AUTOMATION
OF A MOBILE
10
MINER
ABSTRACT
The Robbins Mobile Miner demonstrates the successful combination of hard
rock excavation technology and the latest electronic control technology. The
mobile miner, a partial face hard rock tunneling machine, features a fully
integrated control system relying on a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
This PLC controls all functions: tramming, steering, boom swing, cutting depth,
conveyor operation, air scrubbers, hopper loading and unloading, etc. The
of all
machine is fully instrumented allowing the PLC to monitorthe results
commands on a continuousbasis,to recorddata,to evaluatedeveloping
problems,or to shutthemachinedown if necessary. The paper describes the
INTRODUCTION
The Attraction of Automation
The proven results of automation in mills and factories the world over are
compelling reasons to seek automation for any generally repetitive process. Why
has application of this technology been so slow developing in hard rock
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Is it possible to argue that these kinds of results are less desirable in hard rock
excavation work than in other lines of work? Of course they are equally
desirable. Why has automation technology not found wide acceptance in our
industries?
The most probable reason is the common opinion that the
underground environment is too severe. So what has changed that might make
this kind of development feasible now when it has not found acceptance in the
past? That answer lies partly in the functional design of the mobile miner but
equally in recent developments in automation equipment and improved installation
procedures which address the hazards of the hostile underground environment.
Slow Development of Automation
Automation of hard rock mining and tunneling has developed slowly. While
the civil hard rock tunneling industry has moved determinedly toward mechanical
excavation, very little progress has been made in the way of automation until very
recently. In mining the progression from rail oriented drill and blast systems to
trackless systems in the 1960s certainly increased mechanization at the face but
seemed to move away from automation. The new system actually multiplied the
number of independent operations and thereby increased the number of men and
vehicles required to keep the ore moving out of the mine. Some progress has
been made over the years in partly automating jumbos so that one technician can
manage all the drills on the machine. While automatic positioning systems are
common, only recently have drills with automation features come into common
use.
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OF MOBILE MINER
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/
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SUPPU?lMODULE
Cutting Module
The cutting module consists of a thin cylindrical wh~l on the periphery of
which is mounted an array of rolling disc cutters. The wheel is rotated about a
horizontal axis by means of two 250 KW motors located one each side of the
wheel. Each motor drives through a bevel and planetary gear set resulting in a
AUTOMATION
OF MOBILE MINER
153
fixed wheel speed. The wheel is mounted on a swing boom permitting lateral
motion of the wheel which is effected by swing cylinders, one each side.
The boom is mounted on a main beam. The main beam has at its front a
rolling stabilizer system and at its rear a gripping and thrusting mechanism.
Together these provide reaction for the cutting forces. The gripper is configured
to allow lateral and vertical motion while gripped, thus facilitating steering
maneuvers about the rolling stabilizer fulcrum. A muck apron with star wheels
is attached to the front of the main beam and crowds the muck toward the face,
while paddles on the periphery of the wheel deliver the muck to a central
conveying system.
Conveyors elevate and transport the muck to a storage
hopper at the rear of the machine. The latter provides surge capacity for
operation with haul trucks.
Service Module
The service module is isolated from the vibration effects of rock cutting by the
articulated joint and provides a relatively benign mounting platform for the motor
control center, electrical cabinets, control station, hydraulic power unit,
lubrication system, dust control system, air compressor and the fire protection
system. In addition it supports the surge hopper and hopper loading conveyors.
Machine Condensed Specifications
Machine Style
Application
Excavation Shape
Excavation Height
Excavation Width
Excavation Area
Flat Floor Width
Cutter Wheel Diameter
Cutter Wheel Speed
Cutter Wheel Power
Primary Cutter
Gage Reamer
Cutter Thrust Rating
Face Cutters
Gage Reamers
Maximum Swing Angle
Minimum HonzontaJ TR
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Minimum Vertical TR
Stroke Length
Resetting Time
Tramming Method
Tramming Speed
Tramming Grade
Tramming Turning Radius
Machine Weight
80m
750mm
2 minutes
Tandem Crawlers with Powered Hitch
0.6km/hr
14%
20m
265 Tonnes
Automation Equipment
Promammable Logic Controller (PLC) - The PLC started life as a replacement
for relay panels in the automobile industry in the early 70s. Since then, as with
all electronic equipment, they have become smaller, faster and more capable.
The PLC system selected for the mobile miner was Allen Bradleys PLC 5
system and in particular the 5/40 processor was selected for its high speed and
computational ability.
All of the sensors and actuators required to provide control and protection of
the machine are connected to the PLC with exception of the various fire detection
devices and the ground faultiover current protection for the main supply.
All inputs to the PLC are monitored approximately 25 times per second and
output responses to changing input conditions will normally occur within one
program scan (40 milliseconds).
The programming language used for the PLC was the well tried and easily
understood ladder diagram or ladder logic. Complex program constructions
were avoided where possible to ensure that technicians at the mine would be able
to understand the program and be able to use the PLC as a fault finding tool.
Sensors - Inputs to the PLC were provided by a variety of different sensors
including:
Linear Position (of hydraulic cylinders)
Pressure
Temperature,
Level (of gearbox oil using optical type device)
Level (of oil reservoir using linear position)
Level (of cut rock in hopper using microwave device)
Position (of various devices using proximity switches)
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OF MOBILE MINER
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Figure4.
RE~EAIE
PROTECTIVE
COWR
/SCNSIRINPROTECTIVE
WSING
AUTOMATION
OF MOBILE MINER
157
WHY AUTOMATE?
There were many good reasons to automate the Robbins-Pasminco mobile
miner, too many to discuss in the limitations of one paper. The following four
areas are some of the more important.
Unattended Operation
The primary impetus for automation of the Pasminco mobile miner came from
experience gained from the prototype machine used at Mt. Isa Mines,
Queensland, Australia (Willoughby, 1991). (Figure 6) Comprehensive data
logging was undertaken during the drivage of an 1,100 meter decline and this data
highlighted the fact that a significant portion of mining delays were attributable
to normal mining practices.
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OF MOBILE MINER
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These practices included mandatory evacuation of the work site at mid shift and
between shifts for blasting. It was apparent that a system which allowed safe
unattended operation of the machine would improve overall utilization by as much
as 25%. It was also recognized that a fully automatic machine offered the
potential for reducing crew size as there would be no need for an technician to
be occupied full time in driving the machine.
Rock Cutting Optimization
A second reason to incorporate automated control came from the fundamental
rock cutting system of the mobile miner. The mobile miner has the ability to
vary kerf spacing by controlling the boom swing velocity. Excavation rate is
controlled by maximizing the cutter spacing to penetration ratio. Thus, if
properly managed, the machine could be tuned to take advantage of varying rock
conditions by adjusting the traverse speed of the cutter wheel to suit the rock.
Such precision control within a single cutter wheel sweep was considered too
complex for manual control.
Variable Tunnel Width and Gage Cutting
A third motivation to automate arose from the need to improve boom swing
control for cutting variable width cross sections. Early attempts to control the
swing end points by purely hydraulic means had given unsatisfactory results and
the prototype miner was fitted with mechanical stops which had to be adjusted to
vary tunnel width. In addition, increasing or decreasing the tunnel width must
be done in a carefully controlled manner to avoid damage to components of the
butterhead. This gradual adjustment is difficult to control manually.
Machine Protection
To obtain efficient cutting of the rock extremely stiff actuators are required.
Although recent developments in mechanical actuators together with synchronized
control offer potential, the hydraulic jack remains the actuator of choice. To
maximize stiffness low pressures are mandated. This results in oversize jacks
which have the capability of overloading the machine. Automation offered the
potential to better manage the overcutting and prevent this problem.
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Unattended Operation
In practice at the Pasminco site the mobile miner was operated by one person.
Once the machine was started this one technician was free to move around the
machine to carry out inspections and to do routine minor maintenance (e.g.
change grease barrels, prepare for services extension etc. ).
In the event that a problem in the machines operation was detected by the PLC
the technician would be advised by audible and visual warnings that he should go
to the control station. There the cause of the shutdown or the warning would be
available to him on the display screen as both an English language text message
and as a graphic indication.
Muck removal from the MM130 was by means of 25 and 35 ton trucks. The
surge hopper on the machine held 8m3 of muck. Discharge of muck into the
trucks from the machines surge hopper was normally initiated by the truck driver
using a hand held infra-rcxl pushbutton station (similar technology to TV remote
control).
Evolution of the Svstem - Later in the development phase, facility was also
provided for the truck driver to initiate a self canceling automatic discharge. This
would allow the truck driver a certain amount of time to assist the machine
technician if necessary or to perform other tasks without having to be continually
watching for the hopper to be full.
A second significant automation which occurred part way through the
development phase was that of the regrip sequence. The regnp cycle would occur
approximately every 30-40 minutes under continuous mining conditions. Initially
the process required the technician to go through a 12 step procedure of retracting
and extending the various cylinders.
htional Seauence for Bad Ground - The automation of the regrip provided two
levels of operation, full automatic and semi automatic. In full automatic mode
the regrip was initiated as soon as the plunge cylinders completed their stroke and
carried right through to, and included resumption of mining.
Semi automatic mode was intended to be used in bad ground where some
inspection and adjustment could be necessary before re-application of the roof
AUTOMATION
OF MOBILE MINER
161
gripper.Operation
was virtually the same as full automatic mode except that the
audible warning was sounded at the beginning of the regrip cycle to summon the
machine attendant and an input was required at the control station to continue the
cycle and restart mining.
Cutting rock with disc cutters has been the subject of intense study for forty
years. One of the more obvious aspects of disc cutting is that the greater the
width of the rock chip produced by the cutter, the more efficient will be the
system, ie., the system specific energy will be lower. It is also postulated that
the chip width to thickness ratio is a rock property and has an upper limit such
that if the spacing/penetration ratio becomes too large, contiguous chipping will
not occur.
This critical aspect ratio is difficult to quantify, and since the rock type may
vary widely on any job, rotary tunnel boring machines with fixed spacing are
unable to exploit changes in this property and must be designed such that the
spacing is suitable for the most difficult rock to be encountered.
It was early recognized, and in fact was a major consideration in the selection
of the configuration of the mobile miner, that this ability to vary the kerf spacing
was a large step forward in the mechanical excavation of rock.
To exploit this potential it would be necessary to manage swing velocity (and/
162
or butterhead speed) and penetration depth, within the limits of machine power
and thrust. This is a task, as will be seen, that could not be achieved without
automatic control.
Several control algorithms were developed and tested.
systems were run extensively with positive results.
Ratio Control - The geometry of the mobile miner is such that the penetration of
the cutter varies sinusoidally with the boom swing angle. (Figure 7) In addition
the boom swing cylinders, if supplied with oil at a constant rate, will produce a
sinusoidally varying swing velocity. To provide a constant kerf width to
penetration ratio, it was necessary to control the pump delivery to be proportional
to the square of the cosine of the boom swing angle.
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OF MOBILE MINER
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chipaspectratiosettings
in which casethepump strokek limitedto thisvalue.
The face mapping control strategy described above is the result of extensive
experimentation and appears to be reasonably effective in the variable ground
conditions found on the 5 level at Broken Hill. Blocky ground presents a
particular challenge to this strategy which as yet has not been satisfactorily
resolved.
Attaining Variable Tunnel Width and Controlled Gage Cutting
As a result of the experience gained with the prototype machine, the swing
cylinder stiffness on the Pasminco machine was greatly increased, and it was felt
that with the control capacity of a PLC, boom control in gage would be
overcome. The initial plan was to simply ramp down the flow to the cylinders
near the gage position, prove the position by a signal from the swing cylinder
position transducers, then initiate plunge and swing reversal simultaneously.
Unfortunately lack of stiffness produced a long dwell time in gage resulting in
unacceptable machine vibration.
The problem was solved by changing the control scenario to an adaptive
method where the point of initiation of the slow down ramp was based on the
value used last time, modified by an amount proportional to the difference
between the desired widest position and the actually achieved widest position for
the last cut of this gage. The plunge was initiated at the same time as the ramp
down, and swing reversal was allowed only when the swing speed had ramped
to 20% and the plunge had achieved its nominal depth. The configuration of the
machine and the timing of the initiation of the plunge were such that the plunge
forces actually assisted the cutterwheel in gage cutting. A major advantage of
this method (as well as solving the original problem) was that because the system
was adaptive it could compensate for changes in rock hardness in gage.
Tunnel width adjustment was a required function of the mobile miner for
variousoperations.
Unlessthetunnelwidthbeing mined was seven meters or
greater it was necessary to widen either or both sides for the machine to mine
minimum radius (20 meter) turns.
In order to prevent damage to the cutterwheel it was necessary to control
accurately the rate at which widening or narrowing took place. With the PLC
available, the desired swing width could be gradually increased or decreased, and
combined with the adaptive gage cutting control, extremely smooth transitions
were achieved.
For the machine technician the task was made very simple. All he had to do
AUTOMATION
OF MOBILE MINER
165
was to enter the chainage at which the widening should commence, enter the final
tunnel width and the widening rate and the PLC would take care of everything.
That the above changes were accomplished with no loss of production time or
modifications to hardware demonstrates the power and flexibility of software
based control systems.
Attaining Machine Protection
1) If the upper set of gripper cylinders are extended without being opposed
by the lower, unacceptably high loads will be induced in the structure.
2) The mobile miner is plunged forward into the rock at the end of each
swing after which the swing is re-initiated in a reverse direction. Due to
the large stiff actuators very high forces may be induced. In softer rock
structural loads are limited by the butterhead drive motor capacity. That
is to say, the ratio of drag force to thrust is high and the motors will stall
prior to the cutter radial forces becoming too large. In harder rocks this
effect is diminished and can lead to high cutter forces and high structural
loads before motor stall occurs.
With the incorporation of strain gages in the boom swing pins and the use of
PLC control these situations were averted.
ATTENDANT BENEFITS OF THE AUTOMATION SYSTEM
Once the machine was equipped for automatic operation the resources were
available to provide many additional benefits without significant further
investment. These built in features enhanced the performance capability of the
mobile miner.
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1993RETC PROCEEDINGS
those possible with a human technician. The end result has been less delay and
more productive boring time.
Faster Trouble Shooting
The built in diagnostic system with on-screen alarms and warnings greatly
reduces down time by simplifying trouble shooting and providing technicians with
immediate information on fault location.
The data logging system on the machine records all alarm and warning
information and all machine stoppage time. From this information a history of
persistent problems can be developed and suitable remedies found.
Cost Reduction
The customary machine operator becomes a plant technician capable of
performing tasks which would be performed by an additional person if the
technician were tied to the machine console. The technician is charged with
overseeing the machine and anticipating its needs, thereby avoiding downtime or
damage. While not yet installed on the Model 130, automatic rock bolting
equipment will eventually replace the hand held stopers now in use. It is
conceivable that these drills may be serviced by the same machine technician
rather than an independent drill operator.
Ease of System Modification
As discussed earlier in the paper there have been many changes in operation
of the machine during the development phase. (For example, automation of the
regrip sequence, the development of gage cutting control, etc.). Most of the
modifications to the machines operation were ctied out by software change
only. The advantage of this is that new schemes can be tested and if they don t
work it takes only a matter of minutes to revert to the original scheme.
ImprovedWorking Environment/ Reduced Manual Labor
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CONCLUSIONS
1. AUTOMATED hard rock tunnel driving is being achieved by the mobile
miner at Pasminco.
2. AUTOMATED and unattended machine operation is entirely feasible and has
been demonstrated.
The mobile miner has completed 275 meters of drivage at this writing. (Bad
ground has curtailed operations temporarily while an improved roof shield is
developed and installed. This work has been completed and operations are about
to be restarted.)
Many more meters of drift will be necessary to fully demonstrate the ultimate
benefits of mining machine automation. Those benefits are rapid boring and high
machine utilization under typical mining conditions. But there is ample evidence
already that automation of an underground hard rock mining machine is feasible;
that the automation equipment, if properly chosen and installed, can survive and
function in the underground environment; and that automation offers the mining
industry the same benefits that other industries have enjoyed for decades.
REFERENCES
Tilley, Cherie M., 1988, Tunnel Boring at the Stillwater Mine, Nye, Montana,
Proceedings of the Rapid Excavation and Tunnel Conference (RETC), June, Los
Angeles.
Willoughby, Rick, 1991, Pasmincos Expectations of the Mobile Miner,
International Symposium on Automation, Colorado School of Mines, June,
Golden, Colorado.