The Ray Model of Light

In the ray model of light, we assume that light travels in straight-line paths called light rays.
With the ray model of light, we can explain phenomena such as reflexion, refraction, and the
formation of images by mirrors and lenses. For the ray model of light to work, the wavelength of
the light must be very small compared to the size of the objects the rays encounter; if this is not
the case, the wave nature of the light as an EM wave has to be taken into account.
Reflection
normal

The reflected light rays are in the same plane as

the incident rays and the normal to the mirror.
They make the same angle with the normal, i.e.
the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence r= i.

incident
light ray

angle of incidence

angle of reflection

reflected
light ray

reflecting surface

Index of Refraction
The ratio between the speed c of light in vacuum to the speed v in a given material is called the
index of refraction n of that material:

n=

c
v

Because nothing can move at a speed greater than c the speed of light in vacuum the index of
refraction is in normal cases always larger than 1. That light travels more slowly in matter than
in vacuum can be explained at the atomic level as being due to the [virtual!] absorption and
reemission of light by atoms and molecules of the material. [From Giancoli, p. 850.] (Actually,
light is not really absorbed, but it is possible for an absorption-reemission process to happen, as
can only be properly understood in quantum physics)
The index of refraction of a material depends on the wavelength of the incident light. The index
of refraction is normally greater for shorter wavelengths; therefore, violet light travels slower
than red light. This phenomenon is called dispersion.
When light passes from a medium with index of refraction n1 to a medium with index of
refraction n2, its frequency is unchanged. The wavelength on the other hand changes from 1 to
2 as:

n11 = n2 2 .
Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

Ray Optics page 1

Refraction
Snells Law

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
normal
incident
light ray

normal
reflected
light ray

1
angle of incidence

incident
light ray

Medium n1

Medium n1

Medium n2

Medium n2

n1 < n2
1 > 2

refracted
light ray

n1 > n2
1 < 2

refracted
light ray

reflected
light ray

1
angle of incidence

angle of refraction

2
angle of refraction

Total Internal Reflection

If n1>n2, at a particular angle c called the

critical angle, the angle of refraction
becomes 90, and the refracted ray is
parallel to the surface of contact of the two
media:

sin c =

n2
n
sin 90 = 2
n1
n1

For > c, all the light is reflected. This

effect is called total internal reflection,
and it can only happen when n1>n2. It is the
effect used for optical telecommunication
over glass fibers.

Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

incident
light ray
#2
incident
light ray
#1

normal

incident
light ray
#3

reflected
light ray
#3

reflected
light ray
#2
totally reflected
light ray
#1
refracted
light ray
#2

Medium n1
Medium n2

n1 > n2

refracted
light ray
#3

Ray Optics page 2

Plane Mirrors
When light is incident upon a rough surface, even microscopically rough
such as this page, it is reflected in many directions, as shown in Fig. 323.
This is called diffuse reflection. The law of reflection still holds, however,
at each small section of the surface. Because diffuse reflection is in all
directions, an ordinary object can be seen at many different angles by the
light reflected from it. When you move your head to the side, different
reflected rays reach your eye from each point on the object (such as this
page), Fig. 324a. Let us compare diffuse reflection to reflection from a
mirror, which is known as specular reflection. (Speculum is Latin for
mirror). When a narrow beam of light shines on a mirror, the light will not
reach your eye unless your eye is positioned at just the right place where
the law of reflection is satisfied, as shown in Fig. 324b. This is what gives
rise to the special image-forming properties of mirrors. [From Giancolis
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, p. 839.]

Image formation with ray tracing

r ay #
2

2
r ay #

do
real object

plane mirror

ray #1

ray #2

ray #1

di
virtual image

Rays that go out from the tip of the object, drawn as a vertical arrow in the figure, are reflected at
the mirror following the law of reflection. The reflected rays diverge away from each other
they do not intersect but by prolonging them behind the mirror we see that they converge at an
apparent starting point, where a virtual image is formed.
Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

Ray Optics page 3

Spherical Mirrors

Focal point: The point F where incident

parallel rays come to a focus after
reflection.

C
center of curvature
of the mirror

Radius of curvature: It is the radius r of

the sphere of which the mirror is a part. The
center of the sphere is on the principal axis.

F focal point

ted
ec
l
f
re

h
lig

principal axis

us
adi

re
atu
urv
c
f
o

mirro

Focal length: The distance f between the

focal point F and the center of the mirror.

incident light

focal length f

Concave (convergent) mirrors: r>0.

Convex (divergent) mirrors: r<0.

convergent mirror

F'

divergent mirror

The rays coming from an object infinitely far away are parallel to the principal axis of the mirror.
Because of the law of reflection, and the curvature of a spherical mirror, the rays far away from
the axis and those close to the axis are not all brought to a single point. This defect is called
spherical aberration. In order to form a sharp image, all rays parallel to the axis must come to a
point, the focal point; this is realized using parabolic mirrors which are more complex to discuss
and will not be considered here. But if a spherical mirror is small compared to its radius of
curvature r, so that a reflected ray makes only a small angle with the incident ray (2 in the
uppermost Figure), then incident rays parallel to the principal axis will cross each other at very
nearly a single point, or focus (the focal point F in the picture). This approximation is called
small angle approximation, or in fancier words paraxial approximation, meaning that it is
valid for rays close to the principal axis. The focal point is also the image point for an object
infinitely far away along the principal axis. In the small angle approximation, the relationship
between the focal length f and the radius of curvature r is:

f=

Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

r
2

Ray Optics page 4

Studying image formation using the mirror equation

do > 0 real object

do < 0 virtual object
di: position of the image
di > 0 real image
di < 0 virtual image

ho > 0 upright object

ho < 0 inverted object
hi: height of the image
hi > 0 upright object
hi < 0 inverted object

real objects and real images

are on this
side of the mirror

virtual objects and virtual images

are on this
side of the mirror

do > 0
di > 0

do < 0
di < 0

incident light

mirror

do: position of the object ho: height of the object

reflected light

In the small angle approximation:

1 1 1
+ =
do di f

m=

hi
d
= i
ho
do

Mirror Equation

Lateral Magnification

Remember...
Concave (convergent) mirrors: f > 0.
Convex (divergent) mirrors: f < 0.
When m < 0, the image is inverted.
When m > 0, the image is not inverted.
Real image: The image would appear on a screen placed at the location of the image. The image
is formed by real rays (solid lines in the pictures).
Virtual image: The image would not appear on a screen placed at the location of the image. The
image is formed by virtual rays (dashed lines in the pictures).

Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

Ray Optics page 5

Studying image formation using ray tracing

In the following pictures, we will represent the mirror in the small angles approximation, i.e. as a
straight line instead of a curved one. However, to make a clear drawing of the rays we must still
use large angles between the rays and the principal axis. As a consequence, the relationships
between the incident and reflected rays at the mirror appear unnatural in this kind of drawings;
nevertheless, the result obtained is accurate for the positions of the images. As an example: Rays
that lie on a line containing the center of curvature of the mirror are reflected back on themselves
since their incidence is perpendicular to the mirrors surface, but the 90 angle of incidence is not
directly seen when the mirror is drawn as a vertical line. When tracing rays, follow the
instructions given below. The intersection of 2 rays determine the position of the image, a third
ray can be used to check our work.
Convergent mirror
Ray #1: Rays that seem to come from C reflect
back on themselves and go through C.

r ay

object
ray

di

Ray #2: Rays that go out of the object and hit the
center of the mirror are reflected at the same angle.

ray

#1

2
r ay #
ray #3

do

#4

ray #4

Ray #4: Rays that go out from the tip of the object
passing through F are reflected parallel to the
principal axis

ray #2
ray #3

image

concave mirror

Ray #2: Rays that go out from the tip of the object
parallel to the principal axis are reflected through
F.

#1

Note: What is sketched in the above figure is only one possibility. If, for example, the object is between the focal
point and the mirror, the image will be virtual. But the rays reflect in the same way as in the picture above, to find
the image simply prolong the reflected rays behind the mirror.

Divergent mirror

ray #

y#

ra

Ray #1: Rays that seem to come

from C reflect back on themselves.

object

Ray #2: Rays that go out of the

object parallel to the principal axis
are reflected as if coming from F.

ray #2

r ay

ray #4

#3

r ay #
1
ray
#4

do

#
ray

convex mirror

di
image

F'

C'

Ray #2: Rays that go out of the

object and hit the center of the
mirror are reflected at the same
angle.
Ray #4: Rays that go out of the
object as if passing through F are
reflected parallel to the principal
axis

Note: The reflected rays, prolonged behind the mirror, intersect at the tip of the virtual image.

Dr. Cereghetti - Physics 13

Ray Optics page 6