Gulf Water Security Paper-Final Paper

Author's personal copy
J Environ Stud Sci (2014) 4:329346

DOI 10.1007/s13412-014-0178-8
Water security in the GCC countries:

challenges and opportunities
Omar Saif & Toufic Mezher & Hassan A. Arafat
Published online: 26 August 2014

# AESS 2014
Abstract The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) of Bahrain,

Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab
Emirates (UAE) inhabits of one of the most water-scarce
regions in the world, once comprised small impoverished
desert principalities. However, since the 1970s, the GCC has
witnessed rapid population growth and economic development, brought on by sharp increases in oil revenues. Population growth coupled with increased urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural output has placed tremendous pressure
on the regions scarce groundwater resources. GCC countries
are all using hundreds to thousands times more water than
sustainable recharge would allow. Their water footprints,
among the highest in the world, are sustained by unconventional sources of water such as desalination, wastewater reuse,
and the import of virtual water via agricultural goods. This
paper analyzes the current state of water in the GCC using a
waterenergyfood (WEF) nexus approach. The paper discusses various proposals for meeting future water needs in the
GCC such as renewable energy-powered desalination and
foreign direct investment in agricultural land and addresses
the various tradeoffs involved.
Keywords GCC . Water security . Desalination . Water

energyfood nexus . Groundwater . Renewable energy
O. Saif : T. Mezher
Institute Center for Smart and Sustainable Systems (iSMART),
Masdar Institute of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 54224, Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
H. A. Arafat (*)
Institute Center for Water and Environment (iWATER), Masdar
Institute of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 54224, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
e-mail: harafat@masdar.ac.ae
Introduction
When one thinks of a city such as Dubai, the first thing that
may come to mind is the citys sparkling skyscrapers or its
vast wealth. However, like many other cities along the Arabian Gulf, the economic prosperity is largely attributed to the
discovery and exploitation of fossil fuels following WWII,
along with more recent contributions from other sectors, such
as tourism and finance (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007). This
oil wealth has led to the profound transformation of
impoverished small desert principalities to modern wealthy
nations (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007). This transformation
resulted in major economic, social, and environmental changes, which continue to this day. Countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) which include Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates boast some
of the highest per capita incomes and the fastest growing
economies in the world (The Economist Intelligence Unit
2010). From 1998 to 2008, real GDP grew at an average rate
of 5.2 % annually for the GCC, with the population increasing
at an average rate of 14 % annually for the same time period
(Economist Intelligence Unit 2010). Table 1 provides a snapshot of each GCC country with population and development
indicators. Figure 1 demonstrates the precipitous population
rise of GCC countries since the 1960s. However, such drastic
development would not have been possible without vital
resources such as freshwater, a scarce resource in the GCC
(Alnaser and Alnaser 2011).
To support the booming populations and continued development, GCC member states have far surpassed their respective carrying capacities, stressing their already limited water
resources. However, their energy wealth has allowed them to
generate freshwater from the sea via desalination, grow food
in otherwise inhospitable environments, and purchase agricultural lands abroad to increase their food security. Considering
the interplay of these various policies and in order to achieve

330
Table 1 Growth indicators of GCC countries (adapted from CIA World Factbook 2014)
Indicator
Qatar
UAE
Bahrain
Saudi Arabia
Oman
Kuwait
Population growth rate

(%/year)
GDP real growth rate
(%/year)
Human development
index (HDI)
3.58 % (2014 est.)
2.71 % (2014 est.)
2.49 % (2014 est.)
1.49 % (2014 est.)
2.06 % (2014 est.)
1.7 % (2014 est.)
5.5 % (2013 est.)
4 % (2013 est.)
4.4 % (2013 est.)
3.6 % (2013 est.)
5.1 % (2013 est.)
2.3 % (2013 est.)
0.834
0.818
0.796
0.782
0.731
0.790
water security in GCC countries, it is imperative that a water

energyfood (WEF) nexus approach be taken, particularly
considering the strong interdependencies between the three
sectors in the GCC. Indeed, the severe reliance on fossil fuel
energy for fulfilling the GCCs water and food security highlights the importance of adopting this nexus approach.
place in oil exploration throughout the Gulf region (Al-Faris

2002). However, the relatively small population along
with limited human capital available prompted GCC
countries to open their borders, the cursor to the influx
of expatriates and the rise of many Gulf cities (Atiyyah
1996). Up until that point, the water needs of GCC states
were met primarily through existing groundwater; in the
mid-1950s, freshwater in Abu Dhabi could be obtained
by simply digging down into the sand (Global Water
2012). However, the increasing burden on groundwater
along with its increasing quality degradation meant a
technical solution was required to meet the growing
demand (Global Water 2012; World Bank 2005). As
such, desalination become the backbone of many GCC
states, supplying as much as 99 % of potable water
needs (Dawoud 2005) and representing 57 % of global
desalination production capacity (Global Water 2014).
Table 2 highlights the water resources and uses of each
GCC country. As the table shows, water usage for the majority
of GCC countries outstrips the annual water availability, compensated by tapping into deep nonrenewable groundwater
aquifers. It is worth noting that while all GCC countries are
water-scarce, large quantities of groundwater ranging from 67
to 93 % are used for agriculture. While uneconomic, the
choice to grow food is largely a food security matter in the
GCC.
Water resources in GCC countries

The Arabian Peninsula that houses GCC countries stands at
approximately 2.8 million km2 in area with the inclusion of
Yemen (Al-Zubari 2003). The peninsula is extremely arid,
dominated mostly by desert, and classified as a hot desert
climate (BWh) under the Kppen climate classification. Rainfall in the Gulf is both scarce and irregular, averaging less than
100 mm/year for the region (Al-Zubari 2003). Resultant of the
hot climate, coupled with low rainfall and high evaporation
rates (greater than 3,000 mm/year), surface water is almost
nonexistent in the GCC countries. During storm events, some
runoff is generated in the southern parts of the UAE, Saudi
Arabia, and Oman (Al-Rashed and Sherif 2000).
The history of water use and water sources in the Gulf is
strongly tied to the discovery of oil and gas itself. Following
the discovery of oil in the Gulf, and particularly after the
Second World War, large foreign investments began taking
50
Fig. 1 Population growth of the

GCC states since 1960 (adapted
from World Bank Data 2014)
Saudi Arabia
Oman
Qatar
Bahrain
Kuwait
45
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Year
2012
2010
2008
2006
2002
2004
2000
1996
1998
1994
1992
1988
1990
1984
1986
1982
1978
1980
1976
1974
1972
1968
1970
1964
1966
1960
0
1962
Populaon in millions
40

331
Table 2 Summary of water resources and use for GCC countries (adapted from AFED 2010)
Country
Annual water availability (Bm3/year)
Annual water usage
% use by sector
Natural renewable resources
Desalinated water
Wastewater reuse
Bm3
% of total water
resources
Domestic
Industry
Agriculture
Bahrain
0.11
0.14
Neg.
0.25
170
26
71
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
UAE
0.11
1.6
0.05
2.5
0.2
0.65
0.12
0.12
2.28
0.95
0.12
0.02
n.a.
0.15
0.14
0.76
1.22
0.28
17
1.6
87
74
n.a.
506
180
37
9
23
9
24
2
1
3
1
10
60
93
74
90
67
Groundwater resources
Historically, GCC countries have relied almost entirely on
groundwater resources, which are split into shallow and deep
fossil aquifers. The only renewable source of water, the shallow aquifers, is recharged at an average rate of 3.5 billion
cubic meters annually (Al-Zubari 2003). The total estimated
capacity of the shallow alluvial aquifers for the GCC and
Yemen stands at a 131 billion cubic meters (Al-Zubari
2003). Deep fossil aquifers are estimated at a much higher
value at 2,175 billion cubic meters and were formed during
the rainy Pleistocene and Pliocene geological periods, thousands of years ago (Al-Zubari 2003). Recharge to these deep
aquifers is quite low, estimated at around 2.7 million cubic
meters per year (Al-Zubari 2003).
Groundwater sources are intensively used for agricultural
purposes in the GCCestimated at over 21 billion cubic
meters annually (Al-Zubari 2003). As Table 2 demonstrates,
the agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water in all
GCC countries and is supplied almost entirely by groundwater. The result has been a stark decline in water tables along the
GCC, as the over abstraction of groundwater resources has led
to water quality degradation, seawater intrusion, and a drying
of shallow aquifers (Al-Zubari 2003; Sale et al. 2011).
Desalination
As the demand for water in the Gulf began to grow in the midtwentieth centuryresultant of population and economic
growth and urbanizationearly thermal desalination technologies, such as multiple effect boiling (MEB), were introduced
(Global Water 2012). Similarly, multistage flash (MSF) was
also introduced after its invention in 1958 (Environment
Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD) 2009). Desalination gained
significant traction in GCC states by the 1980s as illustrated
in Fig. 2. A main reason for the sudden boom in desalination
was the 1973 oil price spike which provided many GCC
countries with the funds necessary to make major investments
in their water and energy infrastructures (EAD 2009).
The reliance on desalination technologies for meeting the

Gulfs water needs continued to grow, particularly for potable
and industrial purposes. Historically, the physical characteristics of the Arabian Gulf seawater played an important role in
determining the choice of desalination technology, particularly for the countries of Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain which have
access only to Gulf waters as feed water (Global Water 2014).
However, other GCC states such as the UAE, Oman, and
Saudi Arabia benefit from having access to other water bodies
such as the Arabian Sea and Red Sea (Mezher et al. 2011). The
harsh conditions of the Arabian Gulf water make desalination
in this region particularly difficult, despite 57 % of the worlds
desalination capacity taking place in this relatively small water
body (Global Water 2014). The high salinity and temperature
have particularly influenced the choice of technology used in
the Gulf (Mezher et al. 2011). Despite the greater energy
efficiency of reverse osmosis (RO) and its dominance outside
of the GCC region, 62 % of the installed desalination capacity
in the CCC countries is thermal based (Global Water 2014).
The Arabian Gulfs high temperatures, salinity, and turbidity,
coupled with the presence of marine organisms, have traditionally contributed to high pretreatment costs for RO
(Mezher et al. 2011). At the same time, cheaply available
low-grade steam from gas-fired power plants also explains
the dominance of thermal technologies and choice to install
cogeneration (power and water) facilities in the GCC countries (Global Water 2014). However, recent advances in membrane technology along with other technological innovations
that significantly reduced pretreatment needs have increased
the uptake and interest of RO technology in the Gulf (Mezher
et al. 2011; Global Water 2012).
Treated wastewater
Wastewater constitutes a growing water source for all GCC
countries, given the current and future strain on existing water
sources. The majority of produced sewage in GCC countries is
either treated to secondary or tertiary levels and discharging of
water closely follows WHO guidelines (AFED 2008). The

332
35,000,000
Saudi Arabia
Cumulave installed capacity (m 3 /day)
Fig. 2 Cumulative installed

desalination capacity in GCC
countries since 1970 (data from
Global Water 2014)
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Oman
Bahrain
30,000,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
Year
percentage of wastewater that is treated varies significantly

from country to country. Table 3 provides an estimate of total
wastewater produced, treated, and reused according to WHO
and FAO estimates.
Treated wastewater is used extensively in many GCC
countries for the irrigation of gardens and parks, highway
landscaping, and fodder crops. However, wastewater remains
not fully utilized by all countries. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and
Bahrain only reuse approximately 30 % of their treated wastewater; the remaining 70 % being discharged into the Arabian
Gulf or into wadis to infiltrate into shallow aquifers (AFED
2011). It is worth noting that since the early and mid-2000s,
great strides have been made to treat and reuse greater
amounts of wastewater in the GCC countries. As such, the
data presented in Table 3 undervalues actual current treatment
and reuse rates.
Virtual water
A vital component to the GCC countries water security is
virtual water via various water-intensive agricultural and industrial imports. Despite the majority of GCC groundwater
being used in agriculture to increase food security, GCC
countries remain net importers of agricultural goods (and
consequently of virtual water). Figure 3 illustrates the total
2005 water imports for GCC countries. Saudi Arabia and the
UAE are among the highest net importers.
Figure 4 demonstrates the level of water dependency of
various countries including select GCC countries. A countrys
water dependency is calculated by dividing its external water
footprint (i.e., virtual water imports), by the total water footprint. The closer the value is to a 100 %, the more dependent a
country is on the water resources of other nations. The GCC
countries of Kuwait, UAE, and Saudi Arabia illustrate high
water dependency in comparison to other nations, a problem
further confounded by the fact that even their internal water

footprints are met largely through energy-intensive desalination and nonrenewable groundwaterunlike Switzerland, Japan, and the UK.
For many GCC states, the demand for water is seemingly
ever increasing, with a proliferation of investment in supply
capacity to meet growing demands. While most GCC countries are currently reporting surplus water and energy production, future forecasts suggest that trend will likely change.
Figure 5 is a projection for GCC countries that forecasts
expected water demand until 2050 (Trieb et al. 2008). The
projection is a scenario in which water demand for the agricultural and industrial sectors continues to grow relative to
population and GDP, with technical efficiencies gained over
time.
Figure 6 demonstrates a projected transition from the current water profile in the GCC countries in the future, in which
water needs are mostly met through a combination of fossil
fuel desalination, renewable energy-powered desalination,
and wastewater reuse. Based on this projection, by 2050,
desalination irrespective of its fuel source would account for
84 % of all water needs for the region in all sectorsin
contrast to the current 26 % (Trieb et al. 2008). The forecast
model depicted in Fig. 6 validates previous models including
one done by UN-ESCWA, which reported similar demand
results.
Financial and environmental costs of water in GCC

countries
The cost of water and electricity production, tariffs, and government subsidization rates in three GCC countries are summarized in Table 4. Most notably, tariffs are drastically

333
Table 3 Treated and reused wastewater for GCC countries (adapted from
World Bank 2005)
Water and energy subsidies in the GCC
Country
Treated
Reused
Wastewater Treated
wastewater wastewater treatment
wastewater
(MCM/year) (MCM/year) rate (%)
reuse rate (%)
Bahrain
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
UAE
Total
24
260
12
44
240
265
845
The more energy and water are subsidized, the greater the
demand is for those goods as their true cost of production
becomes externalized. In GCC states, this phenomenon is
demonstrated by the exceptionally high energy and water uses
per capita. In Qatar and UAE, the annual electricity consumption stands at 16,353 and 17,296 KWh/capita, respectively
(IEA 2013). Both countries consume 25 % more electricity
per capita than the USA (IEA 2013). In terms of water use, the
water footprints of Qatar and UAE stand well over 3,000 m3/
year, more than double the world average (Mekonnen and
Hoekstra 2011). Although the high electricity consumption in
the region is largely the result of air conditioning and cooling,
necessary for the hot desert climate, overconsumption remains
largely linked to cheap energy prices, a fact acknowledged by
water and electricity authorities and industries in both Qatar
and the UAE. Numerous reports including Qatars Second
Human Development Report, launched in 2009, also concluded that heavy subsidies have led to a state in which water and
electricity are overconsumed by the Qatari population at a rate
exceeding sustainable development (UNDP 2009). Consequently, there is widespread recognition of the harmful effects
caused by current water and electricity tariffs.
Domestic water and energy subsidization by GCC states has
been a contributive factor towards their water- and energyintensive economies (Enerdata 2011). High water and energy
intensity is a trend witnessed among all GCC states (AFED
2010). As illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9, although GCC states have
comparable, or even lower, human development index (HDI)
values to other industrialized economies, they are far more
water- and energy-intensive. Though other confounding factors
exist that uniquely add to the water footprint and energy intensity of GCC countries (such as weather, virtual water imports,
and so forth), water and energy wastage resultant of subsidies
remains a prime factor (Enerdata 2011). Consequently, GCC
states possess a tremendous opportunity to improve their economic efficiencies, especially considering that there has been
no correlation found between energy consumption and GDP
17
182
8
31
98
159
495
32
62
22
33
23
39
36
71
70
67
70
41
60
59
different than the actual production costs of water and electricity in these countries, as both water and electricity are
highly subsidized in GCC countries. The ranges in tariffs
and subsidization rates correspond to different customer segments that pay different tariff amounts. At the domestic level,
GCC countries citizens generally receive their water and
electricity at even lower prices than expats, in the case of
water in Abu Dhabi (UAEs largest emirate); for example,
citizens receive it for free (RSB 2014a).
Figure 7 provides an example of how water and electricity
sectors are set up in Abu Dhabi. Given the historically high
level of cogeneration facilities of water and electricity, government entities are structured jointly as well to mirror the
water and energy sectorutility companies overlooking both
water and electricity. In terms of government subsidies, as
Fig. 7 shows, government support is provided through the
Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Company (ADWEC), which
financially compensates the distribution companies (ADDC
and AADC) who sell the water and electricity to consumers
below production cost (RSB 2014b). It is also worth noting
that ADWEC subsidizes the water and electricity production
process by purchasing the gas fuel from fuel suppliers and
supplying it to the water and electricity producers where
cogeneration facilities are involved (RSB 2014b).
18000.00
Net export
Virtual water (Mm3/year)
Fig. 3 Virtual water imports and

exports for GCC countries (data
from Mekonnen and Hoekstra
2011)
Net import
16000.00
14000.00
12000.00
10000.00
8000.00
6000.00
4000.00
2000.00
0.00
Bahrain
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE

334
Fig. 4 Water dependency of
various countries including select
GCC states (data from Mekonnen
and Hoekstra 2011)
Kuwait
Switzerland
Japan
UAE
United Kingdom
Saudi Arabia
Italy
Canada
United States
China
Brazil
India
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Water dependency (%)
growth in the GCC, suggesting GDP growth can continue even

with conservation policy measures (Iriani, 2006).
Environmental cost of water production in GCC countries

There are numerous environmental concerns associated with
current water production in the GCC region, particularly with
the desalination process itself. Figure 10 highlights the primary areas of concern. They can be categorized as input, output,
and process concerns.
In terms of inputs, the intake of seawater for desalination
plants is an area of concern (Lattemann and Hpner 2008).
Organisms living within the vicinity of a desalination plants
intake pipe can collide with the intake screens (impingement)
or be trapped within the feedwater into the plant (entrainment)
(Lattemann and Hpner 2008). Due to lack of data and ability
to quantify the rates of impingement and entrainment, the
associated environmental impacts are often overlooked even
though they may represent the most significant and direct
effects from desalination (Pankratz 2004). The threat of intake
pipes on the marine environment is highly variable and dependent on the technology employed for seawater intake; how
far the intake pipe is from the shore as well whether the intake
pipes are open sea or subsurface (Pankratz 2004; Gille 2003).
The other input of concern in the desalination process is the

energy quantity and type involved. The current use of fossil
fuels as an energy supply is problematic for both its outputs as
well as the longevity of the energy source (Meerganz von
Medeazza 2005). Given the heavy reliance on desalination for
supplying the freshwater needs of GCC countries, a sustainable source of energy for desalination would ensure that the
water produced is renewable and helps increase water security
(Trieb et al. 2008). At the environmental level, it is estimated
that when desalination is coupled with renewable energy
sources, the environmental load can be reduced by 8085 %
by eliminating the harmful effects associated with fossil fuels
(Meerganz von Medeazza 2005).
It is worth noting that the desalination technology employed,
regardless of the energy source, plays a crucial role in the overall
environmental load, as desalination technologies differ in energy
intensity, land requirements, and chemical usage, among many
other variables. Figure 11 provides a life cycle analysis of three
desalination technologies with their respective environmental
loads. In general, reverse osmosis as a technology has the lowest
environmental impact followed by multiple effect distillation
and then lastly multistage flash. Among the most important
factors affecting environmental load is energy intensity. The
use of natural gas or oil as a fuel source for desalination plants
results in millions of metric tons of greenhouse gases being
60.0
Fig. 5 Water demand forecast for

GCC countries until 2050
(adapted from Trieb et al. 2008)
Saudi Arabia
UAE
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Bahrain
Water demand in Bcm
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
2024
Year
2028
2032
2036
2040
2044
2048

60
Water Consumption Bcm/y
Fig. 6 Future water supply

scenario for the GCC region
(adapted from Trieb et al. 2008)
335
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 2028 2032 2036 2040 2044 2048
Natural Water Used

Fossil Fuel Desalination
Alternative Energy Powered Desalination
spewed into the atmosphere annually in the Gulf. The Emirate of

Abu Dhabi alone releases roughly 4 to 9 million metric tons of
CO2 annually from desalination plants (EAD 2009).
Lastly, one of the most significant areas of environmental
concern when it comes to desalination plants is brine management (Ahmed et al. 2001). The discharged brine is often a
mixture of saline concentrate along with thermal and chemically added pollutants (Meerganz von Medeazza 2005). The
solutions salinity concentration is largely dependent on the
technology employed; though often double the ambient seawater salinity (Global Water 2014). In addition to the added
salinity, the brine mixture often contains numerous chemicals
employed in pretreatment such as antiscaling additives, antifouling additives, halogenated organic compounds formed
after chlorine addition, antifoaming additives, anticorrosion
additives, and oxygen scavengers (Hpner and Windelberg
1997). Furthermore, if thermal desalination is the predominant
technology employed, as is the case in the Arabian Gulf, the
temperature of the brine mixture will often be above the
ambient seawater temperature (Sale et. al 2011). All the aforementioned by-products can negatively impact the Gulfs native biota; be they mangroves, corals, or other aquatic species
(Sale et al. 2011); particularly given the brines density which
sinks it to the bottom of the seabed where most ecological
activity takes place (Meerganz von Medeazza 2005).
Coral and mangrove species survive within a narrow set
of environmental parameters that if exceeded can lead to
Wastewater Reuse
Groundwater Use
Total Demand GCC
ecological stress on the marine populations (Rezai et al.

2004). Coral and mangrove species in the Arabian Gulf are
unique as they are among the most versatile corals and
mangroves, being able to tolerate both high temperatures
and salinity (Rezai et al. 2004). Despite the high tolerance
of mangroves and coral to this harsh environment, these
habitats are still vulnerable to brine discharge (Purnama
et al. 2005). Mangroves across the GCC have often been
cleared in the process of coastal development (Sale et al.
2011). Mangroves rely on a delicate balance of inland
freshwater and seawater: if the seawater becomes too saline
or concentrated due to brine discharge, then their growth
can become stunted or they may die all together (Hpner
and Windelberg 1997). Similarly, corals exposed to high
temperatures will undergo a process called coral bleaching,
which effectively destroys the coral (Brown 1997). While
much research has been done on the negative effects of
brine discharge to marine flora, there remain few studies
that assess the direct impacts of desalination on marine
fauna (Purnama et al. 2005).
Also worth mentioning are the potential cumulative effects
of desalination on the Arabian Gulf itself. The semi-enclosed
nature of the water body along with the high desalination rates
presents a unique case in which the effect of brine discharge
by desalination plants must be looked at collectively and
cumulatively, as opposed to singular environmental impact
studies (Sheppard et al. 2010). Long-term environmental
Table 4 Water and electricity production cost, tariffs, and subsidy rates in select GCC countries
Country
Product
Production cost (USD $)
Tariff (USD $)
Subsidization rate (%)
Source
Bahrain
Electricity
Water
Electricity
Water
Electricity
Water
0.07/kWh
1.92/m3
0.07/kWh
2.74/m3
0.070.09/kWh
2.48/m3
0.010.04/kWh
0.801.06/m3
0.020.04/kWh
1.211.92/m3
0.010.04/kWh
0.60/m3
4386
4558
4267
3056
4088
76100
Bahrain Electricity and Water Authority (2014)
Qatar
UAE
(GWI 2014) and Kahramaa (2014)

RSB (2014a)

336
the GCC region. It demonstrates traditional and future avenues of meeting the GCCs water, energy, and food needs. The
figure incorporates tags that highlight the necessary resources
needed, be they financial, political, or utility based such as
freshwater and energy.
As Fig. 13 also illustrates, water security is a function of
both water supply and water demand. So long as a countrys
supply rate outstrips that of its demand with no externalized
costs, then it can be considered water secure (even if water
dependent on other nations) (World Bank 2005). Hence, water
scarcity can be addressed in two ways, through demand management and through supply management.
Water supply management in GCC countries

Fig. 7 Overview of the water and energy sector entities in the Abu Dhabi
Emirate
studies on the cumulative impacts of desalination discharge in

the Gulf are very scarce (Purnama et al. 2005).
Waterenergyfood nexus analysis of water security

in the GCC
As previously mentioned, the nexus that exists between water,
energy, and food in the GCC region is unprecedented. Consequently, it is crucial to analyze the dynamics of water
scarcity in the region and how it can be dealt with both costeffectively and sustainably through a WEF approach. Figure 12 illustrates a general overview of the WEF nexus in
Fig. 8 Relationship between the
human development index and
the energy intensity of selected
countries, including several GCC
states (data from IEA 2013 and
Roca 2013)
Demand management employs strategies to decrease the demand on the water resource, while supply management looks
towards strategies that can increase the supply of the water
resource (World Bank 2005). Figure 13 illustrates some supply and demand management strategies. Both approaches are
important to meet any countrys water needs; however, demand management should be prioritized over supply management when possible as it is both more cost-effective and
environmentally friendly as it avoids unnecessary investment
in new water and energy infrastructure (World Bank 2005;
EAD 2009).
Despite the increasing push for privatization and private
sector involvement, it is clear that GCC countries are continuing to invest heavily in their water and energy sectors as
evident by their large shares in many independent water and
power projects (IWPP) (Global Water 2014). Between 2000
and 2008, Qatars Kahramaa (the government owned water
and electricity company) invested approximately 660 million
USD in its water sector, excluding investments made in IWPP

337
Fig. 9 Relationship between the

human development index and
the water footprint of selected
countries, including several GCC
states (data from Mekonnen and
Hoekstra 2011 and Roca 2013)
projects (Al-Malki 2008). In 2009, Qatar initiated a 30-year

water and electricity master plan that will see major investments in desalination, water infrastructure, and wastewater
treatment (Global Water 2014). Between 2010 and 2015, the
value is projected at reaching 5.47 billion USD with an
additional 1.1 billion USD investment in IWPP production
facilities between 2013 and 2017 (Al-Malki 2008).
Likewise, in May of 2012, at the global summit for water in
the oil and gas sector, the undersecretary of the UAE Ministry
of Environment and Water announced that the UAE will be
investing 13.89 billion USD in new desalination plants and
distribution networks from 2012 to 2016 according to the
UAEs The National newspaper (2012).
Strong government investments in the water and energy
sector are largely the result of rapidly rising demand coupled
with higher global oil and gas prices which have provided
greater revenue from energy exports for GCC countries
(Global Water 2014), similar to the massive investments made
following the oil crisis in 1973 (Al-Faris 2002).
Fig. 10 Box model of

environmental impacts related to
the desalination process
Currently, many GCC countries are placing heavy emphasis and resources on ensuring that they are water secure for the
future. This has corresponded to increasing their installed
desalination capacities among other actions such as wastewater reuse. Figure 14 illustrates the projected cumulative capacity increase in GCC countries for the next 4 years. In Qatar,
Kahramaa is planning to add an additional 1.72 million m3/
day to its existing desalination capacity between the years of
2016 and 2032 as a part of its 30-year power and water master
plan (Al-Malki 2008; Global Water 2012). This would represent an increase of roughly 140 % compared to the current
installed capacity of 1.2 million m3/day (Al-Malki 2008).
Despite the fossil fuel wealth that GCC states enjoy, significant investments are being made to diversify the energy
mix of the region and shift away from dependence on fossil
fuels (Alnaser and Alnaser 2011). Investments in energy diversification would allow the region to export greater amounts
of fossil fuelearning greater revenue and also prepare them
for a post-fossil fuel world (Reiche 2010). Most investments

338
700
Leve lof environmental impact (mPt)
Fig. 11 Life cycle analysis of

various desalination technologies
(adapted from Raluy et al. 2006)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
MSF
RO
Carcinogens
Fossil fuels
Resp. inorganics
Climate change
Ecotoxicity
Acidicaon/Eutrophics
are currently being made by public sector entities rather than

the private sector, though publicprivate partnerships, particularly in research, are growing (Reiche 2010).
The GCC countries desire to diversify their energy mix
is best represented by some of the initiated programs and
projects in these countries. In 2008, the UAE published a
Fig. 12 Waterenergyfood nexus dynamics in the GCC countries
MED
report on nuclear energy for the country citing that by

2020, natural gas will only be sufficient to meet 50 % of
electricity needs, and the remaining will have to come from
other sources such as nuclear and renewable energies
(ENEC 2008). The report estimated that renewables will
supply around 67 % by 2020, with the remaining 43

339
Fig. 13 Supply and demand in water scarcity dynamics
44 % coming from nuclear energy through an estimated 14

plants; four of which will be operational by 2020 (ENEC
2008). In terms of renewables, Masdars Shams 1 is a
concentrated solar power plant project constructed near
Abu Dhabi in the UAE (Abengoa Solar 2013). The project,
the largest parabolic trough power plant in the world at
time of construction, is the largest solar power plant in the
Middle East (Abengoa Solar 2011). Details on UAEs
Shams 1 and the Barakah nuclear power plants are summarized in Table 5.
In terms of renewable energy and desalination, Saudi
Arabias King Abdulaziz University for Science & Technology built the worlds largest (30,000 m3/day) solar-powered
(PV) desalination plant in Al-Khafji (Negewo 2012). Under
phase 2 of the project, the desalination capacity is planned to
50,000,000
KSA
Cumulave installed capacity (m3/day)
Fig. 14 Forecast of cumulative

installed desalination capacity for
GCC countries (adapted from
Gasson 2013 forecast)
be expanded by an additional 150,000 m3/day (Negewo

2012). Saudi Arabia has additionally announced that it plans
to generate 54 GW of electricity from renewables by 2032
(Negewo 2012).
The combination of renewable energy and desalination
technologies is often site and context specific. Much research
is taking place in this area, particularly for the GCC countries.
Table 6 summarizes some of the tradeoffs of various renewable energy and desalination technology combinations. For
example, unlike multi-effect distillation powered using concentrated solar power (CSP-MED), reverse osmosis powered
with photovoltaic electricity (PV-RO) does not require that the
PV panels be located at the shore where the RO plant is, a
major advantage if the land is expensive or not provided by
the government. However, CSP-MED is capable of greater
production and can tolerate higher salinities in comparison to
RO. The cost range of renewable energy-powered desalination is also quite variable but generally more expensive than
fossil fuel desalination for the time being. Figure 15 provides a
range of renewable-powered seawater desalination costs
based on existing projects.
Aside from water supply capacity and the longevity of the
energy sources used for water production, GCC states also
suffer from severe water storage capacity issues. It is estimated
that Qatars water storage capacity is only 1.23 days if all
desalination plants were to stop operating (Al-Malki 2008).
That number is standing at 2 days in the UAE (EAD 2009),
with similar numbers for Kuwait and Bahrain who also lack
significant groundwater resources. As such, GCC states are
researching and investing in water storage technologies, be
they manmade reservoirs or aquifer storage and recovery
(ASR) (World Bank 2005).
Under Qatars National Food Security Programme
(QNFSP), a core objective is to use solar-desalinated water
to replenish the countrys depleted aquifers, increasing the
countrys water storage capacity and decreasing the need for
large water storage containers (QNFSP 2014). Similar to
Qatars QNFSP, Abu Dhabi has already invested in ASR as
UAE
Kuwait
Qatar
Oman
Bahrain
45,000,000
40,000,000
35,000,000
30,000,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018

340
Table 5 Renewable and nuclear energy projects in the UAE (data from World Nuclear Association and ArabianBusiness.com and Abengoa Solar 2011)
Project owner
Project cost
Energy capacity
Tonnes of CO2
displaced
Status
Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation

(ENEC)
Masdar (60 %), Abengoa SA (20 %),
Total SA (20 %)
20 billion USD
5,600 MW (1,400 MW/plant)
12,000,000/year
Under construction
600 million USD
100 MW
175,000/year
Operational as of end of 2012
a means of increasing the countrys water storage capacity

(EAD 2009). The 5 billion USD project in Liwa was implemented by the Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD,
2009). The water reservoir can be tapped into whenever
needed, particularly in times of emergency or natural crisis
(EAD 2009).
Manmade reservoirs are also being built. In Qatar,
Kahramaa is planning to add 2 million m3 in secondary
reservoirs and 8.64 million m3 mega reservoirs by the end of
2015 (Al-Malki 2008). The secondary reservoirs will provide
an additional 2-day reserve capacity, while the mega reservoirs will add 5 for a planned total of 7 days of 24-h supply
(Al-Malki 2008).
Water demand management in GCC countries
A general dichotomy exists within demand management:
technical efficiency and behavioral consumption. Technical
efficiency generally encompasses storage, transmission, distribution, and end use. Behavioral consumption includes consumptive patterns of water by all sectors. Traditionally in
GCC states, behavioral change has received little attention,
with priority going to supply management and increasing
technical efficiency.
One of the major technical efficiencies being worked on
in GCC countries is related to end use and building codes
(Bachellerie 2012). In 2009, Dubai launched its green building code which aims to harmonize various building and
planning policies within the emirate (Reiche 2010). The
building code is based largely on the US Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system,
however, modified to suit Dubais environmental conditions
(Reiche 2010). In Abu Dhabi, under Plan Abu Dhabi

2030, a key program emerged named Estidama, which
operates as a building design methodology for constructing
and operating buildings and communities more sustainably
(Abu Dhabi UPC 2014). One of the outputs of Estidama is
the Pearl Rating System, which harmonizes existing codes
such as BREEAM, LEED, and Green Star, to evaluate the
sustainability of building development practices in Abu
Dhabi (Abu Dhabi UPC 2014).
Similarly, Qatar has recently developed its own system
called the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS)
(GORD 2014). GSAS was developed after studying 40 different green building codes from around the world, with the
objective of creating a system that can assess all types of
developments, at both the macro and micro level (GORD
2014). GSAS is mandatory for all government buildings,
while private sector developments are to adhere to unspecified
water- and energy-saving measures (GORD 2014).
Another key area of water efficiency is through transmission
networks. Current transmission water loss stands below 15 % in
Dubai (World Bank 2005) and 17 % in Abu Dhabi, with efforts
by ADWEA along with its subsidiary distributors to reduce that
value to 10 % through more sophisticated management (EAD
2009). Distribution companies in the country are currently
installing automatic smart meters at all outlets in the network,
to better account for water loss in the system (EAD 2009).
In other GCC countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar,
the opportunity for water savings is greater as current water
transmission losses are high, estimated at 3035 % (GWI
2012). Consequently, in Qatar, Kahramaa has made water
transmission efficiency a priority with plans to cut leaks to
10 % by 2014 according to government entities. In 2009,
Table 6 Tradeoffs of various renewable and desalination technology combinations (adapted from Kalogirou 2005)
Technology
Scale of application
Land requirement/m3 water produced
Salinity tolerance
Site suitability
PV-RO
Smallmedium
Moderate
High and regular insolation
Solar Still
HDH
Small
Small
Medium (can be decoupled from

desalination plant)
High
Medium
High
High
High and regular insolation, low humidity

Access to waste heat
CSP-MED
Mediumlarge
Medium (if thermal, cannot be

decoupled from desalination plant)
High
High and regular insolation, low humidity
PV-RO reverse osmosis powered with photovoltaic electricity, HDH humidificationdehumidification, CSP-MED multi-effect distillation powered using
concentrated solar power

Wind + ED
Technology combinaon
Fig. 15 Cost of various

renewable and seawater
desalination technology
combinations (adapted from
Gude et al. 2010)
341
Wind + RO
PV + ED
PV + RO
Convenonal + RO, ED
tankers to remote areas
1
Kahramaa invested 58 million USD into a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system for the control
and monitoring of the countrys water system (Al-Malki
2008). This system is to be coupled with greater control
management which includes new district flow meters and
advance meter information (Al-Malki 2008).
Among the most important and crucial issues that need to
be addressed is the efficiency of irrigation for agricultural and
landscaping in the GCC states. The agricultural sector consumes on average 60 to 90 % of the groundwater supply in the
UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, even though it only contributes 2 to 6 % towards those countries GDP (World Bank
2005). Agriculture in the GCC states suffers from poor irrigation practices that lead to water losses exceeding 50 % (World
Bank 2005). Reducing leakage in agricultural water networks
and utilizing better irrigation systems will ensure that GCC
countries can continue to improve their food security without
threatening their scarce and valuable water resources.
Behavioral changes within the water sector are related
largely to consumptive patterns (Russell and Fielding 2010).
Water consumption among any sector or user is determined
primarily by the cost of the utility and the general level of
awareness surrounding water conservation (Russell and
Fielding 2010). Water and electricity tariffs were previously
discussed for select GCC countries and how they differ for
various customer segments. The large subsidies in place have
a significant impact on consumption patterns as they encourage overconsumption of both water and electricity. This is
most evident in the agricultural sectors of GCC countries,
where water wastage is highest as water prices tend to be the
lowest when compared with other customer segments. An
increase in water and electricity tariffs through subsidy removal would likely decrease consumption by a considerable
amount, as has been often stated by academic, government,
and industry experts in the region. However, within GCC
states, there are considerable social and political considerations when it comes to subsidies (IEA 2013; Fattouh and
Katiri 2012). Given the wealth generated by fossil fuel export
in the GCC, a culture has emerged in which citizens feel they
have a birth right to those resources and that such utilities
5
7
Cost (USD/m3)
11
should be made free for them (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007).

Consequently, increasing water and electricity tariffs for citizens would be extremely unpopular.
There is broad consensus from utility companies, academics, researchers, and those in the water industry that
subsidies for water and electricity need to go down across all
GCC states and that such an outcome is inevitable. The Dubai
Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA) did just that in 2011 as
it introduced a fuel surcharge for electricity production which
was passed on to consumers. According to the UAEs national
newspaper (2012), the result was a 2.2 % drop in per capita
electricity consumption the following year.
However, given the political and social sensitivity of tariff
increases, an emphasis on awareness building is being placed
instead. Consequently, conservation campaigns are starting to
flourish to educate the public in many GCC countries. In the
UAE and Qatar, key government institutions including environmental ministries and water and electricity authorities
along with the utility/distribution companies have begun to
promote greater conservation through various avenues. Significant work has been carried out on government websites
(particularly utility websites) to promote conservation and
sustainability, through open access to statistical information,
online consumption calculators, water and electricity saving
tips, among others.
In the UAE, some utility companies have begun to show
the true cost of water and electricity production on the water
and electricity bill of customers and how much they are saving
via government subsidies in an effort to raise awareness
among the public about the true value of these utilities. Such
initiatives are hoped to prove to be useful as water and
electricity subsidies decline in the future.
Water security tradeoffs
The water security of GCC countries cannot exist in a silo
separate from food and energy. Consequently, the adoption of
any strategy for increasing water security in this region will
have repercussions on other sectors. Figure 16 depicts an
assessment of three supply side interventions using qualitative

342
Security
Fig. 16 Water security tradeoffs

in the GCC states
Social/polical
acceptance
Water savings
Cost savings
Fossil fuel desalinaon
metrics, namely the existing fossil fuel desalination, continued

groundwater extraction, and lastly renewable energy or
nuclear-powered desalinationwhich has yet to majorly take
off in the GCC states, though it has recently been made a
priority. The qualitative metrics used are social/political acceptance, potential cost savings (compared to the status quo),
potential for oil/gas savings, water saving, and security issues.
As discussed previously, the GCC states have historically
relied almost exclusively on their groundwater resources,
tapping more into their nonrenewable deep aquifers as the
population grew. The current rate of extraction will result in
the drying of the aquifers, their salinization through seawater
intrusion, and eventual collapse. Consequently, on their own,
they cannot ensure the water security of the GCC.
Traditional fossil fuel desalination has offered GCC countries a way of securing their water security and decreasing
Oil & gas savings

RE/nuclear desalinaon
Groundwater extracon
their reliance on their scarce and nonrenewable groundwater

resources. However, it is becoming increasingly an opportunity cost of lost gas and/or oil export revenue. The United
Arab Emirates, which operates the bulk of its desalination
plants using natural gas, imports the gas from Qatar. Saudi
Arabia uses oil for a large majority of its desalination plants, a
lost opportunity of revenue from oil exports.
Lastly, the use of renewables or nuclear energy for desalination is considered a significant security improvement as it
ensures the supply of a sustainable source of energy and hence
water, which is not the case with current fossil fuel desalination. However, among the tradeoffs with using renewables for
desalination is the higher cost, which was presented in Fig. 15
for various renewables and desalination technology combinations. However, the relative difference in cost between
renewable-powered desalination and fossil fuel desalination
Security
Fig. 17 Food security tradeoffs

in the GCC states
Social/polical
acceptance
Water savings
Cost savings
Local producon
Oil & gas savings
Food imports
FDI in agricultural land

Table 7 Foreign direct investment by three GCC states in African farmland, benchmarked
against that by South Korea, Jordan, Egypt, and China (adapted
from Ibrahim Forum 2011)
343
Investor
Target
Land acquired through purchase or lease (ha)
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Tanzania
Sudan
Kenya
Sudan
10,000
500,000
380,000
40,000
700,000
Sudan
Uganda
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Democratic Republic of Congo
Zimbabwe
30,000
860,000
20,000
10,000
2,800,000
100,000

Qatar
South Korea
Jordan
Egypt
China
is expected to levelize in the future as renewable energy costs

drop and fossil fuel prices increase.
Food security tradeoffs

Looking at food security, GCC countries are pursuing various
alternatives, all of which possess their own tradeoffs. Figure 17
demonstrates the various tradeoffs associated with food security in the GCC states. While many GCC countries are currently emphasizing food security through local food production, the resultant repercussions of this option are significant.
Local food production puts significant stress on groundwater
resources (see Table 2 for agricultural use of groundwater in
GCC countries) and requires significant energy and financial
input through government subsidies (direct and indirect) to
enable the produce of local farmers to compete domestically.
Food imports, while cheaper than local production, are

subject to significant international drivers and are hence price
volatile, as the 2007/2008 global food price crisis demonstrated. Hence, from a security standpoint, food importswhile
more environmentally friendly for GCC countries given their
climate and limited water resourcesremain capricious.
Another option of achieving food security which GCC
countries have begun to pursue is that of foreign direct investment (FDI) in farmland abroad, particularly in neighboring
East Africa. Table 7 highlights the acquired land (purchased or
leased) by some GCC states in countries such as Sudan,
Kenya, and Tanzania.
The tradeoffs associated with energy security, as discussed
throughout the water security section, are summarized in
Figure 18.
The purchase or long-term leasing of the land provides
food security that regular imports fail to provide. However,
Security
Fig. 18 Energy security tradeoffs

in the GCC
Social/polical
acceptance
Health & climate

change
Cost saving
Fossil fuel based
Oil & gas savings

Nuclear and renewables

344
foreign direct investment in farmland remains an ethically

contentious topic, due to the lack of clear international laws
and oversight. Furthermore, while security might be provided
contractually through purchase or long-term leasing agreements, the actual food output of these lands is subject to
climatic conditions and the support of local populations.
6. Greater water efficiency in local food production: Given

the high rates of water use by the agricultural sectors of
GCC countries, increased irrigation efficiency coupled
with better crop choices will become a priority.
7. Greater investment in farmland abroad: Foreign direct
investment in farmland, particularly in Africa, is likely
to increase, especially as leasing contracts mature and
ensure security through greater stakeholder involvement
and oversight.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while the GCC countries face significant

challenges related to their water security, this reality also
presents numerous opportunities to utilize their current fossil
fuel wealth to make the necessary transitions that will ensure
their long-term water, food, and energy security.
The GCC states have seen tremendous changes in their recent

history, which has brought great prosperity to the region. However, the unprecedented population and economic growth that
occurred have not taken place void of challenges. The region
faces significant pressures on its water and food securitycurrently maintained directly or indirectly through its rich fossil fuel
reserves. As such, the GCC countries need to manage all three
sectors simultaneously to ensure that the region continues to
develop sustainably. Key trendsdiscussed often in the literature
and among government and industry expertsare currently
taking place or likely to take place in the near future that will
enable this transition. Such trends include the following:
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the United Nations

University-Institute for Water Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) for
their financial support to the lead author during 2011 that allowed for the
conduct of interviews with various experts in Qatar and the UAE that
ultimately inspired this paper. Special appreciation is extended to Mrs.
Hanneke Van Lavieren of UNU-INWEH for her invaluable support and
input.
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1. The decoupling of water and electricity production: While
cogeneration plants have traditionally been the norm in
GCC countries, due to the availability of free low-grade
steam and use of thermal desalination technologies, these
plants will eventually be phased out. The decoupling of
water and electricity production will allow for the introduction of renewable and nuclear energy into the energy
mix as well as more compact and energy-efficient desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis (Fig. 18).
2. Given the decoupling of the water and energy sectors, the
use of renewables and nuclear energy will grow in GCC
countries, particularly in conjunction with the production
of desalinated water for water security reasons.
3. Increased reliance on desalinated water for future needs:
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Gulf Water Security Paper-Final Paper

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J Environ Stud Sci (2014) 4:329346

Water security in the GCC countries:

Published online: 26 August 2014

Abstract The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) of Bahrain,

Keywords GCC . Water security . Desalination . Water

Author's personal copy

Population growth rate

3.58 % (2014 est.)

2.71 % (2014 est.)

2.49 % (2014 est.)

1.49 % (2014 est.)

2.06 % (2014 est.)

1.7 % (2014 est.)

5.5 % (2013 est.)

4.4 % (2013 est.)

3.6 % (2013 est.)

5.1 % (2013 est.)

2.3 % (2013 est.)

water security in GCC countries, it is imperative that a water

place in oil exploration throughout the Gulf region (Al-Faris

Water resources in GCC countries

Fig. 1 Population growth of the

United Arab Emirates

Author's personal copy

Annual water availability (Bm3/year)

Annual water usage

Natural renewable resources

The reliance on desalination technologies for meeting the

Author's personal copy

Cumulave installed capacity (m 3 /day)

Fig. 2 Cumulative installed

percentage of wastewater that is treated varies significantly

further confounded by the fact that even their internal water

Financial and environmental costs of water in GCC

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Water and energy subsidies in the GCC

Virtual water (Mm3/year)

Fig. 3 Virtual water imports and

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Water dependency (%)

growth in the GCC, suggesting GDP growth can continue even

Environmental cost of water production in GCC countries

The other input of concern in the desalination process is the

Fig. 5 Water demand forecast for

Water demand in Bcm

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Water Consumption Bcm/y

Fig. 6 Future water supply

Natural Water Used

spewed into the atmosphere annually in the Gulf. The Emirate of

ecological stress on the marine populations (Rezai et al.

Production cost (USD $)

Subsidization rate (%)

Bahrain Electricity and Water Authority (2014)

(GWI 2014) and Kahramaa (2014)

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J Environ Stud Sci (2014) 4:329346

Water supply management in GCC countries

studies on the cumulative impacts of desalination discharge in

Waterenergyfood nexus analysis of water security

Author's personal copy

Fig. 9 Relationship between the

projects (Al-Malki 2008). In 2009, Qatar initiated a 30-year