Gravity dam: A type of dam constructed of mass concrete or stone masonry, or both,
which relies on its weight for stability. The dam is usually roughly triangular in
cross section with its base width so related to its height as to insure stability
against overturning, sliding or crushing.
Arch dam: A dam with upstream curvature which transmits the major portion of the load
or pressure to the abutments rather than to the bottom foundation. In general, an
arch dam has a base thickness less than 60% of its height. Dams of greater
thickness are considered as arch-gravity dams or gravity dams.
Arch-gravity dams: Are dams where the load or pressure is transmitted to both the
abutments and the bottom foundation.
Buttress dam: A dam consisting of a watertight upstream face supported at intervals on
the downstream side by a serious of intermittent supports termed buttress.
Buttress dams take many forms; multiple arch, multiple dome, plank, flat slab,
deck, hollow gravity, cellular gravity, solid head, or bulb head dams.
1.3 SELECTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF DAMS
The optimum type of dam for a specific site is determined by estimates of cost and
construction programme for all design solutions which are technically valid. Where site
circumstances are such that viable alternatives exist it is important that options are kept
open, assessing the implications of each with respect to resources, programme and cost,
until a preferred solution is apparent. It may also be necessary to take account of less
tangible socio-political & environmental considerations in determination of that solution.
It is rare that for any given dam site only one type of dam is suitable. It is only in
exceptional circumstances that an experienced designer can say only one type of dam is
suitable or most economical. Thus, it would be necessary to prepare preliminary designs
and estimates for several types of dams before one can get the best solution from the
point of view of direct costs and all other factors.
Some of physical factors which affect choice of the type of dam are discussed below: Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam and the most important factor in
this respect is the shape of the valley.
i) A narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in abutments has an arch dam
as the first choice. However, for economic arch dam it is preferable to
have the top width of the valley less than about 4-times its height. It is also
suitable for rock fill dam.
ii) A narrow or moderately wide U-shaped valley with sound rock foundation
is best suited for gravity or buttress dam. Also suitable for rock fill dam.
iii) Wide valley with foundation of soil material to a considerable depth (deep
over burden) favor earth fill embankment dam.
Embankment
Earthfill
Rockfill
Suited to either soil or rock foundation and wide valleys; can accept limited
differential settlement given relatively wide and plastic core. Cut-off to sound, i.e. less
permeable, horizons required. Low contact stresses. Requires range of materials, e.g.
for core, shoulder zones, internal filters, etc.
Rock foundation or clay foundation above 5m depth.
Clay, sand , aggregate should be available on the site
Availability of separate spillway site is available
Rock foundations preferable; can accept variable quality and limited weathering. Cutoff to sound horizons required. Rock fill suitable for all weather placing. Requires
material (like boulders, sand clay) for core, and filters, etc.
Suited to wide cross section valleys
Semi permeable or impermeable foundations
Rock foundations above 5m depth.
Concrete
Gravity
Suited to wide valleys, provided that excavation to rock is less than about 5 m.
Limited weathering of rock acceptable. Check discontinuities in rock with regard to
sliding. Moderate contact stress. Requires imported cement.
Foundation should be impermeable
Guarantee for availability of materials is needed (cement ,sand , aggregate)
Buttress
As gravity dam, but higher contact stresses require sound rock. Concrete saved relative
to gravity dam 30 60%.
Suited to narrow gores, subject to uniform sound rock of high strength and limited
deformability in foundation & most particularly in abutments (because loads are more
of transmitted to abutments). High abutment loading. Concrete saving relative to
gravity dam is
50 85%
Cost effectiveness
Site conditions naturally influence the cost of various types of dam. For a very high dam,
for instance, the cost may be high compared with concrete dams. For concrete dams costs
for external spillway can be saved incase of spillway located at the dam crest. However,
standard prices of earth and rock fill materials in the past have not risen as much as those
of mass concrete dams
Environment and public opinion
One large dam was proposed as central core rock fill dam. Core material was available
only in thin beds and to obtain sufficient would despoil a very large area of beautiful
land. Public opinion was a major factor in the adoption of a thin arch dam despite
difficulties with the foundation.
Time and money
Time and money may be unavailable for sophisticated investigation and design, like arch
dams. Embankment dams can be continuously constructed to reduce construction time
with high degree of mechanization.
Hydrology
The possibility of inundation by floods during construction may favor a concrete dam.
Although means are now proven whereby the downstream face of rock fill dam can be
stabilized against overtopping, such practice has, as yet been limited to dams about 30m
in height, i.e., to cofferdams and to the lowest part of the main dam sufficient to protect it
during construction to such a height that head is provided for flood waters to be forced
through the diversion tunnel without further overtopping. Where wet season high flow
occurs, an embankment dam will require special and detailed protection, where as
concrete dam could be overtopped with little damage.
Availability of construction material
The most economical type of dam will be the one for which materials are to be found in
sufficient quantity with in a reasonable distance from the site. Advantage should be taken
of every local resource to reduce the cost of the project without sacrificing the efficiency
and quality of the final structure.
Spillway size and location
The spill way is a vital appurtenance of a dam. Frequently its size and type and the
natural restrictions in its location will be the controlling factor in the choice of type of
dam.
Spillway requirements are dictated primarily by the runoff and stream flow
characteristics, independent of site condition or size of dam. The selection of specific
spillway types will be influenced by the magnitudes of the floods to be by passed. Thus,
it can be seen that on streams with large flood potential, the spill way become the
dominant structure, and the selection of the type of dam could become a secondary
selection.
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The cost of constructing a large spillway is frequently a considerable portion of the total
cost of the development. In such cases, combining the spillway and in to one structure
may be desirable, indicating the adoption of a concrete overflow dam.
In certain instances, where excavated material from separate spillway channel may be
utilized in dam embankment, an earth fill dam may prove to be advantageous. Small
spillway requirements often favor the selection of earth fill or rock fill dams, even in
narrow dam sites.
Heights of the dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30m or so. Hence, for
greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
Other important Factors to be considered in design and construction of dam
In order to achieve general objectives and requirements, design and construction of dams
have to take into account a large variety of important factors. They are:
1. Physical factors in river basins and at site
Climatic conditions: temperatures, precipitation, winds, insolation (solar
radiation), evaporation potential, air moisture, etc.
Hydrological conditions: distribution of rainfall, run-off, stream flows and their
variation, floods, sediments
Topography, geomorphology, landscape: riverbed, valley, abutments
Geology, Hydro-geology, Geotechnics: geological formations, geological features,
natural construction materials and their properties, foundation capabilities, water
tightness permeability, etc.
Hydraulic conditions: river stages, regimes, sediment transport, river morphology.
2. Biological factors in river basin, at site
Flora; vegetation aquatic and terrestrial
Fauna; aquatic, terrestrial
Ecosystems
Water quality
3. Socio-economic factors in river basin, at site
Populations, demographic distribution, resettlements
Economic activities, natural resources and potentials, infrastructure, relocation,
costs
4 .Technical and technological factors
Availability of experience, construction materials, machinery, specific
infrastructure, labor.
5 .Legal and institutional framework
Legal requirements, liabilities, legal practices
Land ownership, institutional framework, other regional plans and projects
6 .Political factors
Political goals, mechanisms, representations, interest of society involved
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B) During Construction
- Detailed (construction execution design)
o Stepwise detail of dam design a head of construction
o Site investigations oriented towards construction
- Construction activities
o Preliminary installation of contractor at site
o Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and
energy supply, etc)
o River diversion
o Construction of dam and associated structures
- Construction and assembly supervision
- Commissioning and operation manuals
o Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of
equipment. Maintenance
C) After construction
- Monitoring, surveillance, operation
o Reading of instruments, evaluation of results
o Planning of operation
o Execution of operation activities
Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable dam engineering activities there are major aspects that could
be regarded as basic input data that must be carefully studied. Topography and
geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, metrology and climate, hydrology and
hydraulics are among those.
A) Topographic survey
No engineering work can be done with out topographic maps. Most of the countries in the
world have ready-made maps for all or most of the area up to certain scale (it is usually
1:10,000 in Ethiopia. Those, if existent, can be used for preliminary studies. However,
more detailed maps are required for each particular project, and those are to be done on
purposes, covering the areas determined by the project team.
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o Arial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different
analysis of the data such as geological, geo-morphological, topographical,
etc)
o Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles sections )
Generally the following are minimum requirements for scale maps:
- Master plan
1:100000, 1:50000, 1:25000, 1:20000,
1:10000
- Pre-feasibility 1:10000, 1:5000,
1:2500,
1:2000,
1:1000
- Feasibility
1:2500,
1:2000,
1:1000,
1:500
- Final (detailed design) 1:500, 1:250, 1:200,
1:100, 1:50
B) Geological and geotechnical investigations
Geological and geotechnical investigations of dam site selected for detailed evaluation is
directed to determination of geological structure, stratigraphy, faulting, foliation and
jointing, and to establishing ground and groundwater conditions adjacent to the dam site,
including the abutments. The general objectives of these and allied objectives are:
- To determine engineering parameters which can be safely used to evaluate
stability of the dam foundation and, on compressible foundations, i.e. soils, to
estimate the probable settlement and deformation,
- The determination of seepage patterns and parameters enabling assessment of the
probable seepage regime, including quantities and pressures and
- To confirm the containment integrity of the reservoir basin and the stability of its
margins
- Confirmation of the nature, suitability and availability of natural construction
materials, including the determination of the design parameters for fill materials.
C) Hydrogeology
Especial branch of geology that deals with interaction of water and rock/soil.
Determines:
- groundwater seepage paths and connections
- mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formations
- interr-relation of different hydrogeological formations (barriers, conductors,
anticlines, synclines ..etc).
Explorations:
- water permeability tests
- piezometric measurements
- marking and tracing groundwater seepage paths
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Envelope curves for river basins- Myers. Creager. Crippen Qmax= CAn
Observation of floods- flood hydrographs
Statistical distribution- Gummbel, Log. Pearson. Other distribution
Empirical methods based on runoff. Precipitations, basin characteristics.
Unit hydrograps techniques.
Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.
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