Construction Materials

(CEng 2152)
Lecture Notes
(Chapter 4.1: Lime)
Getachew Tsegaye
Unity University

Chapter 4: Cementing materials:

4.1. Lime
4.1.1 Introduction
What is Lime?

Lime is a generic term referring to the calcium oxide

component of a material. When the term lime is used,
it should always be followed by another term. For
instance, lime in terms of a rock type is limestone and
lime in the context of mortar is quicklime, lime putty
and hydrated lime.
Lime-based mortars have been used in building
construction for thousands of years. In the 1800s, the
development of portland cement provided architects
and contractors a range of new properties with which
to work.

4.1.2 Production of lime

To produce lime calcium carbonate in the form of

chalk or limestone is burned in a kiln at a temperature
of 888 1200 0C, this calcining drives off carbon
dioxide to leave calcium oxide or quicklime.
The quicklime is added to water (slaked) and
produces calcium hydroxide in the form of a powder
(dry hydrate) or putty, depending on the amount of
water used. When water and quicklime are mixed a
violent exothermic reaction takes place, the quicklime
heats up and spits and boils, and for this reason
extreme care must be taken when slaking; quick lime
should always be added to water and never the other
way round.
As the lime in limewash, render, plaster or mortar
dries, it reabsorbs carbon dioxide from the air and
turns back into calcium carbonate. This is completes
the lime cycle.

Simplified diagram of the lime cycle in the context

of manufacturing building lime

Lime Cycle

There are two basic types of lime.

Hydraulic Lime
Non-hydraulic Lime

Non-hydraulic lime is made from pure calcium

carbonate. It is produced by burning limestone
(calcium carbonate - CaCO3) during which process
carbon dioxide (CO2) is driven off. The resulting
'super dry' material is quicklime (calcium oxide CaO).

When mixed with water, a process called 'slaking', the

quicklime reacts violently and the water boils. The result is
a creamy textured slurry of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2) known as lime putty, which is sieved and
stored in its moist state until used.
The longer lime putty is stored, the better it will be as the
particles of slaked lime gradually break down and any unslaked particles will eventually slake themselves during
storage.

Lime produced in this way is described as 'non

hydraulic' because it requires exposure to air to
carbonate, and will not set under water. (The term
'hydraulic' means the ability to set under water.)
Non-hydraulic lime is the form of lime that allows
buildings to 'breathe' most easily because it is so
permeable, and it is generally the most appropriate
form to use in the repair of old buildings.
Small-scale lime slaking is quite feasible, but for the
majority of jobs it is more practical to use a
commercially produced lime putty. Ideally it should be
bought in advance and stored for a few months before
use.
Non-hydraulic lime is also available as dry 'hydrated'
lime or 'bag lime' from most builders' merchants. It
is produced by slaking quicklime with a precise
amount of water so that all the water either combines
in the reaction or is driven off in the process.

For making lime mortars this dry powder is better than

nothing, but it is inferior to properly made lime putty
due to its coarse particle size and its tendency to
carbonate on contact with air from the moment it is
made.
By the time it is delivered some hydrated lime will
already have turned to calcium carbonate, the
proportion depending on its age, treatment and storage
condition, making its effect on a mortar less predictable.
Just as you would not grind up an old bag of cement
and expect to set it, it is unreasonable to expect dry
hydrated lime to work effectively in a mortar if its
setting properties are already exhausted.
If hydrated lime is the only option it should be obtained
as fresh as possible, and soaked in clean water for a
couple of days (or longer) to form a putty. However, no
matter how long it is soaked it will never be as good as
a lime putty of a similar age, and freshly soaked
hydrated lime cannot be compared with mature lime
putty.

 Hydraulic

limes are made from calcium

carbonate that includes impurities such as clay or
silt, the amount of which makes the lime feebly,
moderately or eminently hydraulic.
Its ability to set rapidly and its relative hardness made
it ideal for exposed conditions, and it was widely used
for engineering structures until it was ultimately
replaced with cement.
Hydraulic lime certainly has the potential to replace
cement in much newer construction, and it has
advantages over cement in both its flexibility and to a
lesser degree, its vapor permeability (depending on its
degree of hydraulicity).

From the ecological perspective, less fuel is

burnt during the manufacture of hydraulic
lime as it is fired at a lower temperature
than cement, and some carbon dioxide, a
'greenhouse gas', is also absorbed as it sets.
Nevertheless, hydraulic limes are less
permeable than non-hydraulic limes, and
eminently hydraulic limes can be almost as
hard and impermeable as cement.
Furthermore,
for most repair and
conservation work they are unnecessary.

4.1.3 Setting and hardening of lime

Non-hydraulic lime is made from pure calcium
carbonate and hardens by reaction with air. When
exposed to the air the lime putty makes its 'set', a
process known as 'carbonating', by re-absorbing carbon
dioxide and combining with it to form calcium
carbonate once again.
For a lime-sand mortar to harden, it must first lose its
excess water by suction to the backing material and
evaporation to the atmosphere, which makes it stiff,
and then carbonate, which makes it harden. Ca(OH)2
(calcium hydroxide) + CO2 (gas from atmosphere)
CaCO3 (calcite)
Thus the lime process effectively transfer lime from
rock to building in a neat cycle of chemical reactions. It
is 'non hydraulic' because it requires exposure to air
to carbonate, and will not set under water.

 Hydraulic lime sets by a complex chemical

reaction with water, without exposure to air, and has
some similarities with cement, which is made by
calcining limestone and clay together. (The term
'hydraulic' means the ability to set under water).
Mortars made with a hydraulic lime have the
advantage that they set more rapidly than those
made with a non-hydraulic lime but they are also
harder and can be less permeable.
Hydraulic lime is produced in the same way as
hydrated lime but from limestone containing clay,
and it sets by a complex chemical reaction with
water, without exposure to air. Mortars made with a
hydraulic lime have the advantage that they set more
rapidly than those made with a non - hydraulic lime
but they are also harder and they can be less
permeable.

4.1.4 Uses of Lime (Products)

Mortar

Lime mortar was used to lay brickwork, building

stone and to point roof tiles. The main ingredients
were lime and sand. Crushed brick or tile was
often added to mortar to improve setting times,
and other additions might be used for their
aesthetic qualities.
Mortar can be made by mixing putty with sand.
Non- hydraulic lime mortars can be knocked up
and re-used.
Lime mortars were used until the middle of the
20th century. Lime was, and still is retained as a
minor ingredient to improve workability.

 Render and Plaster

Render usually refers to an exterior finish and plaster to
the interior, though the terms were, and are, sometimes
used interchangeably.
The methods of application were the same as were the
materials, though internal plasters often had a finer finish.
The main ingredients were lime and sand or finely sieved
earth.
As with mortar lime renders and plasters vary considerably
in composition, texture and in numbers of coats, or layers,
with ratios of between 1 part lime to 3 6 parts sand or
sieved earth.
At the lower end of the social scale, lime would have been
used as one rough coat. Higher status houses would often
have had three coats: a coarse undercoat applied direct to
wood laths, brick, flint or stone, a second, slightly less
coarse undercoat (or float) and a top or finishing coat of a
finer grade.

The lime putty for plaster should ideally have been left
to slake for 6 months or more to ensure all particles
have slaked, otherwise the lime can continue to slake in
the plaster causing it to blow. It is possible that
renders and plaster were made in a similar way to
mortar, slaking the sand and lime together.
From the mid 18th century gypsum plaster became
more common and was widely used by the 19th
century.
From the late 18th century until the mid 19th century
stucco, a very fine exterior finish of lime render with
brick or stone dust (and later, Portland cement),
became very popular, where it was usually applied
direct to brick work.
Cement based renders were introduced from the
beginning of the 20th century and gradually replaced
lime, though as with mortars, lime was often retained as
a minor ingredient.

Pointing

Good pointing can transform a building, both in

practical terms reducing levels of damp, preventing
erosion, keeping the structure sound and visually.
A well pointed wall looks solid and sound, and the
appearance of the stones and bricks is enhanced.
Lime mortars made with lime putty without
hydraulic lime or cement are soft and porous and
are unlikely to harm even soft old bricks and
stones. The key to success lies in careful
preparation and lots of patience.
Pointing with lime mortar is the ideal introduction
to the use of lime, and confidence to tackle other
projects will be gained from doing it.

4.1.5 Standards on lime

The current American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

standard specifications for building limes has set a requirement
for chemical purity, completeness of hydration, limited coarse
fraction, but also key physical properties of water retention and
plasticity.
The chemical specifications for all are the same. They require
that the product contain no less then 95% combined values of
calcium or magnesium and not more than 5% carbon dioxide.
These dictate that the source rock must be pure and that the
calcination must be virtually complete.
For mortar: The coarse fraction for hydrates is limited to
not more than 0.5 weight percent held on a 30 mesh screen
(600m). By testing, a small amount of coarse fraction can be
tolerated only if it is essentially inert, that is, no pits or pops.
For finishing applications: No more than 0.5% of a 30
mesh screen and no more than 15% on a 200 mesh screen
(75m) and no pits or pops are allowed. It requires that there
be < 15% hydrated lime coarser than 200 mesh or 75m and
that there is no component that can cause pits or pops.

Plasticity values over 200 are required within 30

minutes after mixing for Type S (special) hydrated lime
and lime putty used for mortar and finishing plaster.
Type N (normal) hydrated lime must achieve plasticity
values of 200 after 16 hours, but less than 24 hours of
soaking for the finishing lime and has no requirement
for mortar applications.
Water retention values are only required for the
mortar application. For Type N hydrated lime, a value
of 75% must be met after 16, but less than 24 hours of
soaking; whereas, the Type S hydrated lime a value of
85% must be met within 30 minutes after mixing.
There is no water retention requirement for finishing
lime.
If the plasticity value is over 200 Emley units, then the
water retention value will be greater than 85%.

Standards of the American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) contain product specifications for
certain applications, describe chemical and physical test
methods, and address nomenclature. ASTM standards
and guides related to lime include the following:
C207 :
Hydrated Lime for Masonry Purposes
C206 :
Finishing Hydrated Lime
C821 :
Lime for Use with Pozzolans
C5 :
Quicklime for Structural Purposes
C270 :
Mortar for Unit Masonry

4.1.6 Tests on lime

Standard Test Methods for Physical Testing of Quicklime, Hydrated

Lime, and Limestone (ASTM Designation: C 110 09)

PLASTIC PROPERTY TESTING

Standard Consistency of Lime Putty

In order to measure certain physical properties

of a lime
putty, such as plasticity, it is necessary to have a uniform or
standard consistency (viscosity), since the property
measurement is affected by the consistency level.
Plasticity of Lime Putty

This test method provides a measure of the degree of

stiffening of lime putty of standard consistency as water is
withdrawn from it by a standard suction base plate. Plasticity
is an important property when applying mixtures containing
lime putty to porous or absorptive surfaces such as in
plastering, stuccoing, and masonry construction.

 Water

Retention of Hydrated Lime

This test method measures the ability of the
hydrated lime in a plastic mix with sand to retain
water, and hence retain consistency of the mix,
when subjected to an applied suction. This ability,
measured as a percent of the original consistency,
is indicative of the workability to be expected in a
masonry mortar containing the lime.
Air Entrainment
Hydrated lime, particularly that containing an airentraining additive, used in masonry mortar may
contribute to the air content of the mortar.
Certain specifications and applications of mortar
place a limit on this air content.

SOUNDNESS TESTING
Autoclave Expansion of Hydrated Lime
Expansion of pressed tablets of hydrated lime
generally indicates the presence of un-hydrated
oxides of magnesium and calcium. The relation of
the degree of expansion in this test method to
field performance has not been determined.
Popping and Pitting of Hydrated Lime
Pops and pits are caused by the hydration and
expansion of coarse particles of un-hydrated lime
or lime impurity reaction products present in the
hydrated lime. The level of popping and pitting in
the sample is indicative of the potential for the
appearance of surface defects in plastering
applications.

 Limestone

Grindability
Determination by the Laboratory
Ball Mill Method

This test method is used to determine the

relative grindability or ease of pulverization of
limestones of differing hardness and to report
this as a grindability index. This test method is
applicable to all types of limestone.
Settling Rate of Hydrated Lime
This test method provides a measure of the
rate of settling of a hydrated lime slurry, a
form in which this material is frequently used.
In some applications a slow settling slurry is
desirable; in others, fast settling is preferred.

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

Residue and Sieve Analysis

This test method determines the residue obtained
from slaking quicklime. Residue, in this case, is largely
unreacted material such as uncalcined limestone or
dolomite, overburned quicklime, or gross impurities,
or a combination of these.
Fineness
of Pulverized Quicklime and
Hydrated Lime by Air Permeability
This test method covers the determination of
fineness of pulverized quicklime and hydrated lime
using the Blaine air permeability apparatus described
in Test Method C 204. Fineness in terms of surface
area shall be expressed as total surface area in square
centimetres per gram, or square metres per kilogram.
This test method provides, in general, relative rather
than absolute fineness values.

Particle Size of Pulverized Limestone

Particle size of pulverized limestone, as the word is used in
these methods, is the percent distribution of the equivalent
spherical diameter of the individual particles expressed in
micrometres, using the principle of sedimentation and Stokes
law for particle size determination. It is intended for use with
pulverized limestones with not more than 0.5 % residue on a
45-m (No. 325) sieve.
Dry
Screening of Hydrated Lime, Pulverized
Quicklime, and Limestone by Air Jet Sieving
This test method uses a rotating slit nozzle to supply a stream
of air directed at the backside of a test sieve, keeping the
screen from blinding. The aerated material is then pulled
back through the sieve by a vacuum source. The advantages of
dry screening by air jet sieving are twofold. The material being
tested is less likely to blind the screen because of the
recurring counter flow of an air stream to the back of the
sieve. Also, dry screening avoids the error introduced by the
interaction of the test material with soluble liquid media. This
test method is suitable for screening material from a nominal
300 m (50 mesh) in size to 20 m (635 mesh).

APPLICATION TESTING

Slaking Rate of Quicklime

The temperature rise in 30 s is a measure of the reactivity of
the softer-burned portion of the quicklime. Total slaking time
provides a measure of the overall degree of reactivity of the
material. Total temperature rise is largely dependent on the
available lime content of the sample. These slaking parameters
provide an indication of the performance of the quicklime to
be expected in industrial slaking systems. Slaking
characteristics have an effect on lime slurry properties such as
settling characteristics, viscosity, particle size, and reaction
rate.
Dry Brightness of Pulverized Limestone
A sample of the dry material is compressed and its reflectance
measured on a reflectometer that has previously been
standardized. This test method provides a measure of the
reflectance, or whiteness, or both of ground calcium
carbonate products by comparison with a standard, using
green and blue filters.

DENSITY MEASUREMENT
Apparent Loose Density of Hydrated Lime,
Pulverized Quicklime, and Limestone
This test method determines the loose or
unsettled density of hydrated lime, pulverized
quicklime, and limestone. It provides for an
approximate measure of the maximum volume
occupied by a given weight of hydrated lime,
pulverized quicklime, or limestone.
Apparent Packed Density of Hydrated
Lime, Pulverized Quicklime, and Limestone
This test method determines the packed or
settled density of hydrated lime, pulverized
quicklime, and limestone. It provides for
determining the minimum volume occupied by a
given weight of hydrated lime, pulverized
quicklime or limestone.

 Specific

Gravity of Hydrated Lime

Products
This
test
method
covers
the
determination of the specific gravity of
hydrated lime. The specific gravity of
hydrated lime is needed for calculations
of air content and Blaine Surface Area.
The specific gravity of hydrated lime is
defined as the mass of a unit volume of
the solids.

Why use limelime-based mortars?

The

use of lime-based mortars declined during the

20th century due to changing market demands and
the availability of materials. The move was very
much towards cement based mortars. The
question is why consider returning to lime-based
mortars?
The best way to answer this question is to look at
the advantages lime-based mortars have over
cement-based mortars, advantages which have
become apparent from experience and research.
These can be considered under two broad
headings: sustainability and design (based on De
Vekey, 2005).

Sustainability

Bricks and blocks contain the majority of the embodied energy in a unit of
wall. Cement based mortars have higher bond strengths than lime-based
mortars and masonry laid using cement-based mortars cannot readily be
separated, cleaned and reused at the end of its life. By contrast, masonry
laid using lime-based mortar has a lower bond strength, so the mortar can
be cleaned off the bricks easily, allowing them to be reused.

The manufacture of limes or hydraulic limes (HLs) consumes less energy

and produces less greenhouse gases than that of Portland cement per unit
weight. Lime is produced at a temperature of around 900C - cement at

over 1200C. As
produce cement

a result considerably more energy is required

thereby increasing CO2 emissions. Binders can

to

be
produced from limestone only by high-energy inputs. Significant efforts are
continually being made by binder producers to reduce their energy
consumption and, more recently, their carbon dioxide emissions by
switching from hydrocarbons to other fuels and by improving their
production processes. The total energy content per tonne of lime-based
mortar has the potential to be between 75 and 90 % of that for cementbased mortars.

 Over

a period of years of exposure to the

atmosphere, lime-based mortars absorb most or
all of the carbon dioxide that was driven off
during their high temperature manufacturing
process known as calcination ie re-carbonate;
by contrast, cement-based mortars do not
normally fully re-carbonate.
Some calcium limes (CLs) are now being
produced using alternative fuels, including
biomass, and this process has the potential to
deliver near carbon-neutral lime-based mortars
with the exclusion of the emissions from the fuels
used in the kilns.

Design
Walls built with lime-based mortars have more tolerance to
movement caused by thermal and moisture action.
Movement within masonry walls built with lime-based
mortars can be accommodated in the individual bed joints
between the masonry units, reducing the need for vertical
movement joints.
Walls have improved breathability to water and water vapour
which reduces the likelihood of frost failure of the unit
materials and improves the internal environment. Lime based
materials let the buildings breathe, allowing a certain amount
of moisture in, but also allowing it to evaporate.
Lime-based mortars are capable of self-healing microscopic
cracks by plastic flow and diffusion.
Lime-based mortars are less susceptible to sulfate attack.
The bulk density of lime is half that of cement enabling fuel
savings during distribution.

When should limelime-based mortars be used?

It

is possible to use lime-based mortars and

lime-based renders in many applications but it
is important that the decision is made early in
the design and planning process so all
involved in the design and construction can
make adjustments to the design and to the
programme of work.
New build
Lime-based mortars can be used in all aspects
of new build construction but have gained
most acceptance in the construction of
masonry walls.

Refurbishment
Some aspects of refurbishment can be
considered as conservation, for example
the matching of repair and replacement
mortars to those already in the building,
but they may also provide opportunities
for using lime-based mortars in the
construction of extensions or rebuilding
of structures as part of the refurbishment.

Conservation and repair

This is the area of construction with the longest
history of use as it includes the conservation and
restoration of historic buildings. In this application
it is important to establish the composition of the
original mortar both the binder and the
aggregate and to attempt to match the new
mortar to the original provided that there is no
evidence that the original mortar has been
detrimental to the masonry.
Other applications
It is possible to use limes and HLs in a range of
uses that go beyond the construction of masonry
walls, for example external render and internal
plastering.

Constraints
When considering the use of lime-based mortars, it is
important to be realistic and accept that there are some
constraints, as well as areas where the properties of limebased mortars are perceived as being limiting, and to address
these issues.

Speed of construction: The build rate with lime-based mortar

is perceived as being very slow compared with cement-based
mortars or thin bed mortars. Lime-based mortars do develop
strength more slowly (see next bullet point) but it is still possible
to achieve acceptable build rates, particularly as brick-laying teams
gain confidence and experience in the use of the mortars.
Rate of gain of strength: Compressive strength develops more
slowly in lime-based mortars than in cement-based mortars. As a
result, the compressive strengths of lime-based mortars are
usually quoted at 91 days rather than 28 days. However, the data
we have shows that a lime-based mortar will typically have
reached half its 91-day strength by 28 days. The data available
indicates that single skin brickwork or block work masonry
constructed with lime-based mortars quickly develops sufficient
resistance to vertical loads, but that it has less resistance to lateral
loads (see under 4 Background, history and tradition) at an early
age and so consideration needs to be given to this at the design
stage.

 Cold weather working: Masonry walls

constructed from all of types of mortars are
susceptible to frost damage immediately after
construction. The development of the strength
and durability of lime-based mortars is highly
dependent on temperature, with little or no
hardening taking place below about 5C, so
protection from frost becomes even more
important until the day and night temperature
has been above 5C for three months.