the subject uses the instrument. The instrument should be reliable. The content of
the instrument must be appropriate to test the hypothesis or answer the question
being studied. The instrument should be valid.Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument
13. The researcher may need to read extensively to identify which aspects of the
theory are appropriate for investigation. The instrument should not contain
measures that function as hints for desired responses. A good instrument is free of
build-in clues. The instrument should be free of bias.Guidelines for Developing an
Instrument
14. The researcher should gather a group of items from such sources as persons
knowledgeable in the field, accepted theories or hypotheses, personal experience,
or material from studies reported in books and professional journals. The
researcher should gather a group of items from such sources. The researcher,
through the instrument, must be able to gather data that are appropriate in order to
test the hypothesis or to answer the question under investigation.Guidelines for
Developing an Instrument
15. Therefore, the respondent who agrees to participate in a study is responsible
for supplying information or for exhibiting behavior that is truly his own. The
response given by each respondent in the research study should solely be his own.
There should be no contamination through outside influences, such as someone
elses ideas or products.Guidelines for Developing an Instrument
8. Survey Approach
1. Questionnaire
1. A series of questions designed to elicit information, which is filled in by all participants in
the sample. 2. This can be gathered either by oral interview or by written questionnaire.
3. This is the most common type of research instrument
Advantages of a Questionnaire 1. Relatively simple method of obtaining data. 2. Less time is
consumed. 3. Researcher is able to gather data from a widely scattered sample.
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire 1. Responses to a questionnaire lack depth.2. Respondent
may omit or disregard any item he chooses.3. Some items may force the subject to select
responses that are not his actual choice.4. Length of the questionnaire is limited according to
the respondents interest.5. Printing may be costly especially if it is lengthy.6. Data are limited
to the information that is voluntarily supplied by the respondents.7. Some items maybe
misunderstood.8. The sample is limited to those who are literate.
26. This offers more than one choice. Example: How favorable is it to you to
become pregnant at this time? ___ Very favorable ___ Favorable ___ Not sure ___
Unfavorable ___ Very unfavorable This requires the respondent to make a choice
between two responses such as yes/no, male/female, or married/unmarried.
Example: Have you been ligated? ___ Yes ___ No 2. Multiple questions Specific
Types of Closed-ended Question: 1. Dichotomous questions
27. Example: People have different views on family planning, which of the
following best represent your views? ___1. Family planning is necessary to quality
life. ___2. Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned. ___3. Family
planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution. ___4. Family
planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice. ___5. Family planning is moral
and should be practiced. A special type of multiple-choice question. The
respondents are asked to select a response according to their own point of view. 3.
Cafeteria questions
28. Example: Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your answers from the
1-most reasonable to 5-least reasonable? ___Limits maternal disabilities. ___Gives
parents more time to meet family needs. ___Helps maintain financial viability of the
family. ___Affords more working hours for couples. ___Ensures family capability to
educate all the children in the future. The respondents are asked to choose a
response from the most to the least. 4. Rank-Order questions
29. Example: On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means
strongly agree, the Health Center in Barangay A provides you the necessary
services. Scale ___ 5 - Strongly agree ___ 4 - Agree ___ 3 - Uncertain ___ 2 - Disagree
___ 1 - Strongly disagree This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points
specifying the opposite extremes of a continuum. The respondents are asked to
judge something along an ordered dimension. 5. Rating questions
30. 2. Checklist
31. These are items that comprise several questions on a topic and require the
same response format.2. Checklist
32. Example: Here are some characteristics of birth-control devices that are of
varying importance to different people. How important are the following in choosing
a birth-control method? Characteristic of birth- Of very Of great Of some Of no
control device great importance importance importance Importan ce 1. Comfort 2.
Cost 3. Ease of Use 4. Effectiveness 5. Noninterference of spontaneity 6. Safety 7.
Safety to partner
33. 3. Interview
43. Adva Disadvantages of Records1. All the researcher can have is what is there.
If the record is incomplete, there is no way it can be completed.2. No one can be
sure of the conditions under which the records were collected.3. There is no
assurance of the accuracy of the records.ntages of Records1. Records are
unbiased2. Records often cover a long period of time3. Inexpensive
44. 6. Experimental Approach
45. Researcher controls the independent variable A powerful design for testing
hypothesis of causal relationships among variables. 6. Experimental Approach &
Two Groups of Experimental Approach 1. Treatment / Experimental group 2. Control
groupwatches the effect on the dependent variable.
46. Advantages of Experimental Approach1. It is difficult to minimize all the
variables in which the control and experimental groups might differ.2. Causal
relationships are difficult if not impossible to establish.3. The time element may
confound the results of experimental research.4. In an experimental laboratory
setting it may be difficult to obtain subjects, especially subjects who are unaware of
the experiment
47. 7. Survey Approach
48. Advantages of Survey Approach 1. Can provide information about the
possibilities of undertaking different types of research methods. 3. Provides data
about the present. 5. Has a high degree of representativeness. 7. Easy to get
respondents and information often do not express their true reactions to the
questions. Another name is FORMULATIVE OR EXPLORATORY research. Nonexperimental type in which the researcher investigates a community or a group of
people. 7. Survey Approach
49. Disadvantages of Survey Approach 1. Yields a low degree of control over
extraneous variables. 2. Verbal behavior is quite unreliable and that people
50. MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
51. specific number to the collected data (Massey, 1991). Measurement is the
process by which the researcher assignsMEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
52. Nominal level variables include sex, marital status and health status In relation
to marital status, 0 might represent single and 1 married. Example: ASSIGNING
A CODE TO LABEL This level includes assignment of numbers simply to classify
characteristics into categories. Levels of Measurement1. Nominal level (the lowest
level)
53. represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc.) Data are categorized and ranked,
ordered from most to least: according to frequency of occurrence as explained by
Dr. Barrientos-Tan. This permits the sorting of objects on the basis of their standing
on an attribute relative to each other. Levels of Measurement2. Ordinal level (the
second lowest level)
54. 1. Likert scale2. Guttman scale3. Graphic Rating Scale4. Semantic Differential
Scale
55. anxiety levels measured on a Likert scale Fahrenheit and centigrade
temperatures Example: Use of mode, median, mean do not have an absolute or
rational zero point. This occurs when the researcher can specify both the rankordering of objects attribute and the distance between those objects. Levels of
Measurement3. Interval level (the second highest level)
56. The ratio level has a rational, meaningful zero.Levels of Measurement4. Ratio
level (the highest level)
57. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
58. refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it is designed to
measure. Validity means the degree of consistency and accuracy with which an
instrument measures a variable. Reliability RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF
MEASUREMENT
59. Testing Validity of Data Collection
60. There are three categories of testing the validity of a data collection
instrument.2. Self-evident measures3. Pragmatic MeasuresTesting Validity of Data
Collection
61. The researcher typically verifies this by conducting a literature review to
determine which content should be covered and by asking experts to evaluate the
instruments representativeness of the content. relies on the assurance that you
can demonstrate an adequate coverage of the known field. the researcher
typically verifies face validity by asking experts to evaluate the instruments intent.
1.2 Content validity most basic level, when little or nothing is known about the
variable being measured; refers to the fact that the instrument appears what it is
supposed to measure. 1.1 Face validity (VALIDITY OF THE OBSERVER) Self-evident
measures
62. Construct validity Predictive validity Concurrent validity Thus attempting to
answer the question, Does it work? the procedure essentially tests the practical
value of a particular research instrument or tool Pragmatic Measures
63. Note that with concurrent validity, the two measures are taken at the same
time. Ex. a measure of job satisfaction might be correlated with work performance.
Researcher typically validates concurrent validity by using the instrument in
conjunction with a second instrument already known to be valid. refers to the
extent to which an instrument can accurately identify subjects that differ with
respect to a given characteristic. Concurrent validity
64. the researcher commonly validates this by using the instrument, then
comparing the results with some future outcomes. to predict some future
occurrences. Predictive validity
65. is related to the theoretical ideas behind the personality trait under
consideration useful mainly for measuring the traits or feelings such as generosity,
grief or satisfaction. Construct validity
66. Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument
67. Repeated observations Test / Retest There are two categories for tests of
stability: This refers to the extent to which the same results are obtained with
repeated use of an instrument The best indicator of an instruments reliability.
Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument1. Stability
68. This refers to the consistency of the results by different investigators or similar
tests at the same time. This refers to the extent to which all parts of the
measurement techniques are measuring the same concept.3. Test of Equivalence
Testing the Reliability of Research Instrument2. Internal consistency