Malaysian Women Entrepreneurs : The Neglected Enterprising Selves

Ho Hui Ping
Supervisors
Professor Pervaiz K Ahmed
Dr Teh Pei Lee

1.

Introduction

1.1

Background of Study

Entrepreneurial activities have become a focal point of attention in many countries as they stimulate economic
development and employment opportunities.

Many governments have recognised the contribution of

entrepreneurial activities and have started to provide various forms of financial assistance and facilities to boost
entrepreneurship in their respective countries. Similarly, Malaysia, a country that aspires to become a developed
nation in 2020, has increasingly emphasised industrialisation as a way of promoting new business formation
(Abdullah, 2009). The plan Vision 2020 is considered as a social engineering project aimed at creating
Malaysian modernity through reconstructing Malaysian economy, society and identity (Furlow, 2009, p. 198).
The growth of new businesses in Malaysias small and medium enterprise (SME) sector is evidence of the
Malaysian governments dedication in encouraging entrepreneurial ventures (Zain, Akram & Ghani, 2010). SMEs
are recognised as the backbone of Malaysias long term industrial development programme (Zain et al., 2010, p.
35) as they are considered the mechanism in generating domestic-led investment, stimulating economic expansion
and increasing the job market for the country (Normah, 2007, p. 2).

SMEs in Malaysia represent 99.2% of over half a million business establishments in Malaysia. 80% of these SMEs
are micro enterprises (business organisations with less than 5 full time employees and RM200 thousand annual sales
turnover), and 86.5% of them are concentrated in the service sector (Bank Negara Malaysia [BNM], 2007a). SMEs
contribute 32.2% of Malaysias gross domestic product, 56.4% of employment and 19% of total export as of 2005
(BNM, 2007b). Given their magnitude in Malaysias economy, SME development has become a major economic
agenda for the Malaysian government and relevant policy makers.

1.2

SMEs in Malaysia: Male-dominated sector

Both men and women who desire to be self-employed undertake entrepreneurial activities. In the Malaysia SME
sector, womens participation in entrepreneurship and their economic contribution is minute when compared to men.
Among Malaysian SMEs, 16% or close to 83,000 businesses are owned by women entrepreneurs based on the
census in 2005 (Ministry of International Trade and Industry [MITI], 2009). This low representation of women
entrepreneurs makes Malaysias SME sector male dominant. Also, 89.5% of women-owned businesses in Malaysia
are in the service industry (MITI, 2009). Many of them provide services that are largely confined within the

Malaysian women entrepreneurs

feminine work scope. The services rendered by womens businesses include childcare and pre-school, beauty and
skin care, training and consultancy, property management, and insurance (Ministry of Women and Family
Development [MWFD], 2003).
Even though the rate of womens entrepreneurship is low, Malaysias government recognizes their potential
contribution to the countrys economy since women have started to participate in business, professional, managerial
and technical fields at an increasing rate (BNM, 2005). Various forms of support and assistance have been given by
the government to nurture female entrepreneurship. The support and assistance ranges from formulation of national
policy to encourage womens economic involvement (Ahmad, 1998) to business advice, financial funding and
entrepreneurial skill development (BNM, 2005). All these initiatives aim to reduce barriers and obstacles for
women to become entrepreneurs.

To further facilitate womens entrepreneurship, Malaysias government

established Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (MWFCD) in 2001, as an agency to promote
women to venture into businesses (BNM, 2005; Teoh & Chong, 2007), especially in the set up of sole-enterprises or
small partnership from home (BNM, 2005; Farida, 2004). Malaysian governments aspiration in developing an
additional 4,000 female entrepreneurs by 2012 is included in its fourth thrust of the National Key Result Area (MITI,
2009; MWFCD, 2009). Besides provision of financial assistance, The National Women Entrepreneurs Award
(NWEA) was jointly introduced and endorsed by MITI and MWFCD to recognise the achievement of women
entrepreneurs from various industries in Malaysia (MITI, 2009).
In addition to the Malaysian governments effort in encouraging female entrepreneurship, many womens nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), such as Federation of Women Entrepreneurs (FEM) and National Association
of Women Entrepreneurs Malaysia (NAWEM), provide networking opportunities and skill training programmes to
equip women entrepreneurs or other women with entrepreneurial intention the necessary pathway, knowledge and
competencies in establishing and running their small businesses. Programmes offered not only cover essential
business skills, such as formulating marketing strategies, packaging, labelling, but also technical skills like
hairdressing, cooking, and flower arrangement (Farida, 2004; The Star, 2010). From the programmes provided, it
may be inferred that women entrepreneurs lack business skills. The nature of trainings given to allow women
acquire new skills to start up their own business unfortunately seems to constrain them to female-related domain.

Low representation of women entrepreneurs in SME and confinement of womens entrepreneurship to micro,
female-related business field appear to be the current state of womens entrepreneurship in Malaysia. To fully
understand womens entrepreneurship in Malaysias SME sector, it is critical to examine experiences of women
entrepreneurs in this male-dominated area.

Women entrepreneurs are the minority.

Understanding of their

motivation to involve in self employment, and issues they face during business establishment and day-to-day
running of the businesses is likely to surface interesting insights into women entrepreneurship in Malaysia.

This proposed research aims to study the lived experiences of minority women entrepreneurs in Malaysia and how
these women come to make sense of their environment, their own existence and identity. The study targets women
entrepreneurs of three main ethnicities in Malaysia, i.e. the Malay, Chinese and Indian, as participants. Women
entrepreneurs social location is situated on the intersectionality of gender and ethnicity. Being a woman, these
women entrepreneurs do not enjoy equivalent social and economic status compared to men. In general, Malaysian
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

womens status is found not to be elevated in line with the level of economic progress in the country (Birks,
Chapman & Francis, 2009), despite their increasing involvement in employment and education that has resulted in
newer roles and positions. The fundamental gender relationship appears not to have changed, as women are still
primarily evaluated based on their feminine roles (Milwertz, 2009). This restriction on the basis of gender is further
accentuated by their respective ethnicity. Even though they are all Malaysian women, the three different ethnic
groups possess unique culture and views on women. The degree of hegemonic imposition on roles of women differs
across the ethnic groups according to their respective cultural values and norms.

Hence, women are not

homogeneous. Their ethnicity, together with other social categories such as class, religion, and so on affects how
they experience their lives (Letherby, 2003). Thus it is essential to study Malaysian women entrepreneurs with
consideration of their diverse background and diversity of experience.

This study will not only enable an

exploration of women entrepreneurship, but also provides an opportunity to use these womens experience as a lens
through which to examine Malaysian society as a whole. The research aims to build an in-depth understanding of
female entrepreneurial experience with the Malaysia context that either liberates or restrains women entrepreneurs in
their pursuance of self employment.

The rest of the proposal is structured as follows: the next section identifies and explains the research gaps in
entrepreneurship, particularly women entrepreneurship. It is followed by research questions and objectives that the
study intends to address. Several relevant critical social theories are briefly explained in order to provide a
theoretical lens to explore womens entrepreneurial phenomenon in Malaysia. Research methodology and time
frame to complete the study are provided towards the end of the proposal.

2.

Literature Review

Among the voluminous amount of research on entrepreneurship, several main issues and gaps can be identified as
follows:

2.1

Positivist and quantitative approach to research

Positivist or post-positivist approach to entrepreneurship (including womens entrepreneurship) remains dominant

(Calas, Smircich & Bourne, 2009; de Bruin, Brush & Welter, 2007; Hindle, 2004). The common approach in
studying entrepreneurship is by locating entrepreneurship exclusively as economic phenomena in market societies
(Calas et al., 2009, p. 552). To understand this entrepreneurship, realist ontology, positivist epistemologies
(Calas et al., 2009, p. 552) and theory-driven approach (Leitch, Hill & Harrison, 2009, p. 72) have self-assumed
hegemonic positions over interpretive or qualitative approach. Yet, quantitative survey, the preferred tool for
research among positivists and post-positivist, raises concern of adequacy in capturing the complexity and meaning
of entrepreneurship (Bruyat & Julien, 2001; Calas et al., 2009). Hindle (2004), Leitch et al. (2009) and Seymour
(2006) warn that the narrow perspective taken to study entrepreneurship poses a threat to the scholarly development
of the field of entrepreneurship.

In addition, Foss (2010) concurs that entrepreneurs, in any kinds of

entrepreneurship studies, are subjects with their own unique world view. It is thus important for researchers to
explore the entrepreneurs holistic practices and interpretive meaningful activities, cares and concerns, rather than
the entrepreneurs perceptions and judgements of material things (Seymour, 2006, p. 149). This understanding of
the entrepreneurs interpretation towards their world compels a qualitative research approach.

A positivist,

quantitative approach to study the entrepreneurs and their business venture fails to capture the true voice of
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

entrepreneurs and loses the opportunity to gain an insight into the entrepreneurs interpreted reality. The proposed
research of womens entrepreneurship follows up the call for qualitative approach in studying entrepreneurship. The
study proposes to use interpretive phenomenology as methodological lens. The unique features of phenomenology
and its suitability in studying womens entrepreneurship are explained in section 3 of this proposal.

2.2

Content-related phenomena

Another research gap in entrepreneurship study is its emphasis on entities (Rindova, Barry & Ketchen, 2009, p.
478) and content-related phenomena (Zahra, 2007, p. 448). Processes of entrepreneurial decisions and actions are
often neglected (Steyaert, 2007) largely because they are messy and difficult to capture in views of their cross and
multiple level of analysis (Rindova et al., 2009; Zahra, 2007). Entrepreneurship scholars have been urged to embark
on more process-oriented studies to enable a critical evaluation of variables and their impact on research findings
(Brush, de Bruin & Welter, 2009; Rindova et al., 2009; Steyaert, 2007; Zahra, 2007). Process-centred research is
likely to lead to development of new theories in entrepreneurship (Zahra, 2007).

This proposed study responds to the call by exploring entrepreneurial and sense-making process of entrepreneurial
engagement by Malaysian women entrepreneurs.

The study examines how women entrepreneurs respond to

contextual factors that are mostly outside of their control. It also looks into the societal, structural and cultural facets
that shape the women entrepreneurs perception of self and their behaviours. Contextual impacts and gendering of
entrepreneurship are seldom taken into account or they are made invisible in the research of womens
entrepreneurship (Ahl, 2006). The proposed research on the process of entrepreneuring and identity construction
will in this sense fill the research gap and contribute to theory development and entrepreneurship literature.

2.3

Western oriented and context deficient

A majority of the research is essentially Western oriented (US and Europe) with limited focus on emerging
economies (Bruton, Ahlstrom & Obloj, 2008; Naude, 2010). In a review of nine top academic journals from 1990 to
2006, it was found out that articles addressing entrepreneurship in emerging economies consists of a minute 0.5% of
total publication (Bruton et al., 2008). There is serious paucity in the entrepreneurship research of emerging
economies, particularly countries in Southeast Asia. A similar observation can be found in the study of womens
entrepreneurship in which White, Western women are the focal point of attention in womens entrepreneurship
research (Ahl, 2003). Women entrepreneurs from other cultures, contexts and their entrepreneurial ventures are
sidelined.

Entrepreneurship research is also found to be context-deficient (Brush et al., 2009; Jones & Treanor, 2011; Zahra,
2007) such that it disallows readers a better insight into entrepreneurship in a specific setting (Zahra, 2007).
Entrepreneurship is a complex phenomenon that not only involves individual and new venture creation, but also
dynamic interaction with the environment (Bruyat & Julien, 2001; Thornton, 1999). To understand entrepreneurship
in emerging economies, it is posited that provision of contextual nature of the economies, such as the social structure
that produces such entrepreneurial activities (Granovetter, 2002), enriches entrepreneurship research (Bruton et al.,
2008; Zahra, 2007). Entrepreneurs and their businesses do not operate in a vacuum. Entrepreneurial behaviours are
influenced by the historical background, socioeconomic and institutional environment in which the businesses locate
(Granovetter, 1992; Jones & Treanor, 2011). This claim is especially relevant to women entrepreneurs, and more so
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

in emerging and developing country context, because these womens freedom of choice is limited, as a consequence
of gender and social expectation on the roles of women (Bruni, Gherardi & Poggio, 2004a, 2004b; Brush et al., 2009;
de Beauvoir, 2006; Gerson & Peiss, 2004). For most women, their world is domestic, private (Gerson & Peiss, 2004)
and their main responsibilities is caring for others, especially their spouse and children, more than themselves
(OGrady, 2005). Their entrepreneurial behaviours are thus embedded in concrete, ongoing systems of social
relations (Granovetter, 1992, p. 6) in which day to day interactions result in sex-categorisation. Consequently,
womens entrepreneurial actions are guided by gender activities that are deemed appropriate to membership in the
sex category (West & Zimmerman, 1987).
To gain an in-depth understanding of womens entrepreneurial behaviours, prominent scholars of women
entrepreneurship such as Brush et al. (2009) and Ahl and Nelson (2010) advocate a consideration of social forces,
institutions and embeddedness in the study of gender and entrepreneurship. These promulgations on researching the
intricate links between entrepreneurship and contexts highlight that entrepreneurs and their businesses are an
outcome of social construction. Consequently, a study of women entrepreneurs in Malaysia cannot neglect the
contextual influence and the embedded nature of gender (Brush et al., 2009, p. 18). Ignorance of this contextual
impact on entrepreneurship results in studies that attribute women entrepreneurs obstacles and problems to
themselves personally rather than to the social and institutional causes, which affect conditions for running their
businesses (Ahl, 2006).
This proposed study of womens entrepreneurship incorporates the theoretical underpinning of social construction in
its exploration of cultural, social and structural impact on women entrepreneurs and their businesses. The study
aims to contribute to the entrepreneurship literature by engaging in a research of women entrepreneurs situated in an
under-studied context, Malaysia. History and heterogeneity of the Malaysian society complicates many issues
experienced by individuals and impinges their subsequent actions. Women entrepreneurship of three different
ethnicities, as proposed in this research, is an outcome of these contextual considerations. The research is a study
about intersectionality of gender and ethnicity within the Malaysias entrepreneurial environment.

Malaysian

women entrepreneurs similar yet different social locations produce different encounters of entrepreneurship. A
comparison of these entrepreneurs experience and their identities constitute an important study of cultural and
institutional impacts on their journey of self-employment. As explained in the introduction, there are within-gender
differences (Welch, Welch & Hewerdine, 2008, p. 116) among Malay, Chinese and Indian women entrepreneurs.
Women entrepreneurs cannot be studied as a homogeneous group.

2.4

Lack theoretical robustness

The lack of a meaningful theory is another common pitfall in entrepreneurship research (Zahra, 2007). Many
articles on entrepreneurship of emerging economies still heavily rely on established theories such as institutional
theory, resource-based view theory and transaction cost theory without careful consideration of their applicability in
the context of emerging economies (Bruton et al., 2008). Little attention has been paid to adaptation or even
alteration of established theories in order for the theories to be applied in emerging economy contexts (Bruton et al.,
2008; Zahra, 2007). Bruton et al. (2007) suggested that research of entrepreneurship in different contexts such as
emerging economies, enables entrepreneurship scholars a fresh insight to expand theory (p. 9).

Malaysian women entrepreneurs

Research on womens entrepreneurship is also found to lack theoretical grounding (Ahl, 2002, 2006; Brush, 1992;
Greene, Hart, Gatewood, Brush & Carter, 2003). Due to its novelty in entrepreneurship studies, most research of
women entrepreneurs is either descriptive or empirical but based on masculine frameworks. Brush (1992) reported
that one-third of the studies in her review were without theoretical base. Similar findings were concluded by Ahl
(2006) in which half of the research papers that she reviewed used empirical results from previous studies as the
basis of their framework. Greene et al. (2003) reported that 93% of the articles published in reviewed journals on
women entrepreneurs between 1976 and 2001 were empirical. This suggests a shortfall of studies developing
theoretical framework especially from a female and gender perspective.
Womens entrepreneurship should be studied by viewing gender as a construct of social identity, and gender should
be used as a critical lens rather than a variable (Brush et al., 2009; Welch et al., 2008).

In past research,

entrepreneurship is construed as a universal and agendered activity (Bruni et al., 2004a, p. 407).

Societal,

structural and cultural contexts that can shape individuals perception of self and determine their behaviours are
seldom taken into account, or they are made invisible in much of the past womens entrepreneurship research (Ahl,
2006). This theoretical gender blindness (Bruni et al., 2004a, p. 410) leads some researchers such as Brush et al.
(2009) to call for an expansion of existing theories that incorporate explanations for the distinctiveness of womens
entrepreneurship and give due recognition to the social context and embedded nature of gender (p. 18). This
calling is in line with recommendation made by de Bruin, Brush and Welters (2007) that womens entrepreneurship
research should utilise both generic and specific theoretical perspective and research approaches (p. 323) in order
to better understand women entrepreneurs.

This proposed research examines the situatedness of Malaysian women entrepreneurs and how their social locations
affect their self employment and identities.
entrepreneurship.

The research adopts a gender lens in the study of womens

It contributes to entrepreneurship theories by encompassing the theories within a social

constructionist domain, an approach that aims to treat women entrepreneurs as social category, rather than physical
variable (Haslanger, 2006).

In this research, gender in entrepreneurship is examined as a product of social

construction.

The above literature review identifies four main research gaps in entrepreneurship research. They include: (1)
emphasis on positivist and quantitative approach, (2) content related phenomena, (3) western-orientation and context
deficient, and (4) lack of theoretical application and robustness. To close these research gaps, this proposed research
will examine the entrepreneuring and sense-making process of women entrepreneurs in Malaysias SME sector.
The study raises several research questions and aims to achieve research objectives as stipulated in the next section.

3.

Research Questions and Objectives

The study focuses on Malaysian women entrepreneurship and asks the following research questions:
1. What is the entrepreneurial experience of women entrepreneurs in the Malaysian SME sector?
1a. Are the experiences of entrepreneurship affected by Malaysian context?
1b. Are the experiences of entrepreneurship affected by ethnic culture?
1c. To what extent do the experiences of entrepreneurship differ among the Malay, Chinese and Indian
women entrepreneurs?
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

2. What are the identities of Malaysias women entrepreneurs?

2a. How are women entrepreneurs identities constructed?
2b. To what extent do the identities differ among the Malay, Chinese and Indian women entrepreneurs?

The study aims to accomplish the following research objectives:

1. To explicate women entrepreneurs experience within the Malaysian context.
2. To identify personal, collective and institutional identities of women entrepreneurs.
3. To explore cultural, social and structural impact on the entrepreneurial experience and identity construction
of women entrepreneurs.
4. To identify emancipatory and restraining factors of entrepreneurship faced by women entrepreneurs.
5. To compare and contrast entrepreneurial identities and experiences among the Malay, Chinese and Indian
women entrepreneurs.

To answer the questions and achieve its objectives, the proposed research necessitates a theoretical framework that
goes beyond the bounds of mainstream economics and management discourse.

Bringing to bear a social

constructionist perspective, this study engages several social theories that are deemed pertinent in exploring the
phenomenon of womens entrepreneurship and their identity construction in Malaysia. These theories include
identity theory, social identity theory, theory of structuration and disciplinary society. Even though these theories
are highly westernised, they provide essential theoretical groundings for researching an under-studied social
phenomenon, womens entrepreneurship in emerging country context.

These social theories also help to

conceptualise modernity in non-western contexts (Brooks, 2006, p. 211). The theories and their significance in
examining womens entrepreneurship are briefly explained in the sections below.

4.

Theoretical framework: Structuration of entrepreneurship and disciplinary power

As expounded above, any research on women entrepreneurs should not negate the cultural, social and institutional
influence on the womens business formation, continuation and performance. To understand these contextual
impacts on women entrepreneurs and their behaviours, a social constructionist approach is adopted in the study.
This proposed research draws upon critical social theories of Anthony Giddens and Michel Foucault in its pursuance
of knowledge of womens entrepreneurship in Malaysia. It also embarks on an inquiry of the entrepreneurs
identities using identity theory, which addresses individual role distinctiveness, and social identity theory that
incorporates belongingness to a group (Hogg, Terry & White, 1995).
Social constructionist approach to entrepreneurship research emphasises the process of structuration (Steyaert,
2007, p. 462). The process of structuration highlights interrelationship between social actors (agency) and their
environment (structure). Giddens promulgates the concept of duality of structure (Siedman, 2008). He conceives
that a mutually entangled relationship exists between agency and structure. Individuals in the society create rules
and resources, i.e. the structure, to govern behaviours and enable social order. However, the same structure, which
has become social practices that get integrated into social systems and institutions, in turn, constraints individuals
actions (Downing, 2005; Siedman, 2008).

Nevertheless, Giddens recognises individuals as knowledgeable,

reflexive and skilful agents (Siedman, 2008, p. 139) who are capable of modifying the structure and shaping their
own lives. This involves reflexivity, which in the words of Argyrou (2003), is to know why one does what one
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

does in different social situations (p. 34). The process of structuration is thus a recursive process with an
interactive feedback loop that ties the agency and the structure closely.

To study Malaysian womens entrepreneurship proposed in this research, it is posited that the researcher needs to
consider both agency (the women entrepreneurs of SME sector) and structure (Malaysian and ethnic context) in
order to examine the intricate relationship between them. If Malaysian women entrepreneurs are reflexive agents, as
claimed by Giddens, their entrepreneurial encounters are shaped by the contextual factors unique to Malaysia and
their ethnicities. Women entrepreneurs and their businesses are thus embedded in the context. On the other hand,
the entrepreneurs themselves, upon reflecting on their own selves, businesses and the environment, can assert their
influence in the social systems and institutions. This study aims to answer how womens entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurial identities are mutually affected and constructed by contextual factors. Giddens structuration theory
provides a useful frame in exploring the relationship between the women entrepreneurs and the contexts. Ultimately,
the research seeks to know who is doing the constructing (of identity) and to what end (Dirlik, 1997, p. 319).
In addition to Giddens structuration theory, this study incorporates Foucaults notion of disciplinary society to
explore how social behaviours are normalised through disciplinary social order (Siedman, 2008, p. 181). Foucault
saw disciplinary power in everyday life, every form of relation and every aspect of individuals experience
(Hofmeyr, 2006). Foucaults concept of power is not restricted to the state sovereignty, the law or ruling social elite,
rather he insisted that power exists everywhere, as a consequence of complex strategical situation in a particular
society (Hofmeyr, 2006, p. 219). Thus, power is multidirectional (Manias & Street, 2000), diffuse, local and
unstable (Hofmeyr, 2006, p. 219). When there is power, there is resistance and freedom.
Research on Malaysian women entrepreneurs requires an examination of latent disciplinary power in Malaysias
society. Following Foucaults explanation, power relationship exists between women entrepreneurs and the others,
such as the state, the other gender, the other ethnic groups, their family members, business partners and any
individuals whose interaction with the entrepreneurs constitutes a social practice or norm that regulates each others
behaviours. Take gender as an example: doing gender is considered pervasive in humans everyday life guiding
womens and mens actions. It is manifestation of respective power and social control that lead to the process of
dividing women and men into different spheres with different identities and behaviour (Lorber, 1998).
Consequently, both women and men are products of self-constitution guided by latent gender power aiming at
maintaining social orders. The process of self constitution, which in Foucaults concept, is proposed, suggested
and imposed on by his(/her) culture, his(/her) society and his(/her) social group (Hofmeyr, 2006, p. 222). The
concept is in line with social constructionist perspective adopted in this research.

The next section explains the research methodology to be used in the study.

5.

Research Methodology

5.1

Interpretive, social constructionist approach

To examine entrepreneurial process and identity construction of Malaysian women entrepreneurs of SME sector, the
research adopts an interpretive approach that emphasises the research participants sense making of ones self and
her entrepreneurial endeavour. The study adopts a life-world perspective in order to delve into the deeper layer
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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

(Zwart, 2007, p. 196) of contextual impact on womens entrepreneurship and the inner souls (Zahra, 2007, p. 451)
of these entrepreneurs. Bringing to bear a social constructionist paradigm, gender lens and critical social theories,
this research uses interpretive (hermeneutic) phenomenological approach to explore the social phenomenon of
womens entrepreneurship in Malaysia.

5.2

Interpretive phenomenology

Interpretive (hermeneutic) phenomenology as propounded by Heidegger sits in contrast to Husserls descriptive

(transcendental) phenomenology (Lopez & Willis, 2004; Lowes & Prowse, 2001).

Heideggers interpretive

phenomenological approach focuses on rich description of experience of the life-world, and the interpretive basis of
all understanding (McConnell-Henry, Chapman & Francis, 2009). Heidegger views bracketing (a suspension of the
researchers preconception of the research topic) as impossible because researchers are a part of being-in-theworld that makes it difficult to achieve an absolute objectivity in their inquiry of someones experience
(Whimpenny & Gass, 2000). Researchers adopting Heideggerian approach to research recognise the impact of
context on how individuals experience the world. The term lifeworld is used by Heidegger to express the idea that
all individuals are a part of the world and their views on reality are influenced by the world in which they live
(Lopez & Willis, 2004).

Therefore in Heideggerian phenomenological inquiry, researchers focus on how

participants experience the subjective world with an appreciation of how the holistic context can impact the
participants. At the same time, the researcher acknowledges that his or her own beliefs and preconceptions affect
how he or she conducts the research (Lowes & Prowse, 2001).

This proposed study focuses on Malaysian women entrepreneurs of SME sector, essentially the process of women
entrepreneurs identity construction through their entrepreneurial encounters in the cultural, social and structural
context of Malaysia.

Interpretive phenomenological research focuses on a participants sense-making and

interpretation, identity, sense of self and bodily feeling within lived experience (Smith & Eatough, 2007, p. 38).
Thus, using this phenomenological approach to study womens entrepreneurship in Malaysia enables the researcher
to listen to the voice of women entrepreneurs. The role of the researcher is, therefore, to access the women
entrepreneurs experience, interpret and uncover the experience, and co-create meaning with the women
entrepreneurs in order to create nuanced understanding of entrepreneurship in the SME sector.

5.3

Data collection method

To facilitate collection of true stories of Malaysian women entrepreneurs, in-depth interviews with semi-structured,
open-ended questions are to be used. The interviews will aim to capture thick and rich stories of the women
entrepreneurs experience, mainly their interpretation of the lived experience and their entrepreneurial identities.
Both the researcher and women entrepreneurs will engage in a dialogue during the interviews.

This is an

interactional process which is considered appropriate in interpretive phenomenological study (Cope, 2005).

Interviews are to be conducted in the offices of the women entrepreneurs or at a public area agreed by the
entrepreneurs. This arrangement is ideal as the familiar settings allow the entrepreneurs to feel comfortable and be
more open. During data collection, emotion and body language of the entrepreneurs is also to be observed to further
understand the meaning provided in the dialogue. The researcher will keep field notes to record what she hears, sees,
experiences and thinks during the interview.

Field notes will enable the researcher to reflect on her own

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Malaysian women entrepreneurs

preconceptions and her effect in the interview (Malterud, 2001). The interviews are to be recorded with the consent
of the entrepreneurs to facilitate subsequent transcription and data analysis.

5.4

Sampling strategy and sample size

The proposed research will utilize two interrelated nonrandom (or non probabilistic) sampling techniques to identify
women entrepreneurs as its participants. Nonrandom sampling technique is considered appropriate for a qualitative
research (Marshall, 1996). The two techniques are judgment sampling and snowball sampling.

Judgment sampling occurs when the researcher actively chooses the most relevant participants for the purpose of the
study (Marshall, 1996). The participants are chosen based on the judgment of the researcher (Black, Asafu-Adjaye,
Khan, Perera, Edwards & Harris, 2007) and the process of selection is purposeful (Cope, 2005). In this proposed
study, Malaysian women entrepreneurs of Malay, Chinese and Indian descent who operate a business in the SME
sector are the targeted research participants.
entrepreneurship in the Malaysian context.

These women possess specific field knowledge and experience

Complement judgment sampling, the research will use snowball

sampling. Snowball sampling is used when other women entrepreneurs are referred by the interviewed participants
(Black et al., 2007). This snowballing method is particularly useful when it is difficult to identify the right
respondents to the research (Black et al., 2007).
Since the research purpose is to have an in-depth understanding of the women entrepreneurs lived experience and
sense-making, this research will continue to sample women entrepreneurs until the research questions can be
adequately analysed. Theoretical sampling is to be used to ensure data saturation. It is estimated that data saturation
can be reached within the first twelve interviews with women entrepreneurs of respective ethnicity (Guest, Bunce &
Johnson, 2006).

6.

Significant contribution

The proposed research of womens entrepreneurship aims to address the issues and fill the gaps in research of
entrepreneurship as explained in section 2. By undertaking an investigation of womens entrepreneurship operating
in Malaysias SMEs sector, the study hopes to generate several contributions to entrepreneurship literature. These
contributions are:
1. Theoretical: the proposed study adopts a social constructionist paradigm with gender, critical social
perspective rather than agendered, economic, management perspective to study women entrepreneurs;
2. Contextual: the study will be conducted in Malaysia, an understudied and unique context, and
3. Methodological: the research undertakes qualitative, phenomenological research rather than quantitative,
positivist approach to investigate lived experiences.

It is believed that this phenomenological study of Malaysian women entrepreneurs can provide new insights into the
Malaysian context and its nuanced nature of entrepreneurship in the SME sector.

7.

Timeline to completion

Malaysian women entrepreneurs

The following table highlights the proposed activities and milestones in the pursuance of this proposed research
topic. It is expected that the proposed study of Malaysian womens entrepreneurship could be completed within
three years.

2012
Activities

Q3

2013
Q4

Q1

2014
Q2

Q3

Q4

Q1

2015
Q2

Q3

Q4

Q1

Q2

Drafting Literature review

Drafting Methodology
Ethics application
Confirmation of Candidature
Finalising Literature Review
Finalising Methodology
Data Collection - Interview
Data Analysis
Milestone Reporting
Drafting Results
Drafting Discussion
Finalising Thesis
Thesis Review & Submission

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References
Abdullah, S. (2009). The transformation from entrepreneurship to technology entrepreneurship development in
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