ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

- Control body function with nervous system

Endocrine gland ductless gland detached themselves from the surface of the body during development
- Secrete their products into interstitial fluid and from the interstitial fluid that
surrounds the secretory unit of cells, it will go to the blood to be distributed to the
rest of the body
NERVOUS SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Mediator molecule

Neurotransmitters

Site of mediator action

Close to site of release (affects

the postsynaptic neuron)

Types of target cells

Time to onset of action

Muscle cells, gland cells, and

other neurons
Within milliseconds

Hormones (product of endocrine

gland)
Far from site of release
(hormones are circulated by
blood)
Cells throughout the body

Duration of action

Briefer

Seconds to hours or days

Longer

Hormone mediator molecule released in one part of the body but regulates the activity of cells in
other parts of the body
- Contribute to homeostasis by regulating the activity and growth of target cells in the body
- regulate metabolism (conversion of food to energy)
Hormone receptors hormones like neurotransmitter influence their target cells by chemically binding
to specific protein (receptors)
- Capable of down-regulation (hormone receptors decrease in number, increase
amount of hormone in the blood) or up-regulation (small amount of hormones, hormone receptor will
increase in number) Goal: is to make the target cell sensitive to the presence of hormone
2 general types of hormones:
Circulating hormones most of hormones of the body
-pass from the secretory cells of the gland that make them into interstitial
fluid and then into blood
-linger in the blood and exert their effects for a few minutes or
occasionally for a few hours.
- inactivated by liver and excreted by kidneys
Local hormones act as locally on neighboring cells (paracrines) or on the same cell that
secreted them without first entering the bloodstream (autocrines)
-inactivated quickly
Chemical Classes of hormones:
Lipid-soluble hormones hormones transported via proteins
- Transport protein (functions: make lipid soluble hormones temporarily water
soluble, retard passage of small hormone molecules through the filtering
mechanism in the kidneys, provide a ready reserve of hormone in the bloodstream)

Steroid hormones
Hormones secreted by adrenal cortex like mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids
and sex androgens
Thyroid hormones
Hormones produced by thyroid gland like T3 and T4
Nitric oxide
Classified as both neurotransmitter and a hormone
Water-soluble hormones
- Molecules are in free form (no attached to the other molecules or protein while in
the blood)
Amine hormones
They are from amino acids: catecholamines, tyrosine, histamine, melatonin,
serotonin
Peptide and protein hormones
Peptide: antidiuretihormones, oxytocin; Protein hormones: thyroid-stimulating
hormones (from anterior pituitary gland) (other: insulin)
Eicosanoid hormones
Prostaglandins
leukotrienes
Hormone interactions:
*target cells will only respond to hormones if there are hormone receptors interaction
Responsiveness of target cells depends on:
Hormones concentration
Abundance receptors
Influences exerted by other hormones
Influence of other hormones:
Synergistic effect- when the effect of 2 hormones acting together is greater or more than the effect of
each hormone acting alone
Antagonistic effect-when one hormone oppose
Hormones regulated by:
Signals from NS (hypothalamus controlling anterior pituitary gland secretion)
Chemical changes in blood
Other hormones (negative feedback mechanism)
Pituitary gland hypophysiscerebri
-master gland (because it controlled other endocrine glands), but already misnomer because it answer
to another master which is hypothalamus
-secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands
-has 2 anatomically and functionally separate portions:
Anterior pituitary gland adenohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland neurohypophysis

ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND secretes hormones that regulate a wide range of bodily activities from
growth to reproduction; secretion is controlled by the releasing and inhibitory hormones produce by
hypothalamus, capable of secreting own hormones
3 parts of anterior pituitary gland:
Pars distalis hormone secreting cells where would be found; largest component
Pars tuberalis
Pars intermedium
Types of anterior pituitary gland cells: (5 cells releasing 7 hormones)
Somatotrophs-secrete growth hormone
Gonadotrophs-secrete follicle-stimulating hormones and luteinizing hormone (gonads
means ovaries and testes)
Thyrotrophs-secrete thyroid stimulating hormone
Lactotrophs-secrete prolactin
Corticotrophs-secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone and melanocyte-stimulating
hormone
2 WAYS OF CONTROLLING THE SECRETION OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:
1. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus secrete 5 releasing hormones and 2 inhibiting
hormones
5 releasing hormones:
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
2 inhibiting hormones:
Dopamine
serotonin
2. Negative feedback in the form of hormones released by target glands that decreases secretions
of 3 types of anterior pituitary cells (listen to record 19:54)
3 types of anterior pituitary cells:
Gonadotrophs
Thyrotrophs
Corticotrophs
DIFFERENT HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:
Human growth hormone
- Most abundant hormone
Main function: Promote synthesis and secretion of small protein hormones:
Insulinlike growth factors cause cells to grow and multiply; enhances lipolysis
(breakdown of fat for energy) *gluconeogenesis formation of glucose from
non-carbohydrate sources; *glycolysis -decrease glucose uptake

 Increase the growth rate of skeleton and skeletal muscles, maintain mass of
muscles and bone and promote healing of injury and tissue repair
Secretory activity is controlled by 2 hypothalamic hormones:
Growth hormone-releasing hormone for secretion
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone for suppression of release
*serotonin decrease growth hormone release in anterior pituitary
gland
Stimulus that will promote secretion of growth hormone: *amino acid-building block of protein
Decreased fatty acid and increased amino acids in blood
Deep sleep
Increased activity of the sympathetic division of ANS
Hormones: glucagon, estrogen, cortisol, insulin
Factors that inhibit secretion of growth hormone:
Increased levels of fatty acids and decreased level of amino acids in blood
Rapid eye movement sleep
Emotional deprivation
Obesity
Low levels of thyroid hormone
(Too much) human growth hormone
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
- Stimulates thyroid gland to synthesize and secrete/release 2 thyroid hormones
- Secretion is controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
Follicle-Stimulating hormone
- In females:
Initiates the development of several ovarian follicles (oogenesis)
Stimulate follicular cells to secrete estrogens
- In males, it stimulates sperm production (spermatogenesis) in testes
- Release is controlled by gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
and suppressed (negative feedback mechanism) by estrogen in females and
testosterone in males
Luteinizing Hormone (27:30)
*gonadotropins-collectively term for FSH and LH
- In females, Triggers ovulation
- Stimulates formation of the corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone
- In males, it stimulates testes to secrete testosterone
- Controlled by GnRH
Prolactin
- Initiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands (production of milk)
- Hypersecretion causes galactorrhea (secretion of milk in nonpregnant females as
well as in males) and amenorrhea
- Inhibited by dopamine and stimulated by prolactin-releasing hormone

Hypersecretion in males can cause erectile dysfunction or can be impotent or

inability to erect
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (for adrenal cortex only)
- Controls the production and secretion of adrenal cortex hormone like cortisol and
other glucocorticoids by the cortex of adrenal glands
- Release regulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and
inhibited by glucocorticoid via negative feedback
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
*melanocyte-cell release pigment melatonin; for pigmentation
*becomes active when theres a tumor in pituitary gland. In animals, melanocyte are very important
especially those could change their colors and adapt to environment
- Exact role in humans is unkwown but it is presence in the brain suggests it
influences brain activity
- Release stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone, inhibited by dopamine
Hormones that will influence/stimulate other endocrine glands: (TROPIC HORMONES)
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Gonadotropin (FSH and LH)
Andrenocorticotropic hormone
REGULAR HORMONES: (they do not influence other endocrine glands)
Growth hormones
Prolactin
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND-no pituitary cells; not capable of producing any hormones on its own
-store and release 2 hormones by hypothalamus
2 Hormones:
o Oxytocin
- Function in males and nonpregnant females is not clear
- During and after delivery it affects 2 target tissues: (function is seen during
pregnant)
DURING: The mothers uterus (causes uterine contraction that will expel
the fetus from womb)
AFTER: Breasts (causing ejection of milk from mammary gland)
- Milk-let down reflex ejection of milk
o Antidiuretic hormone vasopressin
- From the word diuresis means production of urine and anti means prevent
- Substance that decreases urine production by causing the kidneys to return more
water to the blood
- Also decreases the water lost through sweating and causes constriction of arterioles
- Causes increase in blood pressure

Thyroid gland
-secretes 3 types of hormones:
T3 (triiodothyronine)
T4 (Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine)
Calcitonin
Action of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) (metabolism and growth and development of NS):
*cretinism mental retardation, causes a child stunted in growth/will not grow
*hypothyroidism-lacking of thyroid hormones, will grow fatter because will decrease basal metabolism,
intolerant to cold or easily get cold
*hyperthyroidism-thin even you are eating a lot, intolerant to heat
Increase basal metabolic rate
Stimulate synthesis of additional sodium potassium pumps
Stimulate protein synthesis and increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP products
Enhance some action of catecholamine
Together with human growth hormone and insulin; they accelerate body growth
Control of thyroid hormone secretion:
Release is stimulate by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus and thyroidstimulating hormone from anterior pituitary gland (41:40)
Elevated T3 inhibits release TRH and TSH negative feedback mechanism
Calcitonin
- Not stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone from hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary gland
- Controlling the production of calcitonin: An increase in calcium in the blood, so
calcitonin will release from thyroid gland if theres an excess calcium in blood
- For homeostasis: Decrease the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the action
of osteoclasts and by accelerating uptake of calcium and phosphates into bone
extracellular matrix
- Regulate calcium balance
Parathyroid glands-secrete only 1 hormone; embedded in the dorsal surface of thyroid gland
Parathyroid hormone parathormone
- Antagonistic of calcitonin
- Major regulator of level of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions into blood
- Will release if you have deficiency in calcium in blood
- Increase the number and activity of osteoclasts resulting in elevated bone
resorption which release ionic calcium and phosphate in blood
- Also acts on kidneys
Slows the rate at which calcium and magnesium are lost from blood into
the urine
Increase the loss of phosphate from blood into urine
Promote formation of the hormone

Activate vitamin D (calcitriol) increases the rate of calcium, phosphate

and magnesium absorption from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood
Adrenal glands Suprarenal glands-found on the top of kidneys
-describe as 2 separated gland encapsulated into one
-differentiate during embryonic development into 2 structurally and
functionally distinct regions (different embryonic region)
1. Adrenal Cortex (from mesoderm)-subdivided into 3 zones, each of it secreted different
hormones: (outer to inner)
Zonaglomerulosa secrete mineralocorticoids (most abundant in aldosterone)
Zonafasciculata secrete glucocorticoids
Zonareticularis secrete androgens
Mineralocorticoids
- Most abundant in aldosterone
ALDOSTERONE
- regulate homeostasis of 2 mineral ions (sodium and chloride) and helps adjust blood pressure
and blood volume (absorb sodium and water from kidney)
-also promotes the excretion of hydrogen in the urine preventing acidosis (excessive acid in
blood/low PH)
-controlled by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
Glucocorticoids
-Include cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone
-regulate metabolism and resistance to stress
-stress hormones, ability to cope impending with stress
-regulate by negative feedback
-(glucosynthetic glucocorticoid) synthetic: use in transplanting organs, auto immune diseases
(body attacking own body, eg. Skin disease)
Effects:
Protein breakdown (yield glucose)
Glucose formation (from carbohydrate sources glycogenolysis glycogen: storage
form of sugar; breakdown of glycogen will form glucose)
Lipolysis (yield glucose: gluconeogenesis-production of glucose from non-carbohydrate
sources: protein and fat)
Resistance to stress
Anti-inflammatory effects (steroids have the ability to prevent inflammation,eg antiinflammatory steroidal drugs)
Depression of immune responses
Androgens
-these are your male hormones like dehydroepiandrosterone which is a form of testosterone
-insignificant in males (because most of testosterone produce by testes)
-in females, they promote libido and are converted to estrogens
-in both, stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair and contribute to the prepubertal growth
spurt (contribute to secondary sex characteristics)

2.Adrenal Medulla (from neural crest cells of ectoderm)

-modified sympathetic ganglionic of the ANS
-secrete 2 major hormones : epinephrine(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
secreted by postsympathetic fibers
-not essential for life because they only intensify responses in other parts of the body
Pancreas
- Only both 99% exocrine and 1% endocrine organ and function
- Islets of Langerhans/ Pancreatic islets of Langerhans is the part of pancreas act 1%
in endocrine gland
Cell types in the pancreatic islets:
Alpha/A cells
Glucagon increase blood glucose level
Beta/B cells
Insulin- decrease blood glucose level
Delta/ D cells
Somatostatin regulate glucagon or insulin
F cells
Pancreatic polypeptide regulate exocrine pancreas
Ovaries
Secrete:
Estrogens and progesterone
- Regulate menstrual cycle
- Maintain pregnancy
- Prepare mammary gland for lactation
- promote enlargement of the breasts and widening of the hips at puberty
- help maintain female secondary sex characteristics
Inhibin
- Inhibits secretion of FSH (via negative feedback)
Relaxin
- Increases flexibility of pubicsymphysis during pregnancy
- Helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery
Testes
Secrete:
Testosterone
- Stimulates descent of testes before birth
- Regulates production of sperm
- Stimulates the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
Inhibin
-inhibits secretion of FSH

Pineal gland part of diencephalon, specifically in epithalamus

Melatonin
- Contribute to the setting of bodys biological clock (Circadian rhythm- biological
clock) *night time, secretion of melatonin increases telling to sleep
- Potent antioxidant
Thymus - master gland for immunity
Thymosin, thymichumoral factor, thymic factor and thymopoietin
- Promote maturation of T cells
- Retard aging process
HORMONES FROM OTHER ENDOCRINE TISSUES AND ORGANS
GI Tract (entero-endocrine cells)
Gastrin promotes secretion of hydrochloric acid or gastric juice and increases the
movement of stomach
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide- stimulates secretion of insulin by pancreatic
beta cells during heavy meals
Secretin stimulate secretion of bicarbonate from pancreas
Cholecystokinin stimulate secretion of pancreatic juice from pancreas, as well as bile
from gallbladder and brings about fullness after eating (satiety)
Placenta
Human chorionic gonadotropin stimulates corpus luteum in the ovary to continue the
production of estrogen and progesterone to maintain pregnancy (progesterone hormone for
pregnancy; prevents contraction of uterus) (estrogen- cause ovulation as well as secondary sec
characteristics)
Estrogens and progesterone maintain pregnancy and help prepare mammary glands to secrete
milk
Human chorionic somatomammotropin stimulates the development of the mammary glands
for lactation
Kidneys
Renin not considered as hormones, actually an ezyme; parts of a sequence of reactions that
raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone
Erythropoietin increases rate of red blood cell formation (erythropoiesis)
Calcitriol (active form of vit.D) aids in the absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
Heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide decrease blood pressure
Adipose tissue
Leptin suppresses appetite and may increase the activity of FSH and LH
Eicosanoids secreted by most cells of the body
Prostaglandins alter smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretions, blood flow,
reproductive processes, platelet function, respiration, nerve impulse transmission, lipid
metabolism, and immune responses; promotes inflammation and fever and in intensifying pain
Leukotrienes stimulate chemotaxis of WBC and mediate inflammation

Growth factors play important roles in tissue development, growth and repair and cause growth by
stimulating cell division
Epidermal growth factor produced in submaxillary (salivary glands); stimulates proliferation of
epithelial cells, fibroblasts, neurons and astrocytes; suppresses some cancer cells and secretion
of gastric juice by the stomach
Platelet-derived growth factor-produced in blood platelets; stimulates proliferation of neuroglia,
smooth muscle fibers, and fibroblasts; appears to have a role in wound healing; may contribute
to the development of atherosclerosis
Fibroblast growth factor- found in pituitary gland and brain; stimulates proliferation of many
cells derived from embryonic mesoderm (fibroblasts, adrenocortical cells, smooth muscle fibers,
chondrocytes, and endothelial cells); also stimulates formation of new blood vessels
(angiogenesis)
Nerve growth factor-produced in submaxillary (salivary) gland and hippocampus of brain;
stimulates the growth of ganglia in embryonic life; maintains sympathetic nervous system;
stimulates hypertrophy and differentiation of neurons
Tumor angiogenesis factor- produced by normal and tumor cells; stimulate growth of new
capillaries, organ regeneration, and wound healing (tumor means new growth, could be either
benign or malignant)
Transforming growth factor-produced by various cells as separate molecules called TGFalpha(has activities similar to epidermal growth factor) and TGF-beta (inhibits proliferation of
many cell types)
The stress response (developed by Hansselye)
Eustress (positive type)- prepares us to meet certain challenges and thus is helpful
Distress (negative type) -harmful
3 stages (coping mechanism to stress)
Initial fight-or-flight response
Slower resistance reaction
Exhaustion
Fight-or-flight response- sympathetic nervous system; quickly mobilize the bodys resources for
immediate physical activity; brings huge amounts of glucose and oxygen to the organs that are most
active in warding off danger; nonessential body functions; release of renin
Resistance reaction helps the body continue fighting a stressor long after the fight-or-flight response
Exhaustion-depletion of resources of the body