Data Communication and Networking

Data transmission
Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical
transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibres,
wireless communication channels, storage media and computer buses. The data are
represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave,
microwave, or infrared signal.
While analog transmission is the transfer of a continuously varying analog signal, digital
communications is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are either
represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission),
or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms (passband transmission), using a
digital modulation method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation
(also known as detection) is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most
common definition of digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing
bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative definition only
considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a
form of digital-to-analog conversion.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a
computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video
signal, digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or
more advanced source coding (analog-to-digital conversion and data compression)
schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.

Distinction between related subjects

Digital transmission or data transmission traditionally
belongs
to
telecommunications and electrical engineering. Basic principles of data
transmission may also be covered within the computer science/computer engineering
topic of data communications, which also includes computer networking or computer
communication applications and networking protocols, for example routing, switching
and inter-process communication. Although the Transmission control protocol (TCP)
involves the term "transmission", TCP and other transport layer protocols are typically
not discussed in a textbook or course about data transmission, but in computer
networking.
The term tele transmission involves the analog as well as digital communication. In most
textbooks, the term analog transmission only refers to the transmission of an analog
message signal (without digitization) by means of an analog signal, either as a nonmodulated baseband signal, or as a passband signal using an analog modulation method
such as AM or FM. It may also include analog-over-analog pulse modulatated baseband
signals such as pulse-width modulation. In a few books within the computer networking
tradition, "analog transmission" also refers to passband transmission of bit-streams using
digital modulation methods such as FSK, PSK and ASK. Note that these methods are
covered in textbooks named digital transmission or data transmission, for example.[1]
The theoretical aspects of data transmission are covered by information theory and
coding theory.

Applications and history

Data (mainly but not exclusively informational) has been sent via non-electronic (e.g.
optical, acoustic, mechanical) means since the advent of communication. Analog signal

data has been sent electronically since the advent of the telephone. However, the first
data electromagnetic transmission applications in modern time were telegraphy (1809)
and teletypewriters (1906), which are both digital signals. The fundamental theoretical
work in data transmission and information theory by Harry Nyquist, Ralph Hartley,
Claude Shannon and others during the early 20th century, was done with these
applications in mind.
Data transmission is utilized in computers in computer buses and for communication
with peripheral equipment via parallel ports and serial ports such as RS-232 (1969),
Firewire (1995) and USB (1996). The principles of data transmission are also utilized in
storage media for Error detection and correction since 1951.
Data transmission is utilized in computer networking equipment such as modems (1940),
local area networks (LAN) adapters (1964), repeaters, hubs, microwave links, wireless
network access points (1997), etc.
In telephone networks, digital communication is utilized for transferring many phone
calls over the same copper cable or fiber cable by means of Pulse code modulation
(PCM), i.e. sampling and digitization, in combination with Time division multiplexing
(TDM) (1962). Telephone exchanges have become digital and software controlled,
facilitating many value added services. For example the first AXE telephone exchange
was presented in 1976. Since the late 1980s, digital communication to the end user has
been possible using Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) services. Since the end of
the 1990s, broadband access techniques such as ADSL, Cable modems, fiber-to-thebuilding (FTTB) and fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) have become wide spread to small offices
and homes. The current tendency is to replace traditional telecommunication services by
packet mode communication such as IP telephony and IPTV.
Transmitting analog signals digitally allows for greater signal processing capability. The
ability to process a communications signal means that errors caused by random
processes can be detected and corrected. Digital signals can also be sampled instead of
continuously monitored. The multiplexing of multiple digital signals is much simpler to
the multiplexing of analog signals.
Because of all these advantages, and because recent advances in wideband
communication channels and solid-state electronics have allowed scientists to fully
realize these advantages, digital communications has grown quickly. Digital
communications is quickly edging out analog communication because of the vast
demand to transmit computer data and the ability of digital communications to do so.
The digital revolution has also resulted in many digital telecommunication applications
where the principles of data transmission are applied. Examples are second-generation
(1991) and later cellular telephony, video conferencing, digital TV (1998), digital radio
(1999), telemetry, etc.

Baseband or passband transmission

The physically transmitted signal may be one of the following:
1. A baseband signal ("digital-over-digital" transmission): A sequence of electrical
pulses or light pulses produced by means of a line coding scheme such as
Manchester coding. This is typically used in serial cables, wired local area networks
such as Ethernet, and in optical fiber communication. It results in a pulse
amplitude modulated(PAM) signal, also known as a pulse train.
2. A passband signal ("digital-over-analog" transmission): A modulated sine wave
signal representing a digital bit-stream. Note that this is in some textbooks
considered as analog transmission, but in most books as digital transmission. The
signal is produced by means of a digital modulation method such as PSK, QAM or
FSK. The modulation and demodulation is carried out by modem equipment. This is

used in wireless communication, and over telephone network local-loop and cableTV networks.

Serial and parallel transmission

In telecommunications, serial transmission is the sequential transmission of signal
elements of a group representing a character or other entity of data. Digital serial
transmissions are bits sent over a single wire, frequency or optical path sequentially.
Because it requires less signal processing and less chances for error than parallel
transmission, the transfer rate of each individual path may be faster. This can be used
over longer distances as a check digit or parity bit can be sent along it easily.
In telecommunications, parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of the
signal elements of a character or other entity of data. In digital communications, parallel
transmission is the simultaneous transmission of related signal elements over two or
more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used which can transmit multiple bits
simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates than can be achieved with
serial transmission. This method is used internally within the computer, for example the
internal buses, and sometimes externally for such things as printers, The major issue
with this is "skewing" because the wires in parallel data transmission have slightly
different properties (not intentionally) so some bits may arrive before others, which may
corrupt the message. A parity bit can help to reduce this. However, electrical wire
parallel data transmission is therefore less reliable for long distances because corrupt
transmissions are far more likely.

Types of communication channels

Data transmission circuit

In telecommunication, data transmission circuit is the transmission media and the intervening
equipment used for the data transfer between data terminal equipments (DTEs).

Simplex communication

Simplex communication refers to communication that occurs in one direction only. Two
definitions have arisen over time: a common definition, which is used in ANSI standard and
elsewhere, and an ITU-T definition. The ITU definition of simplex is termed " half duplex" in other
contexts.

Duplex
A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two connected parties
or devices that can communicate with one another in both directions, simultaneously. An
example of a duplex device is a telephone. The people at both ends of a telephone call can speak
at the same time and simultaneously each be heard by the other at the same time. The
earphone reproduces the speech of the other person as the microphone transmits the speech of
the local person, because there is a two-way communication channel between them.

Half-duplex
A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in both directions, but only one
direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal,
it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying (antennas are of
trans-receiver type in these devices, so as to transmit and receive the signal as well).
An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a walkie-talkie,
wherein one must use "Over" or another previously designated command to indicate the
end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time, because both
parties transmit and receive on the same frequency.

A good analogy for a half-duplex system would be a one-lane road with traffic controllers
at each end, such as a two-lane bridge under re-construction. Traffic can flow in both
directions, but only one direction at a time, regulated by the traffic controllers.
In automatically run communications systems, such as two-way data-links, the time
allocations for communications in a half-duplex system can be firmly controlled by the
hardware. Thus, there is no waste of the channel for switching. For example, station A on
one end of the data link could be allowed to transmit for exactly one second, then station
B on the other end could be allowed to transmit for exactly one second, and then the
cycle repeats.

Full-duplex
A full-duplex (FDX) system, or sometimes called double-duplex, allows communication in
both directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line
telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be heard
at the same time, with the transition from four to two wires being achieved by a hybrid
coil in a telephone hybrid.
A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a two-lane road with one lane for each
direction. In full-duplex mode, transmitted data does not appear to be sent until it has
been actually received and an acknowledgment was sent back by the other party.
Two-way radios can be designed as full-duplex systems, transmitting on one frequency
and receiving on another. This is also called frequency-division duplex. Frequencydivision duplex systems can be extended to farther distances using pairs of simple
repeater stations, because the communications transmitted on any one frequency
always travel in the same direction.
Full-duplex Ethernet connections work by making simultaneous use of two physical pairs
of twisted cable (which are inside the jacket), where one pair is used for receiving
packets and one pair is used for sending packets (two pairs per direction for some types
of Ethernet), to a directly connected device. This effectively makes the cable itself a
collision-free environment and doubles the maximum data capacity that can be
supported by the connection.
There are several benefits to using full-duplex over half-duplex. Firstly, time is not
wasted, since no frames need to be retransmitted, as there are no collisions. Secondly,
the full data capacity is available in both directions because the send and receive
functions are separated. Thirdly, stations (or nodes) do not have to wait until others
complete their transmission, since there is only one transmitter for each twisted pair.
Historically, some computer-based systems of the 1960s and 1970s required full-duplex
facilities even for half-duplex operation, because their poll-and-response schemes could

not tolerate the slight delays in reversing the direction of transmission in a half-duplex
line.

Full-duplex emulation
Where channel access methods are used in point-to-multipoint networks (such as cellular
networks) for dividing forward and reverse communication channels on the same
physical communications medium, they are known as duplexing methods, such as timedivision duplexing and frequency-division duplexing.
Time-division duplexing
Time-division duplexing (TDD) is the application of time-division multiplexing to separate
outward and return signals. It emulates full duplex communication over a half duplex
communication link.
Time-division duplexing has a strong advantage in the case where there is asymmetry of
the uplink and downlink data rates. As the amount of uplink data increases, more
communication capacity can be dynamically allocated, and as the traffic load becomes
lighter, capacity can be taken away. The same applies in the downlink direction.
For radio systems that aren't moving quickly, another advantage is that the uplink and
downlink radio paths are likely to be very similar. This means that techniques such as
beamforming work well with TDD systems.
Examples of time-division duplexing systems are:

UMTS 3G supplementary air interfaces TD-CDMA for indoor mobile telecommunications.

The Chinese TD-LTE 4-G, TD-SCDMA 3-G mobile communications air interface.
DECT wireless telephony
Half-duplex packet mode networks based on carrier sense multiple access, for example 2wire or hubbed Ethernet, Wireless local area networks and Bluetooth, can be considered as
Time Division Duplexing systems, albeit not TDMA with fixed frame-lengths.
IEEE 802.16 WiMAX
PACTOR
ISDN BRI U interface, variants using the Time Compression Multiplex (TCM) line system
G.fast, a digital subscriber line (DSL) standard under development by the ITU-T

Frequency-division duplexing
Frequency-division duplexing (FDD) means that the transmitter and receiver operate at
different carrier frequencies. The term is frequently used in ham radio operation, where
an operator is attempting to contact a repeater station. The station must be able to send
and receive a transmission at the same time, and does so by slightly altering the
frequency at which it sends and receives. This mode of operation is referred to as duplex
mode or offset mode.
Uplink and downlink sub-bands are said to be separated by the frequency offset.
Frequency-division duplexing can be efficient in the case of symmetric traffic. In this case
time-division duplexing tends to waste bandwidth during the switch-over from
transmitting to receiving, has greater inherent latency, and may require more complex
circuitry.
Another advantage of frequency-division duplexing is that it makes radio planning easier
and more efficient, since base stations do not "hear" each other (as they transmit and
receive in different sub-bands) and therefore will normally not interfere with each other.

On the converse, with time-division duplexing systems, care must be taken to keep
guard times between neighboring base stations (which decreases spectral efficiency) or
to synchronize base stations, so that they will transmit and receive at the same time
(which increases network complexity and therefore cost, and reduces bandwidth
allocation flexibility as all base stations and sectors will be forced to use the same
uplink/downlink ratio)
Examples of Frequency Division Duplexing systems are:

ADSL and VDSL

Most cellular systems, including the UMTS/WCDMA use Frequency Division Duplexing
mode and the cdma2000 system.
IEEE 802.16 WiMax also uses Frequency Division Duplexing mode

Summary

Simplex - Communication in one direction only, e.g. TV or radio broadcasts.

Half-duplex - Communication in both directions, one direction at a time, e.g. Twoway radio.
Full-duplex - Communication in both directions simultaneously, e.g. telephone
calls.

Point-to-point (telecommunications)
In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications
connection between two nodes or endpoints. An example is a telephone call, in which
one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be
heard by the other. This is contrasted with a point-to-multipoint or broadcast
communication topology, in which many nodes can receive information transmitted by
one node. Other examples of point-to-point communications links are leased lines,
microwave relay links, and two way radio. Examples of point-to-multipoint
communications systems are radio and television broadcasting.
The term is also used in computer networking and computer architecture to refer to a
wire or other connection that links only two computers or circuits, as opposed to other
network topologies such as buses or crossbar switches which can connect many
communications devices.
Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P, Pt2Pt. [citation needed] This usage of P2P is
distinct from P2P referring to peer-to-peer file sharing networks.

Multidrop bus
A multidrop bus (MDB) is a computer bus in which all components are connected to the
electrical circuit. A process of arbitration determines which device sends information at
any point. The other devices listen for the data they are intended to receive.
Multidrop buses have the advantage of simplicity and extensibility. However, modern
SDRAM chips exemplify the problem of electrical impedance discontinuity.[clarification needed]
Fully Buffered DIMM is an alternative approach to connecting multiple DRAM modules to
a memory controller. Since 2000, multidrop standards such as PCI and Parallel ATA are
increasingly being replaced by point-to-point systems such as PCI Express and SATA.

Bus network

A bus network is a network topology in which nodes are connected in a daisy chain by a linear
sequence of buses.

How it works
The bus is the data link in a bus network. The bus can only transmit data in one
direction, and if any network segment is severed, all network transmission ceases.

A host on a bus network is called a station or workstation. In a bus network, every station
receives all network traffic, and the traffic generated by each station has equal
transmission priority.[1] Each network segment is, therefore, a collision domain. In order
for nodes to transmit on the same cable simultaneously, they use a media access control
technology such as carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) or a bus master.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus
Requires less cable length than a star topology
It works well for small networks.
Disadvantages
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building
It is slow when more devices are added into the network.

BUS NETWORK

Ring network
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other
nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data
travel from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.
Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring
networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link. [1] A node failure or cable break
might isolate every node attached to the ring. In response, some ring networks add a
"counter-rotating ring" (C-Ring) to form a redundant topology: in the event of a break,
data are wrapped back onto the complementary ring before reaching the end of the
cable, maintaining a path to every node along the resulting C-Ring. Such "dual ring"
networks include Spatial Reuse Protocol, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and
Resilient Packet Ring. 802.5 networks - also known as IBM token ring networks - avoid
the weakness of a ring topology altogether: they actually use a star topology at the
physical layer and a media access unit (MAU) to imitate a ring at the datalink layer.

Advantages

Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the
computers
Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side
(each device is connected to its immediate neighbor), it is quite easy to install and
reconfigure since adding or removing a device requires moving just two
connections.
Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.

Disadvantages

One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network
Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network
Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices
More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction = Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration

Ring Network Topology

Star network
Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its
simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which act
as a conduit to transmit messages. This consists of a central node, to which all other
nodes are connected; this central node provides a common connection point for all
nodes through a hub. In star topology, every node (computer workstation or any other
peripheral) is connected to a central node called a hub or switch. The switch is the server
and the peripherals are the clients.[1] Thus, the hub and leaf nodes, and the transmission
lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central node is
passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own
transmission, delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central
node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active
central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
The star topology reduces the damage caused by line failure by connecting all of the
systems to a central node. When applied to a bus-based network, this central hub

rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes
on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus
communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node
only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will
result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the rest of the systems
will be unaffected.[2]
It is also designed with each node (file servers, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before
continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is
common with twisted pair cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial cable or
optical fibre cable.

Advantages

Better performance: star topology prevents the passing of data packets through
an excessive number of nodes. At most, 3 devices and 2 links are involved in any
communication between any two devices. Although this topology places a huge
overhead on the central hub, with adequate capacity, the hub very high utilization
by one device without affecting others.
Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that connects
it to the hub. This makes the isolation of individual devices straightforward and
amounts to disconnecting each device from the others. This isolation also prevents
any non-centralized failure from affecting the network.
Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the bottleneck, increasing its
capacity, or connecting additional devices to it, increases the size of the network
very easily. Centralization also allows the inspection of traffic through the network.
This facilitates analysis of the traffic and detection of suspicious behavior.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Installation and configuration is easy since every one device only requires a link
and one input/output port to connect it to any other device(s).

Disadvantages

Failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable

There is central server dependency.
Expensive to purchase.
Requires a large amount of cable to be connected.

Star Network Topology

Mesh networking
A mesh network is a network topology in which each node (called a mesh node) relays
data for the network. All nodes cooperate in the distribution of data in the network.
A mesh network can be designed using a flooding technique or a routing technique.
When using a routing technique, the message is propagated along a path, by hopping
from node to node until the destination is reached. To ensure all its paths' availability, a
routing network must allow for continuous connections and reconfiguration around
broken or blocked paths, using self-healing algorithms. A mesh network whose nodes are
all connected to each other is a fully connected network. Mesh networks can be seen as
one type of ad hoc network. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) and mesh networks are
therefore closely related, but MANET also have to deal with the problems introduced by
the mobility of the nodes.
The self-healing capability enables a routing based network to operate when one node
breaks down or a connection goes bad. As a result, the network is typically quite reliable,
as there is often more than one path between a source and a destination in the network.
Although mostly used in wireless situations, this concept is also applicable to wired
networks and software interaction.

Advantages

Point-to-point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy.

Messages travel through a dedicated line, directly to the intended recipient;
privacy and security are thus enhanced.
Should a fault occur in a given link, only those communications between that
specific pair of devices sharing the link will be affected.

Disadvantages
The more extensive the network, in terms of scope or of physical area, the greater
the investment necessary to build it will be, due, among other considerations, to the
amount of cabling and the number of hardware ports it will require. For this reason, such
networks are uncommon.
Because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
The huge bulk of the wiring can often be greater than the available space in the
ceiling or under floors can accommodate.

Wireless mesh networks

Wireless mesh networks were originally developed for military applications. Mesh
networks are typically wireless. Over the past decade, the size, cost, and power
requirements of radios has declined, enabling multiple radios to be contained within a
single device, i.e., mesh node, thus allowing for greater modularity; each can handle
multiple frequency bands and support a variety of functions as neededsuch as client
access, backhaul service, and scanning (required for high-speed handoff in mobile
applications)even customized sets of them.
Work in this field has been aided by the use of game theory methods to analyze
strategies for the allocation of resources and routing of packets.

Mesh Topology

Wireless network
A wireless network is any type of computer network that uses wireless data
connections for connecting network nodes.
Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and
enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a
building, or as a connection between various equipment locations. [1] Wireless
telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using radio
communication. This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI
model network structure.[2]
Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, Wi-Fi local networks and
terrestrial microwave networks.

Wireless links

Terrestrial microwave Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based

transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in
the low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay
stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.
Communications satellites Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves,
which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in
space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator.
These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and
TV signals.
Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies. The
systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a
low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to
the next area.
Radio and spread spectrum technologies Wireless local area networks use a highfrequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio
technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable
communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a
common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi.
Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for
communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the
physical positioning of communicating devices.

Types of wireless networks

Wireless PAN
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small
area, that is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and

invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee
also supports WPAN applications.[4] Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as
equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic
devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs
simpler and easier to set up and configure.
Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance
using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access
point for Internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow
users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the
network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand
name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or
networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser
light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two
or more buildings without installing a wired link.
Wireless mesh network
A wireless mesh network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a
mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh
networks can "self heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.
Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several
wireless LANs.

WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.[
Wireless WAN
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such
as between neighboring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be
used to connect branch offices of business or as a public internet access system. The
wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links
using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used
with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points
and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access
point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as
photo-voltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.
Cellular network
A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas
called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or
base station. In a cellular network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of
radio frequencies from all their immediate neighbouring cells to avoid any interference.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area.
This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.)
to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in
the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through
more than one cell during transmission.
Although originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones,
cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into
three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the
operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station
which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the

switching station where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the
most common standard and is used for a majority of cell phones.[7]

Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by
mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first
service to set up a PCS.

D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is

being phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are
replacing the older system.
Global area network
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile
communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the
next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.
Space network
Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the
vicinity of the Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network.

Different uses
Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless
networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Inter-continental
network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency
services such as the police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well.
Individuals and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly,
whether it be in a small office building or across the world.
Wireless Network Elements
The telecommunications network at the physical layer also consists of many
interconnected wireline Network Elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand-alone systems
or products that are either supplied by a single manufacturer, or are assembled by the
service provider (user) or system integrator with parts from several different
manufacturers.
Wireless NEs are products and devices used by a wireless carrier to provide support for
the backhaul network as well as a Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Reliable wireless service depends on the network elements at the physical layer to be
protected against all operational environments and applications (see GR-3171, Generic
Requirements for Network Elements Used in Wireless Networks - Physical Layer Criteria).
[12]

What are especially important are the NEs that are located on the cell tower to the Base
Station (BS) cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna and
associated closures/cables are required to have adequate strength, robustness, corrosion
resistance, and rain/solar resistance for expected wind, storm, ice, and other weather
conditions. Requirements for individual components, such as hardware, cables,
connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration the structure to which they are
attached.
Difficulties
Interference
Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic
interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that
generate radio waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication.
Interference can degrade the signal or cause the system to fail.
Absorption and reflection

Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching

the receiver, in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection
occurs. This can cause dead zones where no reception is available.
Multipath fading
In multipath fading two or more different routes taken by the signal, due to reflections, can
cause the signal to cancel out at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places
(upfade).
Hidden node problem
The hidden node problem occurs in some types of network when a node is visible from a
wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This
leads to difficulties in media access control.
Shared resource problem
The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its
transmitters. Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users.
Often users are not aware that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE
networks) are not their capacity, but shared with all other users and thus the individual
user rate is far lower. With increasing demand, the capacity crunch is more and more likely
to happen. User-in-the-loop (UIL) may be an alternative solution to ever upgrading to
newer technologies for over-provisioning.

Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission

Asynchronous transmission uses start and stop bits to signify the beginning bit ASCII
character would actually be transmitted using 10 bits. For example, "0100 0001" would
become "1 0100 0001 0". The extra one (or zero, depending on parity bit) at the start
and end of the transmission tells the receiver first that a character is coming and
secondly that the character has ended. This method of transmission is used when data
are sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream. In the previous example the start
and stop bits are in bold. The start and stop bits must be of opposite polarity. This allows
the receiver to recognize when the second packet of information is being sent.
Synchronous transmission uses no start and stop bits, but instead synchronizes
transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending end of the transmission using
clock signal(s) built into each component.[vague] A continual stream of data is then sent
between the two nodes. Due to there being no start and stop bits the data transfer rate
is quicker although more errors will occur, as the clocks will eventually get out of sync,
and the receiving device would have the wrong time that had been agreed in the
protocol for sending/receiving data, so some bytes could become corrupted (by losing
bits).Ways to get around this problem include re-synchronization of the clocks and use of
check digits to ensure the byte is correctly interpreted and received

Prepared by Sir Matt