Classical Dynamics
Lecture Handout: 4
Lecturer: J. Ellis
University of Cambridge
Department of Physics
Version 1(b)
Please send comments or corrections to Dr.J. Ellis, je102@cus.cam.ac.uk
Contents
4
Contents ...................................................................................................................................i
Rigid Body Dynamics ......................................................................................................71
4.1
Angular Velocity ......................................................................................................71
4.2
Addition of angular velocities ..................................................................................72
4.3
Tensor of inertia........................................................................................................74
4.4
Principal axes............................................................................................................75
4.5
Rotational Kinetic Energy ........................................................................................76
4.6
Eulers Equations ......................................................................................................77
4.7
Free Precession .........................................................................................................79
4.8
Poinsots Construction (non examinable) .................................................................80
4.9
Stability of precession and the asymmetric top ........................................................81
4.10 Details of the free precession of an asymmetric top (non-examinable) ...................82
4.11 The major axis theorem for non rigid bodies. ..........................................................83
4.12 Examples of the major axis theorem ........................................................................84
4.1.1
where is the angular velocity and R is the velocity of the reference point O.
- It is often useful to take the reference point O as being the centre of mass, but it need not be.
(For example a rolling cylinder, one could usefully take O is being on the line of contact
between the cylinder and the ground, for which R is instantaneously zero.)
- Prescription for finding for a rigid body.
(1) decide on an inertial frame of reference in which you wish to view the body this
corresponds to setting up what you are going to take as R . (For example with a rolling
cylinder you could take the ground'
s reference frame in which case R is the velocity of the
centre of mass as it rolls along, or you could take one in which the centre of mass was
stationary in which case R is zero.)
(2) take two photos of the body a very short time apart.
(3) Look for the points on the body that do not move these will lie on the axis of rotation
and will define the direction of . For the rolling cylinder, if you take your reference frame
as that of the ground then the axis of rotation will be the line of contact between the cylinder
and the ground, since this line on the cylinder is instantaneously stationary. If you take the
centre of mass frame, then the axis will be the central line of the cylinder.
(4) Choose a point on the axis of rotation to be your reference point.
(5) Find the magnitude of such that the velocities of each point on the cylinder (as
determined by how far they have moved between the two photos) is given by:
v = R + r
71
0
1
A = 0 cos
0 sin
sin
cos
0
cos
B= 0
sin
0 sin
1
0
0 cos
72
so if the A rotation is first performed and then the B rotation, the effect may be represented
by the matrix:
cos
B A= 0
sin
0 sin 1
0
1
0 0 cos
0 cos 0 sin
cos
sin = 0
cos sin
0
sin sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos
sin
cos cos
and when performed in the reverse order, the rotations may be represented by:
0
1
A B = 0 cos
0 sin
cos
sin 0
cos sin
0
0 sin
cos
1
0 = sin sin
0 cos cos sin
0
cos
sin
sin
sin cos
cos cos
Clearly A B B A , but if we go to the limit of small angles, for which the first order limiting
approximations cos = 1 and sin = may be made, then we see that:
1 0
A= 0 1
0
,
1
B= 0
1 0
0 1
and, keeping only terms that are first, or zeroth order we see that the order in which the
infinitesimal rotations are performed does not affect the result:
0
1
AB = B A= 0 1
r = A B r r = (A B I )r = 0
r =
0 r
0
axis is made, and the infinitesimal rotations
0
t x
r = r = t y r = t r
t
0
z
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and
r
= v =r
t
Thus:
- we prove the formula that relates the velocity and angular velocity
- we prove that angular velocity ands as a vector and can be decomposed into a sum of
components as a vector.
- we show that addition, or decomposition of angular velocity may be visualised by
considering small actual rotations.
= mr 2 mr ( .r )
J x = mr 2 x m( x x + y y + z z )x
= m y 2 + z 2 x mxy y mxz z
- so for J:
m y2 + z2
J = myx
mzx
mxy
m(x + z )
mzy
2
mxz
x
myz y
m x 2 + y 2 z
J=I
where I is the inertia tensor, composed of the moments of inertia (on the leading diagonal)
and products of inertia (off diagonal elements). Note that I is a symmetrical tensor which
has important consequences outlined below.
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i.e. we are looking for eigenvectors of the inertia tensor, and the corresponding eigenvalues ,
which will give the moments of inertia about the eigenvectors.
- since I is a symmetric tensor in 3-D, then it will have 3 eigenvectors, which will be
mutually orthogonal (or can be made to be mutually orthogonal in the case of eigenvectors
whose corresponding eigenvalues are degenerate). i.e. for ANY rigid body will one can
always find three mutually perpendicular axes for which J is parallel to if is aligned with
one of the axes. It therefore usually makes sense to choose these three principal axes (labelled
1,2,3 by convention) as the reference directions for the coordinate system since in this
coordinate system the inertia tensor will be diagonal.
I1
J=0
0
0
I2
0
0 1 I 11
0 2 = I 2 2
I 3 3 I 3 3
- for example rotating dumbbell, length 2a, with its axis at 45 to the axis of rotation
y,
z
m
x
m
masses at a 2 and a 2
0
0
giving:
ma 2 ma 2
0
2
2
I = ma ma
0
0
0
2ma 2
1
1 ,
0
75
1
1 ,
0
0
0
1
about
which
the
e 2 , J
e3
2ma 2
J = 0
0
e1
0 1 2ma 21
0
0 2 =
0
0 2ma 2 3 2ma 2 3
0
2 ma 2
e3
e 2
Disk:
1 0 0
1
Radius a, Mass m
I = ma 2 0 1 0
4
0 0 2
Block Mass m
b2 + c2
1
I = m 0
12
0
0
a 2 + c 2
a2 + b2
0
e1
e 2
e1
c
e3
b
a
1
1
1
1
1
m( r )(
. r ) = m .(r ( r )) = . r p = .J = .I
2
2
2
2
2
1
I 112 + I 2 22 + I 3 32
2
4.5.1
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- consider keeping K.E. constant, but varying . Equation 4.5.1 maps out a surface of
constant K.E in space i.e. the tip of the vector maps out an ellipsoid in space the
inertia ellipsoid. Equation 4.5.1 may be rewritten as:
12 22 32
+
+
=1
a12 a 22 a32
where a1 =
2T
I1
etc
- The angular momentum vector associated with a particular is perpendicular to the surface
of the ellipsoid at the point where the vector touches the ellipsoid. To prove we use the fact
that for any in the surface of the ellipsoid, the T remains fixed, i.e.
T = 0 = I 111 + I 2 2 2 + I 3 3 3 = J .
and J is perpendicular to any vector in the surface of the ellipsoid.
e1
J
Drawing a section through the ellipsoid:
e 2
1.4.1
- The principal axes are often the most convenient coordinate system for describing rotational
motion but they are themselves rotating at with respect to the space frame, and we need
equation 1.4.1 to give true time derivatives.
- The dynamics of a rotating system are determined by the relation:
J = G
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where J is the total angular momentum of the system and G is the total external couple on the
system and so we need to use 0.1 to give us J = G in terms of coordinates in the body frame:
d J
d J
G=
+ J
=
dt Space dt Body
4.6.1
( J )1 = 2 J 3 3 J 2 = 2 I 3 3 3 I 2 2 = 2 3 (I 3 I 2 )
G1 = I 1 1 + 2 3 (I 3 I 2 )
G2 = I 2 2 + 31 (I 1 I 3 )
G3 = I 3 3 + 1 2 (I 2 I 1 )
Eulers Equations
etc
G= 0
ma 2 2
e 2 , J
e 3 , G
e1
78
1 = b 2
2 = b1
and
I1 I 3
3 = b , the body frequency gives:
I1
1 = b21 and
2 = b2 2
1
=
2
sin ( b t + )
A
cos( b t + )
Body
Cone
Inertia
Ellipsoid
Polhode
- The curve traced out on the inertia
ellipsoid by the angular velocity vector is
known as the Polhode.
e 3
The body axes move with respect to the space frame such that:
(a) Instantaneously the whole body rotates about . (an instant later, has moved on around
the polhode and we have a new axis of rotation).
(b) Instantaneously the line on the body that coincides with is stationary.
(c) The body moves such that J , which is given by the perpendicular to the inertia ellipsoid
at the point where touches it, remains of constant direction and size in space ( J = G = 0 )
1
(d) Since T = J is constant, and and J are also constant, the angle between and J is
2
also constant and precesses around J.
- This motion can be represented by Poinsots Construction.
79
Invariable
Plane
Space
Cone
C.o.M
fixed
Polhode
e 3
Herpolhode
J
- Draw a plane (the invariable plane) tangential to the inertia ellipsoid a the point where
touches the ellipsoid. J is perpendicular this plane. Since is instantaneously at rest and since
the inertial ellipsoid rotates around and since the angle between and J is constant, the
inertia ellipsoid rolls on the invariable plane with tracing out space cone is ellipsoid rolls.
Body
Cone
Space
Cone
S sin S = b sin b
S = b
where = (1 2 3 )
B = (0, 0 B )
b
S = S J = S (I 11 , I 2 2 , I 3 3 )
J
J
hence:
sin b
S = S ( 2 3 (I 3 I 1 ), 1 3 (I 1 I 3 ), 0)
J
S
sin S
b = b ( 2 , 1 , 0)
S = b J [ 3 (I 1 I 3 )] = J I 1
- and e 3 precess at same space frequency S = J I 1 around direction of J.
Example: Polar/Chandler wobble of Earth: (I 3 I 1 ) I 1 = 1 300 Oblate; S negative.
Angle tiny - S b b 300 . Space cone tiny inside body cone which swings around
it each day. In about 300 days, should move in a cone round e 3 . J- e 3 . Period is actually
around 427 days and irregular because the Earth is not rigid. Its amplitude varies around 0.2
seconds, 3 -15m. The wobble is significant for satellite navigations systems, and may be
linked to tectonic activity.
80
b2 = 32
(I 3 I 1 )(I 3 I 2 )
I1 I 2
Thus we have stable precession ( b real) when I 3 > I 1, 2 or I 3 < I 1, 2 - i.e. when axis of
precession corresponds to greatest or least principal moment of inertia. Otherwise b
imaginary and have unstable precession.
- If the orientation of a satellite is important, then it must not be set rotating about the
intermediate axis of inertia because apparently chaotic motion results that is very hard to
control. (The motion is actually well defined, but complex and is not actually chaotic.)
- What path does J trace out w.r.t. principal axes?- consider conservation of angular
momentum:
J 2 = J 12 + J 22 + J 32 = constant
(sphere in J space)
81
4.9.1
Unstable
J // to
83
4.12
Celestial Objects
All known freely rotating celestial objects rotate about an axis their major axes be they
asteroids, galaxies or planets like the Earth.
Chandler Wobble
The Earth is far from rigid, and so any free precession will decay with time as kinetic energy
is lost. The Chandler wobble decays away over a time span of about 68 years, and so must be
continuously excited/driven by some means. Recently Richard Gross, a geophysicist at the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, showed that the principal cause of the Chandler wobble is fluctuating
pressure on the bottom of the ocean, caused by temperature and salinity changes and winddriven changes in the circulation of the oceans. ( '
The excitation of the Chandler wobble'R.S.
Gross RS, Geophysical Reasearch Letters 27, 2329-2332 (2000) ).
Explorer 1 Satellite
In 1958, a few months after the Russians launched Sputnik I, the US launched their first
satellite Explorer 1, which was a long cylindrical object, with flexible radio antennae
protruding from the sides:
To stabilise its orientation it was set spinning about an axis parallel to its length.
Unfortunately this is the minor axis of the satellite, and before it had orbited the Earth once,
the angular momentum vector had moved to the major axis (perpendicular to the middle of
the satellite) and it spent the rest of its mission cart wheeling thought space. Fortunately its
instruments and power supply (a battery!) were unaffected by the orientation of the satellite
and its mission was a success discovering the Van Allen radiation belts around the earth.
Lewis Satellite
This satellite was lost in August 1997 shortly after launch an overview of the causes can be
downloaded from http://www.aero.org/capabilities/cords/pdfs/SOPSO-V3-2.pdf.
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