paying for value added services offered to them. Therefore mobile
operators are currently concentrating in broadening the services, offered to the
subscribers.
Multimedia messaging
Telecommuting
Nokia Networks Oy
39 (42)
Review questions
Please take some time to answer the following questions.
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
It is the name of the interface between the RAN and the CN.
e.
It is a specification body that takes care of the specification work in cooperation with many institutes.
2.
3.
4.
40 (42)
a.
HLR
b.
GGSN
c.
RNC
d.
EIR
b.
c.
d.
EDGE will allow telephone calls to take place faster as people can talk
faster than in GSM.
Nokia Networks Oy
5.
False
6.
7.
1st generation networks are digital and 2nd generation networks are
analogue.
b.
c.
d.
Data, fax, and SMS services will first be introduced with WCDMA.
8.
9.
Which of the following are benefits of WCDMA (circle the correct answer)?
10.
True
a.
b.
c.
d.
Nokia Networks Oy
41 (42)
11.
42 (42)
True
False
Which of the following are benefits or services for the end user?
a.
b.
c.
Multimedia messaging
d.
e.
f.
Videophony
g.
Location-based services
h.
i.
Nokia Networks Oy