Technical Assessment of Finite Element

Software for modelling manufacturing

processes
Rushabh J Voraa, Mohammed A Sheikh b
a

Wolfson School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University,

Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK. Email: - r.vora@lboro.ac.uk
b
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Manufacturing Engineering, UMIST, P.O. Box 88,
Manchester M60 1QD, UK
Abstract: Finite element analysis is a technique where a complex region defining a
continuum is discretised into finite elements. The behavior of each element is predicted by
mathematical equation whose summation approximately simulates the actual response of the
Part. Finite element method has steadily increased its importance in simulation of
manufacturing processes as the benefits of determining the effects of various process
parameters on computer has decreased the shop floor trials. The objective of the paper is to
do technical assessment of finite element softwares like DEFORM for modelling
manufacturing processes. DEFORM is a simulation system whose application ranges from
various forming and heat treatment processes used in metal forming industry. Factors like
softwares capability in handling object geometries, range of material available in the
database, its control over process parameters and simulation were investigated. The
assessment was made on the basis of the efficacy of the software for particular process and
results obtained. Accuracy was checked directly by comparing the results with the shop floor
trials.

1. Introduction
In the late 1970s and early 1980s the use of computer-aided techniques (Computer
aided engineering, design and manufacturing) in metal forming industry has
increased considerably [1]. However, accurate determination of various process
parameters became possible only when finite element method was developed [2].
Finite Element Formulation for deformation analysis of metal forming processes
Discretization of a finite element problem consists of the following steps: Description of the finite element: The geometry of an element, in general, is
uniquely defined by a finite number of nodal points. The shape and the order of
shape functions characterize the element to produce an element strain-rate matrix
and an element stiffness equation.
A set of nodal point velocities in vector form is represented as:

vT = { 1 , 2 , , n }

(1)

where n = total number of freedoms in the model.

The shape functions for the element defines an admissible velocity field locally in
terms of velocities of associated nodes. For example, for a two-dimensional 4-

noded rectangular element, admissible velocity fields can be defined uniquely over
the element by the shape functions (N) and the nodal velocity components as:

u x ( , ) = q ( , )u x( )

(2)

u y ( , ) = q ( , )u (y )

(3)

Setting up of a global system of equations: The element equations can be assembled

to give:
(4)
Kv = f
where K is the stiffness matrix; v represents the nodal velocities corrections; and f
is the residual nodal point force vector [3]
Applying the contact boundary conditions: The total surface S is given by:
S = S u + Sf + Sc

(5)

where Su and Sf define the parts of surface where velocities and tractions are
prescribed. Sc is the contact surface between the tool (master) and the work-piece
(slave).
Friction conditions at die metal interface greatly influence metal flow, formation of
surface and internal defects, stresses acting on dies, and load and energy
requirements. In order to evaluate the performance of various lubricants and to
predict forming pressures, it is necessary to express this interface friction in terms
of a factor or a coefficient. The friction shear stress, fs, is expressed by Coulomb
law as: f S = p , where is the friction coefficient, and p = compressive normal
stress at the interface (or die pressure). Friction can also be expressed as f S = mk ,
where m is the friction factor ( 0 m 1 ), and k is the shear strength of the
deforming material
For numerical calculations, the frictional stress ( f S ) and the relative sliding
velocity ( u S ) are modelled by:

f S = mk

2
u
uS
mk tan 1 S
uS
u0

(6)

where u 0 is the initial velocity.

It is assumed that the relative sliding velocity u S can be approximated in the terms
of nodal values S by using shape functions as:

uS = q S

(7)

Solution of the global system of equations: From a variation formulation, and

arbitrariness of I

=
I
j I

= 0
( j )

(8)

, I are the nodal velocities and their variations respectively; (j): the jth
element.
The above stiffness equation is generally nonlinear and the solution is obtained by
employing an iterative procedure such as the Newton-Raphson method. Here, on
linearization by Taylor expansion

2

+
J = 0

I = 0 I J = 0
Or Kv = f

(9)

where v 0 is the Assumed velocity (updated according to v 0 + v ); K: Stiffness

matrix; f: residual of the nodal force vector.
Time increment and geometry updating: The deformed geometry of the work-piece
in the case of two dimensions is obtained by updating the co-ordinates of the nodes
(Lagrangian mesh system) by:

xi (t 0 + t ) = xi (t 0 ) + u xi + t
y i (t 0 + t ) = y i (t 0 ) + u iy + t

(10)

where, ( x i , y i ): Co-ordinates of node i ,

t 0 = Time at current configuration and

t = Time increment.
The strains are updated in a similar manner from the strain-rate solution [2].

2. Software - DEFORM
DEFORM (Design Environment for Forming) is an engineering software that
enables designers to analyse metal forming processes [3]. It is an implicit software
code and follows a Lagrangian approach for updating the algorithm.
DEFORM 3D (Version 4.0) is used for three-dimensional simulations; DEFORM
2D models axi-symmetric and plain strain problems; DEFORM PC-PRO and
DEFORM PC are variants for simulations on personal computers, DEFORM HT
provides heat treatment process simulation capability, and DEFORM TOOLS adds
to the overall presentation capability of the DEFORM system.

DEFORM 2D and 3D are available on all popular UNIX platforms (HP, SGI, SUN,
DEC and IBM), as well as, on PCs running Windows NT.

3. Applications
Non-isothermal spike forging

A benchmark problem of non-isothermal spike forging is analysed for determining

the stresses in the dies. It is selected here to explore the capability of DEFORM-3D
in forging and die stress analysis [3].
The height of the billet is taken as 2.25 inch and the top die velocity is set at of 2
in/sec. The top die and the bottom pad are meshed and imported from IDEAS. The
billet, on the other hand, has been meshed in DEFORM itself.
Dies are made up of H-13 whilst the material of the billet is AISI 1025. The
temperature of the billet is 20000F and the temperatures of top and bottom dies are
3000F and 4000F respectively.
After importing object geometries, meshing, and defining the boundary condition,
the inter-object relationships are defined as per Table 1.
Object

Relation

Billet-top
die
Billet
Bottom die

SlaveMaster
SlaveMaster

Shearfriction
0.3

Heat-transfer
Coefficient
0.004

0.3

0.004

Table 1. Inter-object interface

The initial step for the spike forging problem is shown in Figure [1].

Figure 1. The Initial Step

Figure 2. Temperature Profile

Figure 3. Load vs. Stroke

The results are obtained for various state variables such as strain, strain rate,
effective stress and temperature. From the load/ stroke curve Figure [3], the total
load required at the top die to deform the billet was observed. The temperature
profile at the end of 10 steps (defined for the simulation) is shown in Figure [2]
Here, the maximum and minimum temperatures are 20000F and 15100F
respectively. The load/stroke graph of Figure [3] shows that the load gradually rises
with the maximum (19.4 klb) at the end of the last step. This represents the
maximum force required for the deformation. Through a sensitivity study of various
other parameters it was found that the main factor, which affect the load of the press
is the coefficient of friction between the billet and the bottom die. A reduction in
the value of the friction coefficient from 0.3 to 0.1 would significantly change the
maximum load.
On examining the temperature profile in Figure [2], greater chilling is seen at the
contacts between the dies and the billet. This effect should be minimized and in
order to lower the forging loads.
The effective stress distribution for the billet is shown in Figure [4]. It can be seen
that maximum stress of 37.1 ksi occurs in region A which is in direct contact with
the top die. For further examination of effective stress in this region the billet is also
sliced in a plane normal to the billet and oriented to view the cross-section of the
billet.
Die stress analysis

The stresses which are developed in the dies at the end of the above forging process
are now analysed for the integrity assessment of the dies. The work-piece is
removed and the forces exerted on the dies by the work-piece are interpolated.

Figure 4. Effective stress

Figure 5. Die stress analysis

The effective stress distribution within the dies is shown in Figure [5], where the
regions of high stress have been marked. The maximum stress in the die is 31.8 ksi
(220 MPa). This is much lower than the yield stress value of 372 MPa for H-13 (die
material) and is thus acceptable.

4. Discussion
DEFORM is a reliable software in metal forming industry. The forging and die
stress analysis was performed effectively, where DEFORM was able to estimate the
forging loads and the stresses in dies at the end of the simulation.
Application ranges from forging, extrusion, machining, die stress analysis, cogging,
glass pressing, shape rolling, drilling to predicting phase transformation, ductile
fracture, micro structural evolution, machining distortion & chip morphology.

DEFORM has separate templates for extrusion, cogging (DEFORM 3D) and
Hammer, machining, and rolling (DEFORM 2D), due to which process can be
simulated very accurately and in less pre-processing time.
Advantages of the software are in its wide range of application and its user friendly
graphic user interface. Important features include its extensive material database,
capability to create user defined material data input, good geometry handling
capability, and good control over process parameters. DEFORM is capable to
produce accurate results which rages from stresses, strains, temperatures, Loadstroke information, point tracking as well die strain, grain flow, material flow, die
fill, defect formation and ductile fracture.
The software is still being developed in the areas of rotary forming and extrusion
processes. As DEFORM uses solid elements, it is hard to simulate thin surfaces
made up of shell elements. It is a straight forward application to the metal forming
industry and so not much suitable for solving structural and dynamic problem.

5. Conclusions
The areas of application of the Finite Element Method to model manufacturing
processes are potentially broad. It can be used for the simulation of many complex
processes where theoretical analysis of the process parameters would be difficult.
DEFORM is an example of some effective finite element programs developed for
metal forming, ring rolling and roll forming processes respectively. It can be
inferred from the paper that DEFORM is capable to simulate metal forming
processes effectively.
References
[1] Kalpakjian, S. Manufacturing processes for engineering materials, Addison-Wesley, NY,
1991.
[2] Kobayashi. S, Soo-Ik Oh, and Altan, T. Metal forming and finite element method,
Oxford University Press, NY, 1989.
[3] Scientific Forming Technologies Corporation, DEFORM-3D, V 4.0, Columbia, Ohio,
60 RPM
1993.
[4] SHAPE-RR User Manual V 1.3, SHAPE Co. Ltd (Korea).
[5] www.imsteel.com/h13.htm, Sept. 2003.
[6] Zienkiewicz, O C. The Finite Element Method in Engineering science, McGraw-Hill,
Maidenhead, 1971.
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