ELEC4504 Avionics Systems

CHAPTER 4. Electromagnetic Spectrum

4.1. Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
In free space (or the atmosphere) the electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field and both are perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.
The speed of propagation is the same as the speed of light (about 3 x 108 m/s)

c
= --f

The wavelength is related to frequency f by the equation

e.g. if f = 300 MHz then = 1 meter

The polarity of an EM wave is defined as the orientation.of the electrical field vector. Typical polarities are:
- vertical
- horizontal
- circular (left or right). In circular polarization, the electric and magnetic field vectors rotate in a corkscrew
fashion as the wave propagates

4.2. Classification of the spectrum (somewhat arbitrary)

Table 1:
Band

VLF (Very Low Frequency)

30kHz-300kHz

10km - 1km

LF(low Frequency)

300kHz-3MHz

1km - 100m

HF(High Frequency

3MHz-30MHz

100m - 10m

VHF(Very High Frequency)

30MHz-300MHz

100m - 10m

UHF(Ultra High Frequency)

300MHz - 3GHz)

1m - 10cm

SHF(Super High Frequency)

3GHz - 30GHz

10cm - 1cm

Question:
Why are so many parts of the spectrum used for avionics purposes?
Answer:
- propagation properties
- bandwidth usage

4.3. Propagation:
4.3.1 Ionosphere
- upper levels of the atmosphere - atoms ionized by bombardment of solar particles (solar wind)
- height and electron density very variable (see Figure 1)
-depends on time of day and solar activity (sunspot cycle)

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4.3.1.1 Effect of the Ionosphere on EM waves

- rotates polarity (Faraday Effect)
- increased electron density decreases speed of propagation
- leads to refraction
- amount of refraction depends on
- electron density
- frequency, f , of wave (higher frequency, less refraction)
2

index of refraction

where

n =

f
1 ------2p
f

p depends on electron density

Note: Since the ionosphere is, as a whole, neutral the electron density is the same as the ion density, but,
being much lighter, the electrons have a much greater effect on the EM wave
Where there is a gradient in the electron density, refraction and reflection of the waves take place (see
Figures)

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Thus, for frequencies below 30 MHz it is possible to transmit signals over long distances

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4.4. Bandwidth
The second factor in determining spectrum usage is bandwidth
- to transmit information on an electromagnetic wave, it is usually necessary to modulate a carrier signal
- carrier: a single frequency tone

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- modulate: alter carrier signal in a manner which codes the information to be transmitted
There are three basic types of modulation: AM (amplitude modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation) and PM
(Phase Modulation). These differ only on the parameter of the carrier which is varied (modulated) to transmit in

4.4.1 AM (Amplitude Modulation)

- the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the information
i.e.

s = A ( t ) ) cos ( 2 f C t )

where

A ( t ) ) is determined by the information being transmitted

For a sinusoidal modulation of frequency the equation of an AM signal is

A ( t ) = 1 + A cos ( 2 f m t )
t
T

Figure 1:
AM modulated signal in the time domaim.
In this case the period of the carrier is t (therefore the frequency fc = 1/t)
The period of the modulating signal is T (therefore the modulating frequency is fm = 1/T)
and the spectrum is

fm

fm

fc

- Thus the bandwidth required for this signal is 2 fm

- Problems with AM

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- not very efficient

- susceptible to interference

4.4.2 FM (Frequency Modulation)

In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is maintained at a constant level while the the frequency
of the carrier is varied by an amount proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
i.e. s = Acos{[fc + pm(t)]t}
where:
-A is the (constant) amplitude of the carrier signal.
-m(t) is the waveform of the information to be transmitted
- p is a proportionality constant relating the frequency shift to the modulating signal amplitude
For sinusoidal modulation the spectrum of an FM signal is approximately:

2.5fDMAX

2.5fDMAX

fc
Where fDMAX is the maximum frequency deviation
The advantages of FM are:
- high quality speech transmission
- relatively immune to interference

4.4.3 PM (Phase modulation)

Because frequency is simply the rate of change of phase, phase modulation is similar to frequency modulation.
The amplitude of the carrier is maintained at a constant level and the phase of the carrier is varied by an amount
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
i.e. S = cos [fct + A(t)]

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The spectrum for phase modulation is:

2fm

2fm

fc
PM is used mainly for data transmission.
As can be seen in these examples, the bandwidth required is approximately proportional to the modulating
frequency.
The modulating frequency is determined by the required information rate (data rate)
Thus high data rate > high frequency > high bandwidth

4.4.4 Spectrum Management

Because spectrum is an international commodity it is controlled by international agreement. The ITU (International Telecommunications Union) is the United Nations organization which coordinates the allocation of
frequencies to the activities which use them (e.g. r5adionavigation, satellite communications, radar systems).
ITU organizes World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRC) every two to three years to modify the frequency allotments as required (or requested)
The low end of spectrum is very congested and so to get more bandwidth it is necessary to use higher frequencies.

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4.4.5 Aeronautical Usage of EM Spectrum

Table 2:
Band

Usage

System

Frequencies

VLF

Navigation

Omega (discontinued)

10 kHz

LF

Navigation

LORAN C

1 MHz

Non-Directional Beacon

500 - 1600 kHz

HF

Communications:

Oceanic or Polar communications

3 - 30 MHz (various bands)

VHF

Navigation

ILS (Instrument Landing System)

108 - 112 MHz

UHF

SHF

Above
30GHz

VOR (VHF Omnirange)

108 - 118 MHz

Communication

VHF Comm (continental air traffic control)

118 - 136 MHz

Navigation

DME (Distance Measuring

Equipment

960 - 1215 MHz

TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation)

960 - 1215 MHz

GPS (Global Positioning System)

1575.42 MHz

Communication

UHF Comm (Military aircraft)

225 - 399 MHz

Radar

Air Traffic Control Radar

1030 and 1090

MHz

Navigation

MLS

5.031 - 5.1907
GHz

Communication

Satellite communication

Radar

Airborne weather radar

5 - 10 GHz

Radar Altimeter

4.2 - 4.4 GHz

Millimeter radar for synthetic

vision (landing)

35GHz

Radar

Passive Infrared imaging for

synthetic vision

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4.5. :Antennas: General

4.5.1 Purpose:
The purpose of an antenna is to provide the link between the electromagnetic wave and either a transmitter
or a receiver

4.5.2 Definitions
a) Antenna Pattern: A means of describing the directional sensitivity of an antenna
e.g. An omnidirectional (or isotropic) antenna has a perfectly spherical pattern - it is equally sensitive in
all directions. This is illustrated by the following figure.
Note: Antennas are reciprocal devices. This means that they have the same characteristics (including
antenna pattern) whether they are transmitting or receiving. The main difference is that for a receiving
antenna the pattern indicates the directional sensitivity whiel for a transmitting antenna it indicates the
directional power ouput distribution.

Antenna

Figure 2:
Isotropic Antenna Pattern
b) Directivity: If an antenna is not omnidirectional it is more sensitive (or radiates more power) in some direc-

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tions than in others. Directivity is a measure of this.

Antenna

Figure 3:
Antenna Pattern for a
Directional Antenna
c) Gain:
If an antenna is directional its sensitivity compared to that of anomnidirectional antenna is its gain.

Gain
Antenna

Figure 4:
Illustration of the Gain of a
Directional Antenna
In general the closer the antenna is in size to the wavelength with which it is intended to interact, the more efficient
it is.
d) Polarity
All antennas are designed to transmit or receive EM waves of a given polarity. Thus there are vertically,
horizontally and circularly polarized antennas.

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4.5.2.1
Examples of aircraft antennas:
a) Half-wave dipole (TV antenna)
The polarity of this antenna is determined by the direction of the two elements which make it up. Thus the
VOR/ILS antenna in Figure 6 is horizontally polarized.
/2
To
Receiver or
Transmitter

Figure 5:
Basic configuration of half wave dipole

Figure 6:
Half wave dipole used for VOR/ILS
(CL-601 Challenger)

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b) Quarter wave monopole (or stub, or whip)

An electrically conducting surface reflects EM waves as a mirror reflects light. This effect is used to make
a half-wave dipole with a single element as shown in Figure 7. Because the single element is half the
length of the half wave dipole it is ususally called a 1/4 wave monopole.
When the reflecting surface is horizontal, (the normal case) the polarity is vertical.

/4

Aircraft Skin

Reflection of
antenna
Figure 7:
Basic configuration of

quarter wave monopole

VHF Comm

DME
Figure 8:
Quarter wave monopoles used for VHF Comm and DME

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c) Long wire (LF, HF) - not practical on turbojet aircraft

LONG WIRE ANTENNAS

Figure 9:
Long Wire Antenna on a Dakota Aircraft

d) Loop (sensitive to magnetic field)

e) Horn (microwave, usually radar) may include a parabolic reflector)

4.5.2.2 Antennas: Aircraft Installation

Usually the antenna pattern should be as close to omnidirectional as possible since the relative direction
from the aircraft to the ground station is a function of the aircraft attitude and can be almost any direction.
exception: weather radar, satellite communications
Note: these require attitude stabilization
It is also preferable to have low drag
Antennas on the bottom of aircraft may require protection from debris thrown up by the undercarriage.

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4.5.2.3 Siting of antennas

-Watch for shadowing from wings/ horizontal stabilizer
-Interference from one system to another
-VLF antennas may require skin current mapping
-as close as possible to the avionics bay of the equipment it is serving
- to reduce cable losses and
- to reduce the number of connectors (through bulkheads)

4.5.2.4 Methods for determining antenna placement:

4.5.2.4.1 Analytical (Mathematical) modelling
-OK for Low frequencies (a/c parts modeled as rods) and for microwave and above (a/c skin
modeled as a series of planes)
-VHF/UHF very difficult since the wavelengths are comparable to the size of the aircraft structures

4.5.2.4.2 Scale modelling

This method requires a large anechoic chamber. This is a room whose walls are lined with EM
wave absorbing material to reduce the effect of reflections on the measurements
A scale model of the aircraft is used. It is necessary to construct the model aircraft from materials whose properties are scaled in the same proportion as the mode. Sometimes it is difficult to
find materials whose properties scale correctly
e.g. for a 1/10 model, the skin should be made of a material whose electrical resistivity is 1/
10th that of aluminum

4.5.2.5 Problems with antennas

- Poor bonding between antenna and aircraft skin. This is especially true for 1/4 wave monopoles since
they depend on the skin to work properly
- Cabling losses and faults cause a reduction in the signal level at the receiver (for receiving antennas) or
the radiated power (transmitting antennas)
- Connectors introduce losses into the signal path.