Womenandthe

EvolutionofWorld
Politics
ByFrancisFukuyama

HIMPANZEEPOLITICS
Intheworld'slargestcaptivechimpcolonyattheBurger'sZoo
inArnhem,Netherlands,astruggleworthyofMachiavelli
unfoldedduringthelate1970s.Asdescribedbyprimatologist
FransdeWaal,theagingalphamaleofthecolony,Yeroen,
wasgraduallyunseatedfromhispositionofpowerbya
youngermale,Luit.Luitcouldnothavedonethisonthebasis
ofhisownphysicalstrength,buthadtoenterintoanalliance
withNikkie,astillyoungermale.NosoonerwasLuitontop,
however,thanNikkieturnedonhimandformedacoalition
withthedeposedleadertoachievedominancehimself.Luit
remainedinthebackgroundasathreattohisrule,sooneday

hewasmurderedbyNikkieandYeroen,histoesandtesticles
litteringthefloorofthecage.
JaneGoodallbecamefamousstudyingagroupofabout30
chimpsattheGombeNationalParkinTanzaniainthe1960s,a
groupshefoundonthewholetobepeaceful.Inthe1970s,this
groupbrokeupintowhatcouldonlybedescribedastworival
gangsinthenorthernandsouthernpartsoftherange.The
biologicalanthropologistRichardWranghamwithDale
Petersonintheir1996bookDemonicMalesdescribeswhat
happenednext.Partiesoffourorfivemalesfromthenorthern
groupwouldgoout,notsimplydefendingtheirrange,but
oftenpenetratingintotherivalgroup'sterritorytopickoff
individualscaughtaloneorunprepared.Themurderswere
oftengrisly,andtheywerecelebratedbytheattackerswith
hootingandfeverishexcitement.Allthemalesandseveralof
thefemalesinthesoutherngroupwereeventuallykilled,and
theremainingfemalesforcedtojointhenortherngroup.The
northernGombechimpshaddone,ineffect,whatRomedidto
Carthagein146B.C.:extinguisheditsrivalwithoutatrace.
Thereareseveralnotableaspectstothesestoriesofchimp
behavior.First,theviolence.Violencewithinthesamespecies
israreintheanimalkingdom,usuallyrestrictedtoinfanticide
bymaleswhowanttogetridofarival'soffspringandmate
withthemother.Onlychimpsandhumansseemtohavea
proclivityforroutinelymurderingpeers.Secondisthe
importanceofcoalitionsandthepoliticsthatgoeswith
coalitionbuilding.Chimps,likehumans,areintenselysocial
creatureswhoselivesarepreoccupiedwithachievingand
maintainingdominanceinstatushierarchies.Theythreaten,
plead,cajole,andbribetheirfellowchimpstojoinwiththem
inalliances,andtheirdominancelastsonlyaslongastheycan

maintainthesesocialconnections.
Finallyandmostsignificantly,theviolenceandthecoalition
buildingisprimarilytheworkofmales.Femalechimpanzees
canbeasviolentandcruelasthemalesattimes;females
competewithoneanotherinhierarchiesandformcoalitionsto
doso.Butthemostmurderousviolenceistheprovinceof
males,andthenatureoffemalealliancesisdifferent.
AccordingtodeWaal,femalechimpsbondwithfemalesto
whomtheyfeelsomeemotionalattachment;themalesare
muchmorelikelytomakealliancesforpurelyinstrumental,
calculatingreasons.Inotherwords,femalechimpshave
relationships;malechimpspracticerealpolitik.
Chimpanzeesareman'sclosestevolutionaryrelative,having
descendedfromacommonchimplikeancestorlessthanfive
millionyearsago.Notonlyaretheyverycloseonagenetic
level,theyshowmanybehavioralsimilaritiesaswell.As
WranghamandPetersonnote,ofthe4,000mammaland10
millionormoreotherspecies,onlychimpsandhumanslivein
malebonded,patrilinealcommunitiesinwhichgroupsof
malesroutinelyengageinaggressive,oftenmurderousraiding
oftheirownspecies.Nearly30yearsago,theanthropologist
LionelTigersuggestedthatmenhadspecialpsychological
resourcesforbondingwithoneanother,derivedfromtheir
needtohuntcooperatively,thatexplainedtheirdominancein
grouporientedactivitiesfrompoliticstowarfare.Tigerwas
roundlydenouncedbyfeministsatthetimeforsuggestingthat
therewerebiologicallybasedpsychologicaldifferences
betweenthesexes,butmorerecentresearch,including
evidencefromprimatology,hasconfirmedthatmalebonding
isinfactgeneticandpredatesthehumanspecies.
THENOTSONOBLESAVAGE

Itisalltooeasytomakefacilecomparisonsbetweenanimal
andhumanbehaviortoproveapolemicalpoint,asdidthe
socialistswhopointedtobeesandantstoprovethatnature
endorsedcollectivism.Skepticspointoutthathumanbeings
havelanguage,reason,law,culture,andmoralvaluesthat
makethemfundamentallydifferentfromeventheirclosest
animalrelative.Infact,formanyyearsanthropologists
endorsedwhatwasineffectamodernversionofRousseau's
storyofthenoblesavage:peoplelivinginhuntergatherer
societieswerepacificinnature.Ifchimpsandmodernmanhad
acommonproclivityforviolence,thecauseinthelattercase
hadtobefoundincivilizationandnotinhumannature.
Anumberofauthorshaveextendedthenoblesavageideato
arguethatviolenceandpatriarchywerelateinventions,rooted
ineithertheWesternJudeoChristiantraditionorthe
capitalismtowhichtheformergavebirth.FriedrichEngels
anticipatedtheworkoflaterfeministsbypositingtheexistence
ofaprimordialmatriarchy,whichwasreplacedbyaviolent
andrepressivepatriarchyonlywiththetransitionto
agriculturalsocieties.Theproblemwiththistheoryis,as
LawrenceKeeleypointsoutinhisbookWarBefore
Civilization,thatthemostcomprehensiverecentstudiesof
violenceinhuntergatherersocietiessuggestthatforthemwar
wasactuallymorefrequent,andratesofmurderhigher,than
formodernones.
Surveysofethnographicdatashowthatonly1013percentof
primitivesocietiesneverorrarelyengagedinwarorraiding;
theothersengagedinconflicteithercontinuouslyoratless
thanyearlyintervals.Closerexaminationofthepeacefulcases
showsthattheywerefrequentlyrefugeepopulationsdriven
intoremotelocationsbypriorwarfareorgroupsprotectedbya

moreadvancedsociety.OftheYanomam"tribesmenstudied
byNapoleonChagnoninVenezuela,some30percentofthe
mendiedbyviolence;the!KungSanoftheKalaharidesert,
oncecharacterizedasthe"harmlesspeople,"haveahigher
murderratethanNewYorkorDetroit.Thesadarchaeological
evidencefromsiteslikeJebelSahabainEgypt,Talheimin
Germany,orRoaixinFranceindicatesthatsystematicmass
killingsofmen,women,andchildrenoccurredinNeolithic
times.TheHolocaust,Cambodia,andBosniahaveeachbeen
describedasaunique,andoftenasauniquelymodern,formof
horror.Exceptionalandtragictheyareindeed,butwith
precedentsstretchingbacktensifnothundredsofthousandsof
years.
Itisclearthatthisviolencewaslargelyperpetratedbymen.
Whileasmallminorityofhumansocietieshavebeen
matrilineal,evidenceofaprimordialmatriarchyinwhich
womendominatedmen,orwereevenrelativelyequaltomen,
hasbeenhardtofind.Therewasnoageofinnocence.Theline
fromchimptomodernmaniscontinuous.
Itwouldseem,then,thatthereissomethingtothecontention
ofmanyfeministsthatphenomenalikeaggression,violence,
war,andintensecompetitionfordominanceinastatus
hierarchyaremorecloselyassociatedwithmenthanwomen.
Theoriesofinternationalrelationslikerealismthatsee
internationalpoliticsasaremorselessstruggleforpowerarein
factwhatfeministscallagenderedperspective,describingthe
behaviorofstatescontrolledbymenratherthanstatesperse.
Aworldrunbywomenwouldfollowdifferentrules,itwould
appear,anditistowardthatsortofworldthatallpostindustrial
orWesternsocietiesaremoving.Aswomengainpowerin
thesecountries,thelattershouldbecomelessaggressive,

adventurous,competitive,andviolent.
Theproblemwiththefeministviewisthatitseesthese
attitudestowardviolence,power,andstatusaswhollythe
productsofapatriarchalculture,whereasinfactitappearsthey
arerootedinbiology.Thismakestheseattitudesharderto
changeinmenandconsequentlyinsocieties.Despitetherise
ofwomen,menwillcontinuetoplayamajor,ifnotdominant,
partinthegovernanceofpostindustrialcountries,notto
mentionlessdevelopedones.Therealmsofwarand
internationalpoliticsinparticularwillremaincontrolledby
menforlongerthanmanyfeministswouldlike.Most
important,thetaskofresocializingmentobemorelikewomen
thatis,lessviolentwillrunintolimits.Whatisbredinthe
bonecannotbealteredeasilybychangesincultureand
ideology.
THERETURNOFBIOLOGY
Wearelivingthrougharevolutionaryperiodinthelife
sciences.Hardlyaweekgoesbywithoutthediscoveryofa
genelinkedtoadisease,condition,orbehavior,fromcancerto
obesitytodepression,withthepromiseofgenetictherapies
andeventheoutrightmanipulationofthehumangenomejust
aroundthecorner.Butwhiledevelopmentsinmolecular
biologyhavebeenreceivingthelion'sshareoftheheadlines,
muchprogresshasbeenmadeatthebehaviorallevelaswell.
ThepastgenerationhasseenarevivalinDarwinianthinking
abouthumanpsychology,withprofoundimplicationsforthe
socialsciences.
Formuchofthiscentury,thesocialscienceshavebeen
premisedonEmileDurkheim'sdictumthatsocialfactscanbe
explainedonlybypriorsocialfactsandnotbybiological
causes.Revolutionsandwarsarecausedbysocialfactssuchas

economicchange,classinequalities,andshiftingalliances.The
standardsocialsciencemodelassumesthatthehumanmindis
theterrainofideas,customs,andnormsthataretheproducts
ofmanmadeculture.Socialrealityis,inotherwords,socially
constructed:ifyoungboysliketopretendtoshooteachother
morethanyounggirls,itisonlybecausetheyhavebeen
socializedatanearlyagetodoso.
Thesocialconstructionistview,longdominantinthesocial
sciences,originatedasareactiontotheearlymisuseof
Darwinism.SocialDarwinistslikeHerbertSpenceroroutright
racistslikeMadsenGrantinthelatenineteenthandearly
twentiethcenturiesusedbiology,specificallytheanalogyof
naturalselection,toexplainandjustifyeverythingfromclass
stratificationtothedominationofmuchoftheworldbywhite
Europeans.ThenFranzBoas,aColumbiaanthropologist,
debunkedmanyofthesetheoriesofEuropeanracialsuperiority
by,amongotherthings,carefullymeasuringtheheadsizesof
immigrantchildrenandnotingthattheytendedtoconverge
withthoseofnativeAmericanswhenfedanAmericandiet.
Boas,aswellashiswellknownstudentsMargaretMeadand
RuthBenedict,arguedthatapparentdifferencesbetween
humangroupscouldbelaidatthedoorstepofculturerather
thannature.Therewere,moreover,noculturaluniversalsby
whichEuropeansorAmericanscouldjudgeothercultures.So
calledprimitivepeopleswerenotinferior,justdifferent.Hence
wasbornboththesocialconstructivismandthecultural
relativismwithwhichthesocialscienceshavebeenimbued
eversince.
Buttherehasbeenarevolutioninmodernevolutionary
thinking.Ithasmultipleroots;onewasethology,the
comparativestudyofanimalbehavior.EthologistslikeKonrad

Lorenzbegantonoticesimilaritiesinbehavioracrossawide
varietyofanimalspeciessuggestingcommonevolutionary
origins.Contrarytotheculturalrelativists,theyfoundthatnot
onlywasitpossibletomakeimportantgeneralizationsacross
virtuallyallhumancultures(forexample,femalesaremore
selectivethanmalesintheirchoiceofsexualpartners)buteven
acrossbroadrangesofanimalspecies.Majorbreakthroughs
weremadebyWilliamHamiltonandRobertTriversinthe
1960sand1970sinexplaininginstancesofaltruisminthe
animalworldnotbysomesortofinstincttowardsspecies
survivalbutratherintermsof"selfishgenes"(touseRichard
Dawkins'phrase)thatmadesocialbehaviorinanindividual
animal'sinterest.Finally,advancesinneurophysiologyhave
shownthatthebrainisnotaLockeantabularasawaitingtobe
filledwithculturalcontent,butratherahighlymodularorgan
whosecomponentshavebeenadaptedpriortobirthtosuitthe
needsofsociallyorientedprimates.Humansarehardwiredto
actincertainpredictableways.
Thesociobiologythatsprangfromthesetheoreticalsources
triedtoprovideadeterministicDarwinianexplanationforjust
abouteverything,soitwasperhapsinevitablethatareaction
wouldsetinagainstitaswell.Butwhilethetermsociobiology
hasgoneintodecline,theneoDarwinianthinkingthat
spawnedithasblossomedundertherubricofevolutionary
psychologyoranthropologyandistodayanenormousarenaof
newresearchanddiscovery.
UnlikethepseudoDarwininstsattheturnofthecentury,most
contemporarybiologistsdonotregardraceorethnicityas
biologicallysignificantcategories.Thisstandstoreason:the
differenthumanraceshavebeenaroundonlyforthepast
hundredthousandyearsorso,barelyablinkoftheeyein

evolutionarytime.Ascountlessauthorshavepointedout,race
islargelyasociallyconstructedcategory:sinceallracescan
(anddo)interbreed,theboundarylinesbetweenthemareoften
quitefuzzy.
Thesameisnottrue,however,aboutsex.Whilesomegender
rolesareindeedsociallyconstructed,virtuallyallreputable
evolutionarybiologiststodaythinkthereareprofound
differencesbetweenthesexesthataregeneticallyratherthan
culturallyrooted,andthatthesedifferencesextendbeyondthe
bodyintotherealmofthemind.Again,thisstandstoreason
fromaDarwinianpointofview:sexualreproductionhasbeen
goingonnotforthousandsbuthundredsofmillionsofyears.
Malesandfemalescompetenotjustagainsttheirenvironment
butagainstoneanotherinaprocessthatDarwinlabeled
"sexualselection,"wherebyeachsexseekstomaximizeits
ownfitnessbychoosingcertainkindsofmates.The
psychologicalstrategiesthatresultfromthisneverending
armsracebetweenmenandwomenaredifferentforeachsex.
Innoareaissexrelateddifferenceclearerthanwithrespectto
violenceandaggression.Agenerationago,twopsychologists,
EleanorMaccobyandCarolJacklin,producedanauthoritative
volumeonwhatwasthenempiricallyknownaboutdifferences
betweenthesexes.Theyshowedthatcertainstereotypesabout
gender,suchastheassertionthatgirlsweremoresuggestible
orhadlowerselfesteem,werejustthat,whileothers,likethe
ideathatgirlswerelesscompetitive,couldnotbeprovenone
wayoranother.Ononeissue,however,therewasvirtuallyno
disagreementinthehundredsofstudiesonthesubject:namely,
thatboysweremoreaggressive,bothverballyandphysically,
intheirdreams,words,andactionsthangirls.Onecomestoa
similarconclusionbylookingatcrimestatistics.Inevery

knownculture,andfromwhatweknowofvirtuallyall
historicaltimeperiods,thevastmajorityofcrimes,particularly
violentcrimes,arecommittedbymen.Herethereisalso
apparentlyageneticallydeterminedagespecificitytoviolent
aggression:crimesareoverwhelminglycommittedbyyoung
menbetweentheagesof15and30.Perhapsyoungmenare
everywheresocializedtobehaveviolently,butthisevidence,
fromdifferentculturesandtimes,suggeststhatthereissome
deeperlevelofcausationatwork.
Atthispointinthediscussion,manypeoplebecome
uncomfortableandchargesof"biologicaldeterminism"arise.
Don'tweknowcountlesswomenwhoarestronger,larger,
moredecisive,moreviolent,ormorecompetitivethantheir
malecounterparts?Isn'ttheproportionoffemalecriminals
risingrelativetomales?Isn'tworkbecominglessphysical,
makingsexualdifferencesunimportant?Theanswertoallof
thesequestionsisyes:again,noreputableevolutionary
biologistwoulddenythatculturealsoshapesbehaviorin
countlesscriticalwaysandcanoftenoverwhelmgenetic
predispositions.Tosaythatthereisageneticbasisforsex
differenceissimplytomakeastatisticalassertionthatthebell
curvedescribingthedistributionofacertaincharacteristicis
shiftedoveralittleformenascomparedwithwomen.Thetwo
curveswilloverlapforthemostpart,andtherewillbe
countlessindividualsineachpopulationwhowillhavemoreof
anygivencharacteristicthanthoseoftheothersex.Biologyis
notdestiny,astoughmindedfemaleleaderslikeMargaret
Thatcher,IndiraGandhi,andGoldaMeirhaveproven.(Itis
worthpointingout,however,thatinmaledominatedsocieties,
itisthesekindsofunusualwomenwhowillrisetothetop.)
Butthestatisticalassertionalsosuggeststhatbroad

populationsofmenandwomen,asopposedtoexceptional
individuals,willactincertainpredictableways.Italso
suggeststhatthesepopulationsarenotinfinitelyplasticinthe
waythattheirbehaviorcanbeshapedbysociety.
FEMINISTSANDPOWERPOLITICS
Thereisbynowanextensiveliteratureongenderand
internationalpoliticsandavigorousfeministsubdiscipline
withinthefieldofinternationalrelationstheorybasedonthe
workofscholarslikeAnnTickner,SaraRuddick,JeanBethke
Elshtain,JudithShapiro,andothers.Thisliteratureistoo
diversetodescribesuccinctly,butitissafetosaythatmuchof
itwasinitiallyconcernedwithunderstandinghowinternational
politicsis"gendered,"thatis,runbymentoservemale
interestsandinterpretedbyothermen,consciouslyand
unconsciously,accordingtomaleperspectives.Thus,whena
realisttheoristlikeHansMorganthauorKennethWaltzargues
thatstatesseektomaximizepower,theythinkthattheyare
describingauniversalhumancharacteristicwhen,asTickner
pointsout,theyareportrayingthebehaviorofstatesrunby
men.
Virtuallyallfeministswhostudyinternationalpoliticsseekthe
laudablegoalofgreaterfemaleparticipationinallaspectsof
foreignrelations,fromexecutivemansionsandforeign
ministriestomilitariesanduniversities.Theydisagreeasto
whetherwomenshouldgetaheadinpoliticsbydemonstrating
traditionalmasculinevirtuesoftoughness,aggression,
competitiveness,andthewillingnesstouseforcewhen
necessary,orwhethertheyshouldmovetheveryagendaof
politicsawayfrommalepreoccupationswithhierarchyand
domination.Thisambivalencewasdemonstratedinthe
feministreactiontoMargaretThatcher,whobyanyaccount

wasfartougherandmoredeterminedthananyofthemale
politiciansshecameupagainst.Needlesstosay,Thatcher's
conservativepoliticsdidnotendearhertomostfeminists,who
muchpreferaMaryRobinsonorGroHarlemBrundtlandas
theirmodelofafemaleleader,despiteorbecauseofthe
factthatThatcherhadbeatenmenattheirowngame.
Bothmenandwomenparticipateinperpetuatingthe
stereotypicalgenderidentitiesthatassociatemenwithwarand
competitionandwomenwithpeaceandcooperation.As
sophisticatedfeministslikeJeanBethkeElshtainhavepointed
out,thetraditionaldichotomybetweenthemale"justwarrior"
marchingtowarandthefemale"beautifulsoul"marchingfor
peaceisfrequentlytranscendedinpracticebywomen
intoxicatedbywarandbymenrepulsedbyitscruelties.But
likemanystereotypes,itrestsonatruth,amplyconfirmedby
muchofthenewresearchinevolutionarybiology.Wivesand
motherscanenthusiasticallysendtheirhusbandsandsonsoff
towar;likeSiouxwomen,theycanquestiontheirmanliness
forfailingtogointobattleorthemselvestortureprisoners.But
statisticallyspeakingitisprimarilymenwhoenjoythe
experienceofaggressionandthecamaraderieitbringsand
whorevelintheritualizationofwarthatis,asthe
anthropologistRobinFoxputsit,anotherwayof
understandingdiplomacy.
Atrulymatriarchalworld,then,wouldbelesspronetoconflict
andmoreconciliatoryandcooperativethantheoneweinhabit
now.Wherethenewbiologypartscompanywithfeminismis
inthecausalexplanationitgivesforthisdifferenceinsex
roles.Theongoingrevolutioninthelifescienceshasalmost
totallyescapedthenoticeofmuchofthesocialsciencesand
humanities,particularlythepartsoftheacademyconcerned

withfeminism,postmodernism,culturalstudies,andthelike.
Whiletherearesomefeministswhobelievethatsex
differenceshaveanaturalbasis,byfarthemajorityare
committedtotheideathatmenandwomenarepsychologically
identical,andthatanydifferencesinbehavior,withregardto
violenceoranyothercharacteristic,aretheresultofsomeprior
socialconstructionpassedonbytheprevailingculture.
THEDEMOCRATICANDFEMININEPEACE
Onceoneviewsinternationalrelationsthroughthelensofsex
andbiology,itneveragainlooksthesame.Itisverydifficult
towatchMuslimsandSerbsinBosnia,HutusandTutsisin
Rwanda,ormilitiasfromLiberiaandSierraLeonetoGeorgia
andAfghanistandividethemselvesupintowhatseemlike
indistinguishablemalebondedgroupsinorderto
systematicallyslaughteroneanother,andnotthinkofthe
chimpsatGombe.
Thebasicsocialproblemthatanysocietyfacesistocontrolthe
aggressivetendenciesofitsyoungmen.Inhuntergatherer
societies,thevastpreponderanceofviolenceisoversex,a
situationthatcontinuestocharacterizedomesticviolentcrime
incontemporarypostindustrialsocieties.Oldermeninthe
communityhavegenerallybeenresponsibleforsocializing
youngeronesbyritualizingtheiraggression,oftenbydirecting
ittowardenemiesoutsidethecommunity.Muchofthat
externalviolencecanalsobeoverwomen.Modernhistorians
assumethattheGreeksandTrojanscouldnotpossiblyhave
foughtawarfortenyearsoverHelen,butmanyprimitive
societiesliketheYanomamodoexactlythat.Withthespread
ofagriculture10,000yearsago,however,andthe
accumulationofwealthandland,warturnedtowardthe
acquisitionofmaterialgoods.Channelingaggressionoutside

thecommunitymaynotlowersocieties'overallrateof
violence,butitatleastoffersthemthepossibilityofdomestic
peacebetweenwars.
Thecoreofthefeministagendaforinternationalpoliticsseems
fundamentallycorrect:theviolentandaggressivetendenciesof
menhavetobecontrolled,notsimplybyredirectingthemto
externalaggressionbutbyconstrainingthoseimpulsesthrough
awebofnorms,laws,agreements,contracts,andthelike.In
addition,morewomenneedtobebroughtintothedomainof
internationalpoliticsasleaders,officials,soldiers,andvoters.
Onlybyparticipatingfullyinglobalpoliticscanwomenboth
defendtheirowninterestsandshifttheunderlyingmale
agenda.
Thefeminizationofworldpoliticshas,ofcourse,beentaking
placegraduallyoverthepasthundredyears,withverypositive
effects.Womenhavewontherighttovoteandparticipatein
politicsinalldevelopedcountries,aswellasinmany
developingcountries,andhaveexercisedthatrightwith
increasingenergy.IntheUnitedStatesandotherrich
countries,apronouncedgendergapwithregardtoforeign
policyandnationalsecurityissuesendures.Americanwomen
havealwaysbeenlesssupportivethanAmericanmenofU.S.
involvementinwar,includingWorldWarII,Korea,Vietnam,
andthePersianGulfWar,byanaveragemarginofsevento
ninepercent.Theyarealsoconsistentlylesssupportiveof
defensespendingandtheuseofforceabroad.Ina1995Roper
surveyconductedfortheChicagoCouncilonForeign
Relations,menfavoredU.S.interventioninKoreaintheevent
ofaNorthKoreanattackbyamarginof49to40percent,
whilewomenwereopposedbyamarginof30to54percent.
Similarly,U.S.militaryactionagainstIraqintheeventit

invadedSaudiArabiawassupportedbymenbyamarginof62
to31percentandopposedbywomenby43to45percent.
While54percentofmenfeltitimportanttomaintainsuperior
worldwidemilitarypower,only45percentofwomenagreed.
Women,moreover,arelesslikelythanmentoseeforceasa
legitimatetoolforresolvingconflicts.
Itisdifficulttoknowhowtoaccountforthisgendergap;
certainly,onecannotmovefrombiologytovotingbehaviorin
asinglestep.Observershavesuggestedvariousreasonswhy
womenarelesswillingtousemilitaryforcethanmen,
includingtheirroleasmothers,thefactthatmanywomenare
feminists(thatis,committedtoaleftofcenteragendathatis
generallyhostiletoU.S.intervention),andpartisanaffiliation
(morewomenvoteDemocraticthanmen).Itisunnecessaryto
knowthereasonforthecorrelationbetweengenderand
antimilitarism,however,topredictthatincreasingfemale
politicalparticipationwillprobablymaketheUnitedStatesand
otherdemocracieslessinclinedtousepoweraroundtheworld
asfreelyastheyhaveinthepast.
Willthisshifttowardalessstatusandmilitarypoweroriented
worldbeagoodthing?Forrelationsbetweenstatesintheso
calleddemocraticzoneofpeace,theanswerisyes.
Considerationofgenderaddsagreatdealtothevigorousand
interestingdebateoverthecorrelationbetweendemocracyand
peacethathastakenplaceinthepastdecade.The"democratic
peace"argument,whichunderliestheforeignpolicyofthe
Clintonadministrationaswellasitspredecessors,isthat
democraciestendnottofightoneanother.Whiletheempirical
claimhasbeencontested,thecorrelationbetweenthedegreeof
consolidationofliberaldemocraticinstitutionsand
interdemocraticpeacewouldseemtobeoneofthefew

nontrivialgeneralizationsonecanmakeaboutworldpolitics.
Democraticpeacetheoristshavebeenlesspersuasiveaboutthe
reasonsdemocraciesarepacifictowardoneanother.The
reasonsusuallycitedtheruleoflaw,respectforindividual
rights,thecommercialnatureofmostdemocracies,andthe
likeareundoubtedlycorrect.Butthereisanotherfactorthat
hasgenerallynotbeentakenintoaccount:developed
democraciesalsotendtobemorefeminizedthanauthoritarian
states,intermsofexpansionoffemalefranchiseand
participationinpoliticaldecisionmaking.Itshouldtherefore
surprisenoonethatthehistoricallyunprecedentedshiftinthe
sexualbasisofpoliticsshouldleadtoachangeininternational
relations.
THEREALITYOFAGGRESSIVEFANTASIES
Ontheotherhand,ifgenderrolesarenotsimplysocially
constructedbutrootedingenetics,therewillbelimitstohow
muchinternationalpoliticscanchange.Inanythingbuta
totallyfeminizedworld,feminizedpoliciescouldbealiability.
Somefeministstalkasifgenderidentitiescanbediscarded
likeanoldsweater,perhapsbyputtingyoungmenthrough
mandatorygenderstudiescourseswhentheyarecollege
freshmen.Maleattitudesonahostofissues,fromchildrearing
andhouseworkto"gettingintouchwithyourfeelings,"have
changeddramaticallyinthepastcoupleofgenerationsdueto
socialpressure.Butsocializationcanaccomplishonlyso
much,andeffortstofullyfeminizeyoungmenwillprobably
benomoresuccessfulthantheSovietUnion'seffortsto
persuadeitspeopletoworkonSaturdaysonbehalfofthe
heroicCubanandVietnamesepeople.Maletendenciestoband
togetherforcompetitivepurposes,seektodominatestatus
hierarchies,andactoutaggressivefantasiestowardone

anothercanberechanneledbutnevereliminated.
Evenifwecanassumepeacefulrelationsbetween
democracies,thebroaderworldscenewillstillbepopulatedby
statesledbytheoccasionalMobutu,Milosevic,orSaddam.
Machiavelli'scritiqueofAristotlewasthatthelatterdidnot
takeforeignpolicyintoaccountinbuildinghismodelofajust
city:inasystemofcompetitivestates,thebestregimesadopt
thepracticesoftheworstinordertosurvive.Soevenifthe
democratic,feminized,postindustrialworldhasevolvedintoa
zoneofpeacewherestrugglesaremoreeconomicthan
military,itwillstillhavetodealwiththosepartsoftheworld
runbyyoung,ambitious,unconstrainedmen.Ifafuture
SaddamHusseinisnotonlysittingontheworld'soilsupplies
butisarmedtothehiltwithchemical,biological,andnuclear
weapons,wemightbebetteroffbeingledbywomenlike
MargaretThatcherthan,say,GroHarlemBrundtland.
Masculinepolicieswillstillberequired,thoughnotnecessarily
masculineleaders.
Theimplicationsofevolutionarybiologyforthehotbutton
issueofwomeninthemilitaryisnotasstraightforwardasone
mightthink.Thevastmajorityofjobsinamodernmilitary
organizationareintheenormoussupporttailthattrailsbehind
theactualcombatunits,andthereisnoreasonthatwomen
cannotperformthemaswellifnotbetterthanmen.Whilemen
haveclearlyevolvedascooperativehuntersandfighters,itis
notclearthatanyindividualgroupofwomenwillperformless
wellthananyindividualgroupofmenincombat.Whatis
muchmoreproblematicisintegratingmenandwomenintothe
samecombatunits,wheretheywillbeinclosephysical
proximityoverlongperiodsoftime.Unitcohesion,whichis
thebedrockonwhichtheperformanceofarmiesrests,has

beentraditionallybuiltaroundmalebonding,whichcanonly
bejeopardizedwhenmenstartcompetingfortheattentionof
women.Commanderswhoencouragemalebondingare
buildingonapowerfulnaturalinstinct;thosewhotrytokeep
sexualactivitybetweenhealthy20yearoldmenandwomenin
checkthrough"zerotolerance"policiesanddraconian
punishmentsare,bycontrast,seekingtodosomethingvery
unnatural.Unlikeracialsegregation,gendersegregationin
certainpartsofthemilitaryseemsnotjustappropriatebut
necessary.
THEMARGARETTHATCHERSOFTHEFUTURE
Thefeminizationofdemocraticpoliticswillinteractwithother
demographictrendsinthenext50yearstoproduceimportant
changes.Duetotheprecipitousfallinfertilityratesacrossthe
developedworldsincethe1960s,theagedistributionof
countriesbelongingtotheOrganizationofEconomic
CooperationandDevelopmentwillshiftdramatically.While
themedianageforAmerica'spopulationwasinthemid20s
duringthefirstfewdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,itwill
climbtoward40by2050.Thechangewillbeevenmore
dramaticinEuropeandJapan,whereratesofimmigrationand
fertilityarelower.UndertheU.N.PopulationDivision'slow
growthprojections,themedianageinGermanywillbe55,in
Japan53,andinItaly58.
Thegrayingofthepopulationhasheretoforebeendiscussed
primarilyintermsofthesocialsecurityliabilityitwill
engender.Butitcarriesahostofothersocialconsequencesas
well,amongthemtheemergenceofelderlywomenasoneof
themostimportantvotingblocscourtedbymid21stcentury
politicians.InItalyandGermany,forexample,womenover
50,whonowconstitute20percentofthepopulation,will

accountfor31percentin2050.Thereisnoway,ofcourse,of
predictinghowtheywillvote,butitseemslikelythattheywill
helpelectmorewomenleadersandwillbelessinclinedtoward
militaryinterventionthanmiddleagedmaleshavetraditionally
been.EdwardLuttwakoftheCenterforStrategicand
InternationalStudieshasspeculatedthatthefallinfamilysizes
makespeopleinadvancedcountriesmuchmoreleeryof
militarycasualtiesthanpeopleinagriculturalsocieties,with
theirsurplusesofyoung,hotheadedmen.Accordingto
demographerNicholasEberstadt,threefifthsofItaly's
offspringin2050willbeonlychildrenwithnocousins,
siblings,aunts,oruncles.Itisnotunreasonabletosupposethat
insuchaworldtoleranceofcasualtieswillbeevenlower.
Bythemiddleofthenextcentury,then,Europewilllikely
consistofrich,powerful,anddemocraticnationswithrapidly
shrinkingpopulationsofmostlyelderlypeoplewherewomen
willplayimportantleadershiproles.TheUnitedStates,withits
higherratesofimmigrationandfertility,willalsohavemore
womenleadersbutasubstantiallyyoungerpopulation.Amuch
largerandpoorerpartoftheworldwillconsistofstatesin
Africa,theMiddleEast,andSouthAsiawithyoung,growing
populations,ledmostlybyyoungermen.AsEberstadtpoints
out,AsiaoutsideofJapanwillbuckthetrendtoward
feminizationbecausethehighrateofabortionoffemale
fetuseshasshiftedtheirsexratiossharplyinfavorofmen.This
willbe,tosaytheleast,anunfamiliarworld.
LIVINGLIKEANIMALS?
InWranghamandPeterson'sDemonicMales(saidtobea
favoritebookofHillaryRodhamClinton,whohashadher
owntocontendwith),theauthorscometothepessimistic
conclusionthatnothingmuchhaschangedsinceearly

hominidsbranchedofffromtheprimordialchimpancestorfive
millionyearsago.Groupsolidarityisstillbasedonaggression
againstothercommunities;socialcooperationisundertakento
achievehigherlevelsoforganizedviolence.RobinFoxhas
arguedthatmilitarytechnologyhasdevelopedmuchfaster
thanman'sabilitytoritualizeviolenceanddirectitintosafer
channels.TheGombechimpscouldkillonlyahandfulof
others;modernmancanvaporizetensofmillions.
Whilethehistoryofthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturydoes
notgiveusgreatgroundsforfaithinthepossibilityofhuman
progress,thesituationisnotnearlyasbleakastheseauthors
wouldhaveusbelieve.Biology,torepeat,isnotdestiny.Rates
ofviolenthomicideappeartobelowertodaythanduring
mankind'slonghuntergathererperiod,despitegasovensand
nuclearweapons.Contrarytothethrustofpostmodernist
thought,peoplecannotfreethemselvesentirelyfrombiological
nature.Butbyacceptingthefactthatpeoplehavenaturesthat
areoftenevil,political,economic,andsocialsystemscanbe
designedtomitigatetheeffectsofman'sbaserinstincts.
Takethehumanandparticularlymaledesiretodominatea
statushierarchy,whichpeoplesharewithotherprimates.The
adventofliberaldemocracyandmoderncapitalismdoesnot
eliminatethatdesire,butitopensupmanymorepeaceful
channelsforsatisfyingit.AmongtheAmericanPlainsIndians
ortheYanomamo,virtuallytheonlywayforamantoachieve
socialrecognitionwastobeawarrior,whichmeant,ofcourse,
excellingatkilling.Othertraditionalsocietiesmightaddafew
occupationslikethepriesthoodorthebureaucracyinwhich
onecouldachieverecognition.Amodern,technological
society,bycontrast,offersthousandsofarenasinwhichone
canachievesocialstatus,andinmostofthemthequestfor

statusleadsnottoviolencebuttosociallyproductiveactivity.
Aprofessorreceivingtenureataleadinguniversity,a
politicianwinninganelection,oraCEOincreasingmarket
sharemaysatisfythesameunderlyingdriveforstatusasbeing
thealphamaleinachimpcommunity.Butintheprocess,these
individualshavewrittenbooks,designedpublicpolicies,or
broughtnewtechnologiestomarketthathaveimprovedhuman
welfare.
Ofcourse,noteveryonecanachievehighrankordominancein
anygivenstatushierarchy,sincethesearebydefinitionzero
sumgamesinwhicheverywinnerproducesaloser.Butthe
advantageofamodern,complex,fluidsocietyis,aseconomist
RobertFrankhaspointedout,thatsmallfrogsinlargeponds
canmovetosmallerpondsinwhichtheywillloomlarger.
Seekingstatusbychoosingtherightpondwillnotsatisfythe
ambitionsofthegreatestandnoblestindividuals,butitwill
bleedoffmuchofthecompetitiveenergythatinhunter
gathereroragriculturalsocietiesoftenhasnooutletsavewar.
Liberaldemocracyandmarketeconomiesworkwellbecause,
unlikesocialism,radicalfeminism,andotherutopianschemes,
theydonottrytochangehumannature.Rather,theyaccept
biologicallygroundednatureasagivenandseektoconstrainit
throughinstitutions,laws,andnorms.Itdoesnotalwayswork,
butitisbetterthanlivinglikeanimals.