Human Skeleton

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of

270 bones at birth [1][2][3] this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some
bones have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum
density around age 30. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and
the append circular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib
cage and the skull. The append circular skeleton, which is attached to the axial
skeleton, is formed by the pectoral girdles, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and
lower limbs.

The human skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection,
production of blood cells, storage of ions and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species,
but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and
pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust
than corresponding male elements within a given population. The pelvis in female
skeletons is also different from that of males in order to facilitate child birth.
The skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production
of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of
movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of
movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles,
bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by
the nervous system.

Functions Of Blood Circulatory System

Blood circulates in two linked circuits: the pulmonary, which carries blood to the
lungs to be oxygenated, and the systemic, which supplies oxygenated blood to the
body. Arteries carrying blood from the heart divide into smaller vessels called
arterioles and then into capillaries, where nutrient and waste exchange occurs.
Capillaries join up to form venules, which in turn join to form veins that carry blood
back to the heart. The portal vein does not return blood to the heart but carries it to
the liver.
In both the pulmonary and systemic circulations, the exchange of oxygen, nutrients,
and waste products occurs in the capillaries that join arterioles to venules .
The heart powers the pulmonary and the systemic circulations. In the pulmonary
circulation, deoxygenated blood (blue) travels to the lungs, where it absorbs oxygen
before returning to the heart. This oxygenated blood (red) is pumped around the
body in the systemic circulation. Body tissues absorb oxygen, and deoxygenated
blood returns to the heart to be pumped to the lungs again.
The blood pressure in the veins is about a tenth of that in the arteries. Various
physical mechanisms ensure that there is adequate venous return (blood flow back
to the heart). Many deep veins lie within muscles. When the muscles contract, they
squeeze the veins and force blood back to the heart. The action of inhalation during
breathing also draws blood to the heart. In addition, venous return from the upper
body is assisted by gravity.

Plant Support System

A plant is any organism in the kingdom Plantae. Kingdoms are the main divisions
into which scientists classify all living things on Earth. The other kingdoms are:
Monera (single-celled organisms without nuclei), Protista (single-celled organisms
with a nucleus), Fungi, and Animalia (animals). The scientific study of plants is
called botany.
A general definition of a plant is any organism that contains chlorophyll (a green
pigment contained in a specialized cell called a chloroplast) and can manufacture its
own food. Another characteristic of plants is that their rigid cell walls are composed
mainly of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate that is insoluble (cannot be dissolved)
in water. Because of the vast number of plants that exist, cellulose is the most
abundant organic compound on Earth. Biologists have identified about 500,000
species of plants, although there are many undiscovered species
, especially in tropical rain forests.
Plant structure
Those plants that produce seeds are the dominant and most studied group of plants
on the planet. The leaves of these plants are all covered with a cuticle, a waxy layer
that inhibits water loss. The leaves have stomata, microscopic pores, that open
during the day to take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis
(process by which sunlight is used to form carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
water, releasing oxygen as a by-product).
Plant development

As a plant grows, it undergoes developmental changes. Most plants continually

produce new sets of organs, such as leaves, flowers, and fruits. In contrast, animals
typically develop their organs only once and these organs merely increase in size as
the animal grows.
A plant begins its life as a seed. Various environmental cues such as sunlight,
temperature changes, and the presence of nutrients signal a seed to germinate
(grow). During early germination, the young seedling depends upon nutrients stored
within the seed itself for growth. As the seedling grows, it begins to produce
chlorophyll and turn green. Most plants become green only when exposed to
sunlight because the production of chlorophyll is light-induced.
meristem is a special tissue that contains actively growing and dividing cells. Apical
meristems are at the tips of shoots and roots and are responsible for elongation of a
plant. Lateral meristems are located along the outer sides of the stem of a plant and
are responsible for thickening of the plant.
Plant Diseases
Plant diseases can be infectious (transmitted from plant to plant) or noninfectious.
Noninfectious diseases are usually referred to as disorders. Common plant disorders
are caused by a shortage of plant nutrients, by waterlogged or polluted soil, and by
polluted air. Too little (or too much) water or improper nutrition can cause plants to
grow poorly. Plants can also be stressed by weather that is too hot or too cold, by
too little or too much light, and by heavy winds. Pollution from automobiles and
industry and the excessive use of herbicides (to kill weeds) can also cause
noninfectious plant disorders.
Infectious plant diseases are caused by living microorganisms that infect a plant
and rob it of nutrients. Bacteria, fungi, and viruses are the living agents that cause
plant diseases. None of these microorganisms are visible to the naked eye, but the
diseases they cause can be detected by the symptoms of wilting, yellowing,
stunting, and abnormal growth patterns.
Some plant diseases are caused by rod-shaped bacteria. The bacteria enter the
plant through natural openings, like the stomata of the leaves, or through wounds in
the plant tissue. Once inside, the bacteria plug up the plant's vascular system and
cause the plant to wilt. Other common symptoms of bacterial disease include
rotting and swollen plant tissues. Bacteria can be spread by water, insects, infected
soil, or contaminated tools.
About 80 percent of plant diseases can be traced to fungi, which can grow on living
or dead plant tissue. They can penetrate plant tissue or grow on the plant's surface.
Fungal spores, which act like seeds, are spread by wind, water, soil, and animals to
other plants. Warm, humid conditions promote fungal growth.

Viruses are the hardest pathogens (disease-causing organisms) to control.

Destroying the infected plants to prevent spreading to healthy plants is usually the
best control method. While more than 300 plant viruses have been identified, new
strains continually appear because these organisms are capable of mutating
(changing their genetic makeup). Viruses are spread by contaminated seeds and
sucking insects (aphids, leafhoppers, trips) that act as carriers of the virus. The
symptoms of viral infection include yellowing, stunted growth in some part of the
plant. Leaf rolls and narrow leaf growth are other indications of viral infection. The
mosaic viruses can infect many plants. Plants infected with this virus have mottled
or streaked leaves.

Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease (also called heart disease) is a class of diseases that involve
the heart, the blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, and veins) or both.
Cardiovascular disease refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular
system, principally cardiac disease, vascular diseases of the brain and kidney,
and peripheral arterial disease. The causes of cardiovascular disease are diverse
but atherosclerosis and/or hypertension are the most common. In addition, with
aging come a number of physiological and morphological changes that alter
cardiovascular function and lead to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, even in
healthy asymptomatic individuals.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of deaths worldwide, though, since the
1970s, cardiovascular mortality rates have declined in many high-income
countries. At the same time, cardiovascular deaths and disease have increased at a
fast rate in low- and middle-income countries. Although cardiovascular disease
usually affects older adults, the antecedents of cardiovascular disease, notably
atherosclerosis, begin in early life, making primary prevention efforts necessary
from childhood. There is therefore increased emphasis on preventing atherosclerosis
by modifying risk factors, such as healthy eating, exercise, and avoidance
of smoking tobacco.
Evidence suggests a number of risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, high
blood pressure, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, tobacco smoking, excessive
alcohol consumption, sugar consumption, family history, obesity, lack of physical

activity, psychosocial factors, and air pollution. While the individual contribution of
each risk factor varies between different communities or ethnic groups the
consistency of the overall contribution of these risk factors to epidemiological
studies is remarkably strong. Some of these risk factors, such as age, gender or
family history, are immutable; however, many important cardiovascular risk factors
are modifiable by lifestyle change, social change, drug treatment and prevention of
Serrano's Cardiac Triad: hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes.
Age is by far the most important risk factor in developing cardiovascular or heart
diseases, with approximately a tripling of risk with each decade of life. It is
estimated that 82 percent of people who die of coronary heart disease are 65 and
older. At the same time, the risk of stroke doubles every decade after age 55.
Multiple explanations have been proposed to explain why age increases the risk of
cardiovascular/heart diseases. One of them is related to serum cholesterol level. In
most populations, the serum total cholesterol level increases as age increases. In
men, this increase levels off around age 45 to 50 years. In women, the increase
continues sharply until age 60 to 65 years.

Type of Blood Groups

A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the
presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood
cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins,
orglycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are
also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of
these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or very closely
linked genes) and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types
are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 32 human

blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood
Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they
determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD
status).
Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and
the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal
antibodies are a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and
causehemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the
newborn called erythroblastosis fetalis, an illness of low fetal blood counts that
ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it
is calledhydrops fetalis.
A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the
presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood
cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins,
orglycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are
also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of
these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or very closely
linked genes) and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types
are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 32 human
blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood
Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they
determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with + and - denoting RhD
status).
Many pregnant women carry a fetus with a blood type different from their own, and
the mother can form antibodies against fetal RBCs. Sometimes these maternal
antibodies are IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can cross the placenta and cause
hemolysis of fetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to hemolytic disease of the
newborn called erythroblastos is fetalis, an illness of low fetal blood counts that
ranges from mild to severe. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it
is called hydrops fetalis.

Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition that is associated with intellectual
disability, a characteristic facial appearance, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia) in
infancy. All affected individuals experience cognitive delays, but the intellectual
disability is usually mild to moderate.
People with Down syndrome may have a variety of birth defects. About half of all
affected children are born with a heart defect. Digestive abnormalities, such as a
blockage of the intestine, are less common.
Individuals with Down syndrome have an increased risk of developing several
medical conditions. These include gastroesophageal reflux, which is a backflow of
acidic stomach contents into the esophagus, and celiac disease, which is an
intolerance of a wheat protein called gluten. About 15 percent of people with Down
syndrome have an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism). The thyroid gland is
a butterfly-shaped organ in the lower neck that produces hormones. Individuals with
Down syndrome also have an increased risk of hearing and vision problems.
Additionally, a small percentage of children with Down syndrome develop cancer of
blood-forming cells (leukemia).
Delayed development and behavioral problems are often reported in children with
Down syndrome. Affected individuals' speech and language develop later and more
slowly than in children without Down syndrome, and affected individuals' speech
may be more difficult to understand. Behavioral issues can include attention
problems, obsessive/compulsive behavior, and stubbornness or tantrums. A small
percentage of people with Down syndrome are also diagnosed with developmental
conditions called autism spectrum disorders, which affect communication and social
interaction.
People with Down syndrome often experience a gradual decline in thinking ability
(cognition) as they age, usually starting around age 50. Down syndrome is also
associated with an increased risk of developing Alzheimer disease, a brain disorder
that results in a gradual loss of memory, judgment, and ability to function.
Approximately half of adults with Down syndrome develop Alzheimer disease.
Although Alzheimer disease is usually a disorder that occurs in older adults, people
with Down syndrome usually develop this condition in their fifties or sixties.

Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of
an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host
genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest
using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing
the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be
removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a different
technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene,
and can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point
mutations.
An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be
agenetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973 and
GM mice were generated in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized
in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first
GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States December in 2003.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including
research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in
laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are
now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as
mice orzebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified
crops have been commercialized.
Plants, animals or micro organisms that have changed through genetic engineering
are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. Bacteria were the first
organisms to be genetically modified. Plasmid DNA containing new genes can be
inserted into the bacterial cell and the bacteria will then express those genes. These
genes can code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates.[17]
[18]
Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance, virus
resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the
production of edible vaccines. Most commercialised GMO's are insect resistant
and/or herbicide tolerant crop plants. [20] Genetically modified animals have been

used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or

pharmaceutical products. They include animals with genes knocked out, increased susceptibility
to disease, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.
Genetic engineering is also being used to create BioArt. Some bacteria have been
genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Genetic engineering
has also been used to create novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations, blue
roses, and glowing fish.