Heredifas 66: 177-182

(1970)

Genetic association of giftedness and

creativity with schizophrenia
JON LOVE KARLSSON
National Archives, Reykjavik, Iceland

(Received September 14, 1970)

This comparative study of Icelanders, born during the period 1881-1910, indicates that
close relatives of psychotic individuals have a significantly increased probability of being
considered persons of eminence. Their rate of listing in Who Is Who is doubled, both in
regard to general listings and those based on artistic or scholastic endeavors. Review of
relevant literature supports the view that the dominant principal gene proposed for schizophrenia may in a heterozygous state lead to cerebral stimulation, with improved performance
in areas of giftedness and creativity.

While authorities in the behavioral fields have majority of geneticists interested in this field agree
often been inclined to discount the importance of that the most likely basic mode of transmission
hereditary factors in personality development, for schizophrenia is dominant inheritance (BOOK
geneticists have generally recognized that children 1953; HUXLEYet al. 1965; KARLSSON1966),
are born with varying mental potentials. Longi- although additional modifying factors must be
tudinal studies have supported the existence of postulated to account for the total family pattern
behavioral differences in infants which persist of psychosis. The present author has previously
during subsequent growth (THOMAS
et al. 1968). favored a two locus mechanism based on a
Studies of monozygotic twins reared apart have dominant principal gene and a recessive secondary
indicated that the personality traits of each pair gene, but new data gathered in Iceland do not
tend to rsmain alike despite early separation support this hypothesis, but rather suggest a
(NEWMASet al. 1937; SHIELDS1962; JUEL- system requiring two separate dominant genes
NIELSEN
1965). Correlation studies of intelligence (KARLSSON
1970 b). In this latter system the less
tests have also shown that no other relatives, frequent of the two genes, being the one whose
although reared together, come close to attaining presence or absence is easier to demonstrate, is
as similar scores as monozygotic twins, even if considered to be the principal gene.
These developments have paved the way tothey are reared apart (ERLENMEYER-KIMLING
and
JARVIK1963). However, specific genetic studies in ward a more specific study of genetic factors
this area have been assumed to be rather im- involved in the development of basic personality
practical, as one would guess that many factors traits. Individuals can be identified who are likely
are involved and that the total picture is quite to carry only the principal gene of schizophrenia,
and while such persons do not develop psychosis,
complex.
Recent studies of the family transmission of there are indications that their personalities differ
schizophrenia have led to the conclusion that from those of non-carriers (KARLSSON
1968). It
genetic factors are of principal importance in that has been proposed that the gene in question may
disorder. The elevated risk of psychosis in close be involved in the physiologic regulation of the
relatives of schizophrenic index cases appears to arousal system of the brain, thus helping to
remain unchanged even if they are reared away explain how simple genetic variations can lead to
from their biologic families (HESTON 1966; profound personality differences.
The present paper presents additional evidence
ROSENTHAL
et al. 1968; KARLSSON
1970 a). The
Hereditas 66,1970

178

J ~ LOVE
N
KARLSSON

in support of the view that carriers of the proposed principal gene of schizophrenia tend to be
relatively gifted or creative.

Methods and results

Psychotic persons, identified from the records

of the Kleppur Mental Hospital in Reykjavik,
were divided into three generations, those born in
theintervals 1851-1880,1881-1910, and 19111940. The study was limited to those index cases
on whom family information was available,
the majority being listed in the same genealogy
books from which the control group had been
selected. The 1851-1880 index cases served as
a source of sons and nephews, the 1881-1910
index group provided brothers, and the 19111940 index cases were used to identify fathers and
uncles, all study cases being born in the interval

This investigation is based on the population of

Iceland, a country particularly well suited to
quantitative genetic studies of commonly occurring conditions. The total population of 2OO,OOO,
the geographic stability, the high cultural level,
the excellent records, and the high medical stand- 1881-1910.
ards are some of the favorable factors.
Each group thus identified was studied for the
Persons born between 1881 and 1910 were rate of listing in Who Is Who. The results are
chosen for a comparative study of giftedness. The shown in Table 1, giving separately relatives of
control group consisted of 3793 persons born index cases diagnosed schizophrenic and manic
during this interval, surviving and available after depressive. In the last column both groups are
age 15 years. These individuals were selected from combined, as there is considerable evidence that
three large books on genealogy published by the major psychoses are closely related genetically
1971). It will be noted that the rate of
different authors and covering all regions of Ice- (KARLSSON
land (JONSSON1932; ZOPHONIASSON1939; listing is considerably higher for the relatives of
GISLASONand VALDIMARSSON
1959). Of these psychotic persons than for the control group.
persons 1959 were males. To establish a basic
Although the available material is rather limitindex of giftedness the rate of listing in Who Is ed for a separate study of creative persons, a
Who in Iceland was ascertained by the use of two group was segregated which included only those
indices, published two decades apart (TOBIASSON listed in Who Is Who on the basis of creative
1944; GUDNASONand HARALDSSON
1965). endeavors rather than because of social position,
Almost one-tenth of all males was found to be which is the most common reason for inclusion
in such books. These data, which also are restrictlisted in at least one of these books.

Table 1. Rate of listing in Who Is Who in Iceland of males born in the

interval 1881-1910, related as indicated to psychotic index cases
Study group

General population
Kindred 1
Kindred 2
Kindred 3
First degree relatives
Fathers
Brothers
Sons
Second degree relatives
Uncles
Nephews

Fraction listed according Total

to diagnosis of index case number
studied
SchizoManic
phrenic
depressive

281213
13/85
1411 12
1/16
271149
10169
17/80

16/69
4/16
613 1
6/22
13/55
6/24
713 1

1959
698
722
539
282
101
143
38
204
93
111

Deviation from general population rate significant, p < 0.01

Hereditas 66, 1970

Per cent
rate of
listing

9.2
10.7
6.5
10.9
15.6
16.8
14.0
18.4
19.6*
17.2
21.6

GIFTEDNESS AND SCHIZOPHRENIA

179

Table 2. Listings in Who Is Who for creativity among randomly selected Icelandic males and among
first and second degree male relatives of psychotic patients, all born in the interval 1881-1910
Description of group

General population

Relatives of
psychotic propositi

Kindred 1

Kindred 2

Kindred 3

Schizophrenic

Manic
depressive

Total males studied

Number listed in Who Is Who
Creative persons listed in Who Is Who
Scholars
Novelists
Poets
Painters
Composers
Performers

698
75
7
2
I
0
3
I
0

722
47
3
3
0
0

539
59
3
2

362
55
5
2
1

124
29
6

0
0

0
0

0
0

2
2

Fraction listed for creativitv

13/1959 =0.7%,*

0
0

11/486=2.3%*

* Difference significant at 0.001 level

Table 3. Comparison of the per cent incidence of psychosis and of giftedness for each generation in
the different branches of Kindred 1
The numbers in parentheses are based on either one or two cases, and blanks indicate that no psychosis or giftedness
is recorded
Gene- Branch A
raN=1488
tion
Schizo- Giftedphrenia ness
11
Ill

IV
V
VI

VII

Average*

(12.5)
(4.8)
(2.1)
4.7
3.6
1.7

(25.0)
(4.8)
8.3
2.3
7.5
5.6

2.6

6.0

Branch B

Branch C
N = 1141

N =648

Branch D
N = 807

Branch E
N = I64

Branch F
N =278

Schizo- Gifted- Schizo- Gifted- Schizo- Gifted- Schizo- Gifted- Schizo- Giftedphrenia ness
phrenia ness
phrenia ness
phrenia ness
phrenia ness
-

(1.2)
2.4
1.7

(10.0)
11.6
7.2
5.4
4.8

1.7

5.6

--~

(0.4)
0.7

(2.6)
(1.1)
1.9
2.4

(4.2)
(2.5)
3.2
2.8
(0.5)

0.5

2.1

1.6

.
.
.
.

--~--

~~

~~

. -

-.

(1.1)

(4.8)
(2.8)
6.0
4.1
4.3

3.3
2.3

(1.0)

4.0

__
(1.5)
(1.4)

2.2

(0.6)

2.4

1.1

Overall rates for the kindred are 1.6 per cent recorded psychosis and 4.0 per cent listings in Who Is Who.

ed to males born in the period 1881-1910, are

summarized in Table 2. Again there is a higher
rate of listing for relatives of psychotic patients.
The numbers are too small to permit a separate
study of just the closest relatives, but it may be of
interest that seven of the eleven creative relatives
of psychotic patients are first degree relatives.
To demonstrate that the increased rate of
listing in Who Is Who is specifically associated
with the dominant principal gene postulated for

schizophrenia, the rate of psychosis and the rate

of giftedness were compared in the different
branches of the one of the three kindreds which is
known to have an uneven distribution of psy1971). The data in Table 3
chosis (KARLSSON
indicate that the same branches are high in both
psychosis and listings in Who Is Who. Particularly
striking is the differ:nce between branch A and
branch C, both of which are quite large. Branch
A has produced many psychotic as well as many
Hereditas 66, 1970

180

J ~ LOVE
N
KARLSSON

gifted persons, while branch C has little psychosis

and is almost devoid of giftedness as measured by
listings in Who Is Who. In previous studies it has
been concluded that the principal gene of schizophrenia has been present in branch A from the
start, while branch C probably was free of this
gene for several generations (KARLSSON
1964).

the responsible genes in potentially harmful

combinations.
It appears likely that the group referred to in
the present study as superphrenics may correspond to persons whom MCCONAGHYand
CLANCY
(1968) have called allusive thinkers on
the basis of performance on object sorting psychologic tests. Since the test responses of such persons
are similar to those seen in schizophrenic patients,
MCCONAGHY(1 959) originally considered this
type of response to constitute a thought disDiscussion
order, but later results have suggested that a
On the basis of preliminary data it was proposed different designation may be more appropriate.
several years ago (KARLSSON1966) that the Allusive thinking was felt to be deviant in that
mentality of relatives of psychotic patients might such persons allude to the correct answer rather
be favorably influenced by some of the genes than responding more directly as normals do.
and CLANCYSdata it is
involved in schizophrenia. In his study of foster Even in MCCONAGHY
reared children of schizophrenic mothers HESTON apparent that allusive thinkers can be good
(1966) also observed that they tended to exhibit scholars. They are also found more often among
more colorful personalities than a control group relatives of schizophrenics, in fact in the original
report MCCONAGHY
born to non-psychotic mothers.
felt that he could identify at
In another study of the family designated here least one parent of each schizophrenic as thought
as Kindred 1, whose genealogy is well documented disordered.
Recent neurophysiologic studies may also
since the birth of the original ancestors in 1682
(JONSSON1932), it has been demonstrated that support a relationship between schizophrenia and
all the highly gifted persons identifiable among giftedness. Several authors have described excesthe descendants born before 1880 had close rela- sive physiologic responsiveness to external stimuli
tives who were psychotic (KARLSSON1968). by schizophrenics and their relatives (ZAHN1964;
While the rate of recorded psychosis for the MEDNICK
and SCHULSINGER
1968). Persons with a
entire kindred was 1.6 per cent, the relatives of the high intelligence quotient on psychometric tests
most gifted members had a rate almost three exhibit similar overresponsiveness as measured by
times that high or 4.5 per cent. The term super- evoked potentials in the electroencephalogram
1969).
phrenic was suggested to denote carriers of the (ERTLand SCHAFER
Several investigators have presented data in the
proposed principal gene, while those carrying the
modifying gene were designated tensiphrenic and past which suggest a relationship between intellithose carrying neither norrnophrenic. Those gence and mental illness. MYERSONand BOYLE
possessing both abnormal genes were considered (1941) surveyed eminent American families and
to have a schizophrenic constitution, such indi- reported an increase in psychosis, especially
viduals at times manifesting a high degree of manic depressive illness. JUDA(1949), attempting
creativity in addition to their risk of psychosis. to disprove that men of genius were often psychoThe results of the present study are in agree- tic, found a significant increase in mental illness
ment with the previous data and suggest that some and suicide in all close relatives of the index cases,
type of mental stimulation is associated with a most of whom would probably be classified as
genetic relationship to psychotic persons. The gifted rather than highly creative. TERMANand
probability of being listed in Who Is Who seems ODEN (1959), in a longitudinal study of gifted
to be doubled for close relatives of psychotic persons, encountered a high rate of suicide by
individuals. The somewhat higher rate of listing age 40 years, although recognized psychosis may
for second degree as compared to first degree not have been increased.
Like their relatives, highly creative persons have
relatives may be explained by the fact that the
closest relatives of psychotics are the ones most also been reported to have an increased rate of
prone to suffer from severe emotional problems, psychosis. In a very thorough world wide survey
(1 928)
presumbably being the ones most likely to receive of men of creative genius LANGE-EICHBAUM
Hereditas 66, 1970

GIFTEDNESS AND SCHIZOPHRENIA

found a history of psychosis in over 40 per cent of

the greatest contributors to human endeavors.
Other investigators have reported that creative
persons show responses on projective psychologic
tests which closely resemble those observed with
psychotic patients (MACKINNON1962; BARRON
1963; DUDEK
1970).
All these studies are consistent with the hypothesis that psychosis may be related to an inherited tendency to overproduce stimulant neurohormones which also have a function in intellectual processes. These effects are assumed to be
related to a heterozygous state with respect to the
principal gene of schizophrenia. Extension of the
present research to include a larger number of
individuals is in progress.
Acknowledgements.
The author is grateful to Professor
Tomas Helgason for making available records from the
Kleppur Mental Hospital in Reykjavik and to Professor
Gudni Jonsson for supplying specific information about
one of the kindreds involved in this study.
~

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Dr. J6n L. Karlsson

1380 Thompson Ave.
Napa, Calif. 94558 U.S.A.

12

Hereditas 66, 1970