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Unconformities, Joints, Faults and Folds

Unconformities

Gault clay

1.

The diagram above shows an angular unconformity below the Gault Clay on the coast of southern
Britain. Describe the sequence of events, starting with the deposition of the oldest rock group.

2.

The picture below shows part of a cliff face exposing sedimentary strata. Trace over the angular
unconformity in a bright colour.

3.

In geology the term joint refers to a fracture in rock where there has been no lateral movement in
the plane of the fracture (up, down or sideways) of one side relative to the other. How does this
differ from a fault?

Joints
Joints form in solid, hard (competent) rock that is stretched such that its brittle strength is exceeded (the
point at which it breaks). When this happens, the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum
principle stress and perpendicular to the minimum principle stress (the direction in which the rock is being
stretched). This leads to the development of a single subparallel joint set. Continued deformation may
lead to development of one or more further joint sets.
Joint sets are commonly observed to have relatively constant spacing and the spacing is roughly
proportional to the thickness of the bed.
Find out the origins of the following types of joints and the types of rock where they are likely to be
found. In each case, describe at least one location where you might find the type of jointing.
a. Tectonic joints

b. Tension and cross joints,

c. Cooling joints

d. Unloading joints.

Faults
Define what is a fault?

On each of the following diagrams add labels to show (where applicable): fault plane, throw, fault dip,
hanging wall, footwall, upthrow and downthrow.

Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, so the term fault zone is used when
referring to the zone of complex deformation that is associated with the fault plane.
The two sides of a nonvertical fault are called the hanging wall and footwall. By definition, the hanging
wall occurs above the fault and the footwall occurs below the fault. This terminology comes from mining.
When working rock face, the miner stood with the footwall under his feet and with the hanging wall
hanging above him.

Fault Types
The creation and behaviour of faults is controlled by the relative motion of rocks on either side of the
fault surface. Because of friction and the rigidity of the rock, the rocks cannot simply glide or flow past
each other. Rather, stress builds up in rocks and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strain threshold,
the accumulated potential energy is released as strain, which is focused into a plane along which relative
motion is accommodated the fault.
For each of the fault types illustrated below, explain its formation in terms of the type (compression,
tension or shearing) and direction of the forces involved. Label the diagrams and add arrows.

Dipslip faults (Normal and Reverse)

Graben (rift), and Horst

Thrust Fault

Strikeslip fault

Transform Fault

TRANSFORMFAULT

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Slickensides are naturally polished rock surfaces that are produced by motion on faults. They may be
scattered surfaces as small as your hand or, in rare cases, thousands of square meters in extent. The
corrugations show the direction of motion along the fault. Unusual minerals may occur given the
combinations of fluids and pressures along slickensides. But even familiar rocks, as we will see, take on
unusual features too.
Fault breccia is a breccia (a rock type consisting of angular clasts) that was formed by tectonic forces.
Fault breccias usually have no cohesion; they are normally unconsolidated rocks, unless cementation has
taken place at a later stage.

You should be able to recognise a fault in the field. To help you, study the slideshow on the VLE on
Mapping Faults and Unconformities . There is also a handout that you can print out for your notes.

Folds
Label the following features on this diagram: fold limbs, hinge, crest, trough, axial plane, axial plane
trace (The intersection of the axial plane of a fold with the surface of the earth or any other specified
surface; sometimes such a line is loosely and incorrectly called the axis), plunge (the direction in which
the fold axis dips), antiform and synform.

The diagram below shows part of a fold mountain range. Label the diagram to show the
direction of the compressional forces that will have resulted in the folds.

State THREE factors, other than variations in the compressional forces, will determine the degree to
which rocks can be folded.

1
2
3

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In the spaces below, sketch block diagrams or cross sections of the following features

A symmetrical anticline

An asymmetrical anticline and syncline

A syncline

An overfold

A recumbent folds,

A nappe

An isoclinal fold

A monocline fold

A dome

A basin

Study the following geological map carefully

1. Mark on the map the axial plane trace of an antiform using the correct symbol.
2. Mark on the map the axial plane trace of a synform using the correct symbol.
3. There are two faults shown on the map, F1 and F2. Which fault is the younger of the two?
4. How do you know?
5. All the rocks, except Q and P are conformable sedimentary rocks. Which is the oldest?
6. Q is a sedimentary rock that is horizontally bedded.
7. Draw a sketch of what a cross section from X to Y might look like (Assume that the land surface is
flat).
8. P is an igneous intrusion. How old is it in relation to the other rocks?
9. Write a summary of the sequence of events revealed by the map and your sketch section.