Dynamic Symmetry in Nature and Architecture

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DYNAMICSYMMETRYINNATUREANDARCHITECTURE
OlehBodnar
DoctorofArtStudies,ProfessorofLvivNationalAcademyofArts,
Lviv,Ukraine,2010
Abstract
The phenomenon of dynamic symmetry in botanical, the socalled philotaxian, systems is investigated. A mathematical
modelofphylotaxisgroundedonMinkovsky'sgeometry,aswellastheoriginaltrigonometricapparatusbaseduponthe
golden ratio, are developed. Constant values of phylotaxis dynamic symmetry are defined. The principle of dynamic
symmetryinarchitecture,formulatedbyD.Hambidge,aswellasarchitectLeCorbusier'sModulorproportionalsystem,
aredescribedintermsofphilotaxismathematics.
ThetermdynamicsymmetrywasforthefirsttimeappliedbytheAmericanarchitectureresearcherJ.Hambidgetoa
certain principle of proportioning in architecture [11]. Later this term independently appeared in physics where it was
introducedtodescribephysicalprocessesthatarecharacterizedbyinvariants[10].Finally,inthegivenresearchtheterm
dynamic symmetry is applied to regularity of natural formshaping that in terms of origin also appears not to be
connectedwithHambidge'sidea,and,moreover,appearanceofthisterminphysics.However,allthethreevariantsare
deeplyinterconnectedintermsoftheirmeaningwhichwearegoingtoshow.
Atfirst,wepointoutstrategicsimilarityofHambidge'sandourresearches.Thisisawellknownhistoricaldirection
whichinthefieldofarchitectureandartismotivatedbythesearchforharmonyregularitiesand,thus,isaimedatstudying
theobjectsofnature.Usuallyarchitectstakeinterestinthestructuralregularitiesofnaturalformshapingand,particularly,
in the golden section and Fibonacci numbers which are regularities standing out by their intriguing role in architectural
formshaping.Itisnotaccidentallythatarchitectswhodoresearchessofrequentlypayattentiontobotanicalphenomenon
phyllotaxiswhichischaracterizedbytheseregularities.
PhyllotaxiswasthefocusofattentionofJ.Hambidgewhoistheauthorofthefirstvariantofthedynamicsymmetry
concept.Whilestudyingthisphenomenon,J.Hambidgeintroducesalawofthesocalleduniformgrowthandsuggestsits
geometricalinterpretationspiralofuniformgrowthor,inotherwords,goldenspiral(Fig.1).
Fig.1.BuildingthegoldenspiralaccordingtoHambidge.
However, the most important generalization of Hambidge that resulted from his studying the regularities of natural
formbuilding(phyllotaxis)aswellasproportionsofclassicalarchitecturecomestotheideaofarchitecturalproportioning
thatiscalleddynamicsymmetry.J.Hambidgedemonstratesitbymeansofsimplegeometricalscheme(Fig.2).
http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/BOD2010/
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Fig.2.ProportionalsystemDynamicsymmetrybyJ.Hambidge.
Thissuccessivesystemofrectanglesthefirstofwhichisasquareandthenextsuccessiveoneisbuiltonthesideofthe
originalsquareequalto7andthediagonalofthepreviousrectangle.Thus,theseriesofrectanglesisformedwiththeratio
ofsidesexpressingtheseries
.InthisseriesHambidgedifferentiatestwotypesofrectanglesstatic
and dynamic. Static rectangles have their side ratios expressed in integers while dynamic ones in irrational numbers.
AccordingtoHambidge,dynamicrectanglesexpresstheideaofgrowth,motionanddevelopment.Amongsuchrectangles
he distinguishes three rectangles which long sides equal
rectangle
. However, he pays particular attention to the
which is directly connected with the golden rectangle
Hambidge conducts thorough
geometricalresearchdiscoveringvariousmanifestationsofthegoldensectioninthesystemofrectangle
.Studying
thegeometricalfeaturesofthisrectangleheillustratesthepossibilityofapplyingittotheanalysisoftheproportionsof
classicalarchitectureandartobjects(Fig.3,4).
Fig.3.ThreeDmodelofParthenon'sproportionsbyJ.Hambidge.
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Fig.4.DiagramofGreekvase(cantaros)proportionsbyJ.Hambidge.
Thus, this is in brief the essence of J. Hambidge's idea of dynamic symmetry. As one can see, it does not directly
derive from the phyllotaxis properties. Generally, J. Hambidge does not go deep in mathematics of phyllotaxis. In his
various schemes illustrating the regularities of uniform growth or other ideas of proportioning he applies wellknown
numericalrelationstypicalofphyllotaxis,includinggoldensection.
However, his idea of dynamic symmetry is an original one and in terms of its mathematical content expresses
regularitiesofquiteageneralcharacter.Itwillbepossibletodemonstrateitafterstudyingthephyllotaxisresearchoffered
below. But before I would like to predict some possible "unfavourable impressions" that the representatives of various
fieldsofsciencemaygetafterreadingthistext.Theauthorforeseesthepossibledissatisfactiononthepartofbiologists
duetoschematiclayoutandinsufficientterminologyofbiologicaldescriptionofthisphenomenonmathematicianswho
maydiscoverincomplianceofsymbolicswiththatusedinphyllotaxistheoryarthistorianswhomaybefacedwithtoo
muchmathematicaldirectionoftheresearchfromtheviewpointofartmethodology.Theauthorfullyacknowledgesallthe
"troubles"causedbythemultidisciplinarycharacteroftheissue.
Andstill,theauthortakesonresponsibilityforthescientificcredibilityoftheresultsachieved.Thecentraltaskofthe
research is formulated on the basis of minimum initial information which is sufficient to grasp the essence of the main
issueoftheproblemandbuildtheresearch"fromscratch"makingitindependentoftheresearchexperienceaccumulated
inthefield.Though,itisworthmentioningthatthisexperienceisquitesubstantial.Theresearchofphyllotaxiswasinthe
centreofattentionofmanymathematiciansandbiologists.Forinstance,inthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyitwasinthe
focusofinterestofH.Cockster[7],Adler[12],Jean[13],Schwabe[14],Petukhov[9],etc.whointheirworkscreatedthe
modern"mathematicalandbiological"theoryofphyllotaxis.
Theresultsofthegivenresearchwerefirstpublishedin1989[1].Atthattimetheywerenew.Atanyrate,noneofthe
researchers describing phyllotaxis applied Minkowski's geometry and the system of hyperbolic trigonometry. We shall
brieflydescribethisresearch.
It is known from biology that mutual arrangement of various primordia that appear on the cones of spindles is
characterizedbythespiralsymmetry.Thisprincipleofsituationthatwasnamedphyllotaxisisalsoclearlyobservedin
denseinflorescencesandinfructescences,forinstance,onsunflowerdiscs,pineconesandmanyothertypesofbioforms
(Fig.5).
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Onthesurfacesofphyllotaxisforms,denseinflorescencesandinfructescencesinparticular,onecanclearlyobserve
leftandrightwoundspirallikerowsofstructuralelements(primordia,seeds,leaves).Thesymmetryorderofphyllotaxis
forms is usually shown as the ratio of numbers that corresponds to the quantity of left and right spirals. According to
phyllotaxislawtheseratiosaredescribedbythecombinationsofnumbersofrecurrentrowswhichaccepttherule:un=u
,0,1,1,3,
n2+un1.WidelyspreadarethesymmetricaltypeofphyllotaxiswhicharedescribedbyFibonacciseries:
5,8,13,21,34,
.NumbersofLucasseries
,1,3,4,7,11,18,29,34,
arealsoquitefrequentlyrealizedinphyllotaxis,
seldomnumbersthatbelongtotheseries
,4,5,9,14,23,
.TheorderofsymmetryincaseofFibonacciphyllotaxis(F
phyllotaxis)isexpressedbytheratios: , , , ,
,
.
Itistypicalthatinsymmetrycasesalwaysthereareneighboringnumbersoftheseries.Incertaincases,whenonthe
surfacesofthepatternonecansingleoutthreegroupsofspirals,thesymmetryisshownbymeansofthreenumbers.Asa
rule, the offshoots of plants and trees are characterized by the low order of symmetry while the inflorescences and
infructescencesbyhighsymmetryorder.Forinstance,theorderofsymmetrywithsunflowercanbeupto
even
and
The interesting indicator of phyllotaxis structures is the so called D divergence which is the angle of splitting of
twosubsequent primordia. Divergence measured in circle fractions in case of Fphyllotaxis is always expressed by the
samenumberthatisthepatternorderofsymmetry,i.e.itcanbeequal , , , ,
,
.Asitisknown,thisseriesof
fractionstendstothelimit0,618 of the circle, with which the full plane angle appears to be divided as to the golden
section.
Sometypesofphyllotaxispatternswhilegrowingsubsequentlychange(expand)theorderoftheirsymmetry.Itisthis
peculiarityofphyllotaxisthatwenamedynamicsymmetry.Asanexample,onecantakethesunflower.Thesunflower
headsarrangedonthevariouslevelsofoneandthesamestemhavedifferentsymmetry:thehigherthelevel,i.e.theolder
thedisk,thehigheritsorderofsymmetryis.Insymmetrydynamicsthefollowingsequenceisrealized:
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Withthechangeofsymmetrythedivergenceanglechangesrespectively.Stillonallthedisksregardlessofthenumberof
spiralsthesocalledconforming(angular)characteristicsofspiralpatternsappeartobethesame,thatisthespirals
crossatastraightangle.
Thisdataisenoughtoidentifytheobjectiveoftheresearch.Itmeanstogeometricallydecipherthephyllotaxis
patternformationprocessandthekeyissueishowthesymmetrychanges.
Atthebeginningitwasnecessarytodoasimplegeometricalstylizationofphyllotaxissurfaceandrepresentitasa
regularflatlattice(Fig.4).Thislattice(Fig.6d)isnumberedinsuchawaythatthenumbersofverticescharacterizetheir
distancefromthestraightline00'atthesametimeperunitisacceptedthedistancetothenearestfrom00'point1.Dueto
thisnumberingruletheorderofsymmetryofcylindricallatticeinthesystemofnumericaldenominationisexpressedin
thefollowingway:pointsadjacentto0arenumbered5,8and3(also5,8and3), i.e. such numbers that characterize
numericalstructureofhelicalspiralofcylindricallattice.
It is obvious that for the lattices with different symmetry the numbers of neighboring vertices of O point will be
different.
Weshalldothecomparativeanalysisoftheseriesoflatticesillustratingthesequentialstagesofsymmetrychangein
phyllotaxis (Fig. 7). According to their metrical features, all the lattices are the same. Thus, the peculiarity of natural
phyllotaxis lattices to renew their conforming characteristics at any stage of symmetrical development is taken into
account.
It is obvious that for the lattices with different symmetry the numbers of neighboring vertices of O point will be
different.
MovieinstallationNo1
Video1
Fig.6.Analysisofstructuralandnumericalfeaturesofphyllotaxislattice:
agenerallookofcedarcone
bschemeofunrolling
ccylindricallatticeidealizedformofcedarcone
dunrollingofcylindricallattice
Weshalldothecomparativeanalysisoftheseriesoflatticesillustratingthesequentialstagesofsymmetrychangein
phyllotaxis (Fig. 7). According to their metrical features, all the lattices are the same. Thus, the peculiarity of natural
phyllotaxis lattices to renew their conforming characteristics at any stage of symmetrical development is taken into
account.
Letustracetheregularityoftransformationofparallelogram010' .Weshallstartfromthescheme.One can
seethatthesides01and0' ofthisparallelogramareequaltothesections00'1and00'2,whicharethediagonalsofthis
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parallelogramatthetwopreviousstagesofitstransformation,i.e.atthestagesand.Thesidesofparallelogram010'4
atthefourthstageappeartobeequalthesections00'2and00'3.Thisregularitycanbetracedalsoatthenextstages.Letus
provideseparateillustrationofthisregularity(Fig.7)
Fig.7.Theseriesofunrollingsillustratingsequentialstagesofcylindricallatticessymmetricaltransformation.All
theschemesdepictparallelogramOII'O'
Fig.8.Researchofelementaryparallelogramtransformationregularities.
Thebuildingruleisthatsidesofeveryparallelogram(startingwiththethirdone)arediagonalsoftwoforegoing
parallelograms. As any two successive parallelograms have three common vertices, it is obvious that all parallelograms
have equal square. Preserving the square is the first interesting feature of parallelogram dynamic transformation. The
secondisthatstraightlinesareparallel:parallelogramatanystageoftransformationstillisaparallelogram.Hereonecan
draw the key supposition of the research preservation of square and parallelism of straight lines are the features of
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hyperbolicrotation.Itmeanswedealwithhyperbolictransformation.Itisnecessarytospecifythisidea.
Fig.9.Transformationofelementaryparallelogrambymeansofhyperbolicmotion.
Fig.10.Schemeoflatticetransformationbyhyperbolicrotation.
Figures9and10illustrate"binding"ofthelatticetotheschemeofhyperbolictransformation.
MovieinstallationNo2.
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Thus,wecanstatethathyperbolicrotationisthebasisofsymmetrytransformationillustratedonFig.7.Thisisthekey
findingoftheresearchthatallowstodevelopanentirelynewlookattheissueofphyllotaxisgeometry.
Firstofall,withintheframeworkoftheideaofhyperbolicrotationitisnecessarytoconductaspecificanalyticaland
geometricresearchofaregularlattice.Immediatelyaninterestingfactisrevealedinmetricalcharacteristicsofthelattice
organicallypresentisthevalueofthegoldensection.(Fig.10).
LetushavealookatFig11.HerethearrangementofverticescorrespondstotheFig.5.9,5.10andischaracterizedby
thefollowingconditions:
:
xA=
=1,yA=1,0A=0N1=
points1and2aresymmetricalasto0012N1,02N2N1,023N2areparallelograms,thatmeansthat0N1=
12=0A=
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Fig.11.Analysisoflatticemetricalfeatures.
Letusdeterminetheabscissaofthepoint2,marking
2itgoesthat
=x.Fromtheconditionofsymmetryofthepoints1and
=x1andthatthesection12istiltedatanangleof45totheaxis0.Itisevidentthatthe
differenceofabscissasofthepoints1and2isequalto1.Weshallwritedownandsolvetheequation
1=1,
21=0,
=
As follows from the statement of the problem
= . Now one can easily make conclusions. The
coordinatesxandyofthearbitrarylatticecanbeexpressedinformula:
=
n,y=
n,(1)
whereisthesemiaxisofhyperbolethatthepointunderconsiderationbelongsto.Moreover,iffortheangularunit
(module)ofhyperbolicrotationonetakestheangledividingtwoneighboringtransformationstages(forinstance,stagesI
andII,IIandIII,IIIandIV,etc.Fig.7),inotherwords,thesmallestangle,therotationtowhichwillresultintheself
alignmentofthelettice,thentheexponentnwillcoincidewiththevalueofhyperbolicangle(inmodules),characterizing
thepositionofthepointunderconsideration(Fig.12).
Fig.12.Determiningthemoduleofhyperbolicangle.
InthecoordinatesystemX0Ytheformulaeofthecoordinatesofthearbitrarypointlooklikehyperbolicfunctions:
X=a
,Y=a
.(2)
Asonecansee,theseareunusualhyperbolicfunctionsasboththebaseandthevalueofhyperbolicangleunithere
differfromtheacceptedones*.
(*Inclassicvarianthyperbolicangleunitisthesquareofthesocalledcoordinaterectangularofthehyperbolepoint,
that is formed by the coordinate axes and the straight lines that were drawn through the point in parallel to the
coordinateaxes.Ifthehyperboleequationisxy=1,thenthesquareofthecoordinaterectangularisnumericallyequalto1.
Ifunitsquarepertainstothehyperbolicsector0(hyperbolavertex),thenxM=e,andyM=e1.)
Therefore,thesefunctionshaveindependentsignsandnames:
for
=Gchnthegoldencosine,
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for
=Gshnthegoldensine,
for
=Gthnthegoldentangent,etc.
Thegoldenfunctionspreservethemainfeaturesofthe"classical"hyperbolicfunctionsandaccommodatewiththem
takingintoaccountthedependencebetweennumbersand(=eln,n=enln,).Forinstance:
=
=
,Gchn=ch(nln)
,shn=Gsh
Formulae(2)ofthecoordinatesofthearbitrarypointinthesystemX0Ynowcanbewrittenlikethat:
X=aGchn,Y=aGshn.(3)
Changesofarbitrarypointcoordinatescausedbythehyperbolicrotationareexpressedbytheformulae:
x'=XGchn+YGshn,
y'=XGshn+YGchn.(4)
Intheprocessofhyperbolicrotationthelatticeisdeformed,butperiodically,throughrotationmodulethesamemetric
statesarerepeated.
Fig. 13 illustrate the subsequent deformation stages of the lattice elementary triangle which are fixed through half
module of the rotation. The metric peculiarities of the triangle are obvious. Fig. 14 show full lattice depictions in two
extremestates.Inoneofthem(Fig.13)theelementarytrianglegetsthesizes
,intheother(Fig.14),when
thelatticeisgettingsquare,thetrianglebecomesa45gradrighttriangle.Thesetwostatessetthegenerallatticetriangle
deformationrange.
MovieinstallationNo3.
Video3
Asonecansee,thetransformationofthelatticebymeansofhyperbolicrotationischaracterizedbyperiodicity.Two
rotation modules are considered to make a full period (cycle). It is necessary to note that the lattice state is repeated
throughonemodule,howevertwosuchstatesdonotcoincide,theyareinmirrorpositionastothehyperbolessymmetry
axes.
Itisimportanttostate:hyperbolicrotationissymmetrytransformationofaregularlattice.Thistransformationis
notconsideredintheclassicaltheoryofsymmetry.
Fig.13.Characteristicconditionsoflatticeelementarytriangle.
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Fig.14.Twoextremeconditionsofthelattice.
It is also necessary to focus on the following issues. 1) Unlike the circular rotation when the lattice knots preserve
strictmutualarrangement,theprocessofhyperbolicrotationleadstothechangingofthemutualarrangementoftheknots.
2). For the symmetric transformation the lattice should be placed onto the hyperplane in a special way. In general, the
basiclatticelinesshouldnotcoincidewithasymptotes.Fig.15(ascomparedtoFig.14)illustratestheeffectofsuch"non
phyllotaxis" transformation. We shall not concentrate on this important point deserves separate consideration. Let us
continuetheresearch.
Fig.15.Transformationeffectwhenasymptotesgothroughthelatticeknots.
Followingtheprincipleoflatticenumerationthenumberofanyofitspointsinthecoordinatesystemwhereabscissa
axis coincides with the direction 00' (Fig. 6, 10), is numerically equal to its ordinate. We have developed formulae to
describethecoordinatesofarbitraryvertexinthesystemofmovablecoordinatesx'0y'(Fig.16).
Fig.16.DeterminingcoordinatesofthearbitrarypointinthesystemofmovablecoordinatesX'oy'.
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Withanypositionofthecoordinatestheordinateofthepoint1nearestto0x'istakenasaunitofmeasurement.Thus,
forverticesthatbelongtothehyperbolexy=1,wehave:
x'M=
Gch(mn),
y'M=
Gsh(m+n),(5)
wheremhyperbolicangleX0M,nhyperbolicangleX00'.Forverticesthataresituatedonthehyperbolexy=1, the
coordinateformulaewillbethefollowing:
x'M'=
Gsh(mn),
y'M'=
Gch(m+n).(6)
Thus,informulae(5)and(6)wehavegotaninterpretationofthenumbersofthoselatticeverticesthatslideonthe
hyperbolesnearesttotheasymptotes.ButtheanalysisofFig.10showsthatthenumbersoftheseverticesareFibonacci
numbers.Takingforthesakeofsimplicitym+n=kandkeepinginmindthatthesuccessiveverticesaresituatedonthe
neighboringbranchesthroughrotationmodule,onecancometothefollowingcorrespondence:
F1=
Gch1=1,F2=
Gsh2=1,
F3=
Gch3=2,F4=
Gsh4=3,
F5=
Gch5=5,F6=
Gsh6=8,
F7=
Gch7=13,F8=
Gsh8=21,
...................................
Fk=
Gchk,Fk+1=
Gsh(k+1).(7)
In the lattice system different recurrent number sequences are realized on different hyperboles. Introducing the
hyperbolescaleratio(g)onegetsthegeneralizedvariantofformulae(7):
uk=g
Gchk,uk+1=g
Gsh(k+1).(8)
Thereisanotherwayofrepresentationofthegeneralmemberukofrecurrentsequence:
uk=AFk+BFk+1.(9)
HereAandBarethesocalledinitialsequenceelementsifrecurrentsequenceisviewedasaninfinitesequence,for
instance,
,12,7,5,2,3,1,4,5,9,14,
,theninitialwillbetwofirstnumbersofsequencepartoffixedsigns.Inthiscase
A=3,B=1.InFibonaccisequenceitwillbeA=1,B=0.
There is another way of obtaining trigonometric interpretation of Fibonacci numbers. There is one interesting
arrangementofcoordinateaxesX'0X'thatisgivenbythedirectionsofsquarelattice(Fig.17).
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Fig.17.AnalysisoflatticeinthesystemofcoordinatesX'OY'.
HerehyperbolicangleX0X'isequaltohalfofthemodule.Iftheunitofmeasurementisthesideofcellsquare,then
thecoordinatesofX'andY'latticeknotswillbeintegers.Itisevident.ForthearbitraryvertexPwehave:
X'P=a'
Gch(m ),
Y'P=a'
Gsh(m+ ).(10)
Herea'hyperboleradius(theorbitsofpointP)thatcoincideswith0X'axis.Ifthecountingofangleisdonewith
respectto0X'axis,thenformulaewilllooklike(10):
X'P=a'
Gch(1),
Y'P=a'
Gsh,(11)
where=m+ .
Thiswillresultinformulae(7)and(8)thatcorrespondtothespecialcase,inparticular,whentheverticesbelongingto
thehyperbolethatisthenearesttotheasymptotes,forwhicha'=1.Inotherwords,theverticescoordinatesbelongingto
thesinglescalehyperboleareexpressedinFibonaccinumbers.
BetweentheintegralvaluedcoordinatesX'andY'thereisadependence
X'2+X'Y'Y'2=a'2.(12)
Infact,itexpressesthehyperboleequationinreferencetothecoordinatesX'0Y'.Atthesametime,asthevariablesX'
andY'successivelytakeonthevaluesoftheadjacentnumbersofacertainrecurrentseries,theequation(12)illustratesan
importantfeatureofrecurrentseries,which,takingintoaccountthespecificityofformulae(10)and(11),isrecordedinthe
followingway:
|uk2+ukuk+1u2k+1|=const.(13)
Itisobviousthateveryserieshasitsowncorrespondingconstant.
Thus,wehavegotnewmathematicalinterpretationofnumericalpropertiesofphyllotaxisdynamicsymmetry.Aswe
see, symmetry indicators in phyllotaxis are the integralvalued expressions of golden hyperbolic functions and
dynamicsoftheseindicatorsispresupposedbytheregularityofintegralvaluedgrowthofgoldenfunctions.Inthiscase
formula(13)expressesthenumericalconstantofdynamicsymmetry.Inparticular,forFphyllotaxisthisconstantwillbe
1:
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|Fk2+FkFk+1F2k+1|=1.
The phenomenon of divergence also undergoes mathematical interpretation. At the beginning we claimed that
divergence angle value in case of Fphyllotaxis numerically coincides with pattern symmetry order, i.e. the divergence
angle is changed together with the change of symmetry. Let us consider Fig. 18. We shall analyze the deformation
characteroftheelementaryparallelogram011'0'oftheflatlattice.Heretherearetwoimportantpeculiarities.Firstly,in
the process of transformation the parallelogram square is preserved: 0P 00' = const secondly, the deformation bring
abouttheparallelshiftofthebases00'and11'.
Onthecylindersurfacetheelementaryparallelogramistransformedintothesocalledelementarybelt,thereforeitis
clearthatintheprocessoftransformationsuchelementarybeltwillconcentricallyincreaseanddecreaseastoitsheight
(the square will be left unchanged) and simultaneously there will be relative angular displacement of its bases that
correspondstotheparallelshiftontheinvolute.Suchangulardisplacementwilltakeplaceineveryelementarybeltand
thiswillstipulatethetorsioneffectonthecylindersurfaceingeneral.
Theformulaofdivergenceanglecomesfromtheratio
=
whichisequalto:
.
Thetransformationsresultin:
D=
.(14)
Also
=
=1.(15)
Aswesee,theanglelimitcorrespondstotheknownvalueofthesocalled,,idealangle"ofFphyllotaxis.Itisworth
notingthatinvarious,,nonFibonacci"asesthedivergenceanglelimithasvariousvaluesbutinallthecasesitchanges
accordingtothehyperbolictangentlaw.
Fig.18.Analysisofhyperbolictransformationofcylindricalsurface.
Intheanalysisprocesswehavealsounderstoodthetransformationcharacterofthecylindersurfaceintheprocessof
symmetricaltransformationofthecylinderlattice.Itispossibletostatethatthistransformationresultsinthreeinterrelated
motions:concentricwideningofcylinderalongitsaxis,compressionalongtheaxisandtorsion.
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We shall specify the geometric regularity of cylinder transverse circumference transformation. The radius r of the
circumference00'isincreasedaccordingtothehyperboliccosinelaw:
r==OO'=
Itisobviousthatanypointofthecircumferencecanbesimultaneouslypresentedastheendofthehyperbolemovable
radius as well as the end of the circumference movable radius. This peculiarity finds its analytical expression in the
following:
X'=X(GchncosGshnsin)+Y(Gshncos+Gchnsin),
Y'=X(Gshnsin+Gshncos)+Y(Gchncos Gshnsin).(16)
Fig.19.Analysisoftransformationofcylindertransversecircumference.
Withn=0wehavetheformulaeforcoordinates'transformationthatresultsfromthecircularrotation:
X'=Xcos+Ysin,
Y'=Xsin+Ycos.
With=0wehavetheformulaeforcoordinates'transformationthatresultsfromthehyperbolicrotation:
X'=XGchn+YGshn,
Y'=XGshn+YGchn.
Theseformulaereflectthecomplexmotionofthepointthatissimultaneouslyacircularandhyperbolicmotion.The
trajectoryofsuchamotionisaselfintersectingspiralwhichcanbecalledacompositeone(Fig.20),becauseitactually
illustratesthecompositionoftworotations.
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Fig.20.Compositespiralforwhich
=.
Thus, the very composite spiral is an expression of geometrical law of cylinder transverse circumference
transformation.Itfindsitslaconicrepresentationinaformula:
=const,(17)
whichshowsthemainpeculiarityofcompositetransformation,namely,consistencyofanglespeedsofhyperbolicrotation
(h= )andcircularrotation(=
).
Thus, we have presented the main findings of the phyllotaxis research that contain mathematical explanation of the
dynamic symmetry of this phenomenon and allow to generalize on different variants of interpretation of the dynamic
symmetryphenomenon,particularly,inarchitecture.
However,aimingtofullypresentthemathematicsofphyllotaxisweshallbrieflymentionsomeotherelementsofthis
research.Itisnecessarytostressthattheresearchwasaboutcylindricalphyllotaxis.Butthisisonlyapreliminarystage
of theoretical idealization of phyllotaxis. Cone is considered to be more adequate generalization of phyllotaxis pattern.
Cylinderaswellasdiskisconsideredtobethespecialcaseofconedeterminedbytheextremevalues0and ofangle
oftiltofconegeneratortoitsaxis.
Weshallremindtheessenceoftheexistingideasaboutgeometricalfeaturesofphyllotaxisconelatticesanddynamic
mechanismoftheirpatternformation.Itisgenerallyconsideredthatthestructureofphyllotaxisconelattices(arrangement
ofthevertices)issubjecttothelawoflogarithmicspiral[2,5,6].Thus,tothelogarithmicspiralalsobelongparastichy
thatformlatticesonconeanddisklikepatternsandthesocalledbasic(orgenetic)spiralthatsuccessivelyrunsthrough
allthelatticevertices.Suchlatticeswillbecalledlogarithmic.
Structuralandsemanticcharacterofthelatticeisdeterminedbythetwoindicatorsqratiooflocalsimilitudethatcan
befoundfromtheratioq=
,wherekandk+1thedistanceoftwosuccessiveprimordiatotheconevertexand
Ddivergenceangle.Herethereisdependence:
q=qD,(18)
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whereqratioofthebasicspiralsimilitude.
Fig.21.Analysisofthegeneralcaseoflogarithmiclattice.
Correspondingly, the algorithm of logarithmic lattices pattern formation goes to indicating the primordia motion
trajectory, i. e. basic logarithmic spiral and the so called primordial growth interval t, or to the intensity of their
reproductionN(itismeantthatN=
).Itissupposedthatinnaturesuchaprocessisstipulatedduetoequal,interms
of time, primordium growth and thus, the determination conditions for latticeforming process are as follows: firstly,
invariabilityoflocalsimilituderatio(q=
=const)andsecondly,constantspeedofprimordiumcircularrotation
:
=
=const.
So,thisistheclassicalmodelofphyllotaxispatternformation.
The findings of cylindrical phyllotaxis research result in a principally different idea of cone lattices modelling. The
idea is that the fundamental regularity of the structural organization of cone phyllotaxis is composite (and not
logarythmic)spiral.Parastichyinrealityarecompositespirals.Thesameisgeneticspiral.Conetransversecircumference
transformationalsooccursaccordingtothelawofcompositespiral.
Latticesformedaccordingtothecompositespirallawarecallednaturallattices(Fig.22).
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Fig.22.Exampleofnaturallatticewith8:13symmetry.
They resemble logarithmic ones but, in fact, they are incompatible with them. The reasons and character of this
incompatibilitycanbeexplainedonthecomparativedrawingoflogarithmicandcompositespiral(Fig.23).
Fig.23.Comparativedrawingoflogarithmicandcompositespiral.
Aswesee,thelogarithmicspiralisapeculiarasymptoteforthecompositeone.Differentfeaturesoflogarithmicand
naturallatticesareexplainedbydifferentmathematicalnatureofthesetwocurves.Thenaturallatticeischaracterizedby
theinitialscale,whichisdefinedaccordingtothesmallestradiusofgeneticspiral.Evidently,thenotionofinitialscale
doesnothaveanyvalueinreferencetothelogarithmiclattice.
OfprincipalimportanceforthenaturallatticesisthefactthatindicatorsqandDintheirstructurearenotobservedin
theidealsituations.Theyonlycomeclosetothenominalvaluesastheywithdrawfromthecentre.Inthezoneofcentreof
divergence from logarithmic regularity they are evident. In fact, this is violation of similitude. We can specify the
divergence regularity. For instance, for q this regularity is determined by the change of ratio
where the difference of angular hyperbolic coordinates of two successive vertices that belong to the base of belt
surface.
Before considering a specific example let us once again stress that the process of lattice pattern formation is
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determinedbytheformula
=const.Theprocessparametersarethespeeds,handprimordium'sgrowthinterval
tor the indicator of their reproduction intensiveness N =
. In every specific case the values of, h and t are
constantfromthem,consequently,onegetsnominalcharacteristicsqand=Dthatdeterminethesymmetryofthe
lattice restored. So, = t and q = n where n = h t is the angular hyperbolic interval between the
successiveprimordia.
NowletusconsiderFig.24.Itshows,,topview"and,,sideview"ofthenaturalconelatticewith1:1symmetry.In
thiscase=,n=1.Letusfindtheratiolimit
q=
=.
Herearespecificdataforseveralinitialpoints:
k
n
1,0
1,414
1,581
1,612
1,618..
Fig.24.SchemethatexplainstheoriginoftheGoldensectionintheoffshootsstructures.
Wehavespeciallychosenthesimplestexamplewhichoneoftenobservesinnatureontreesandplantsoffshoots.It
alsoexplainsmathematicalreasonsfortheoriginofgoldenproportioninthelinearcorrelationsofoffshootsstructures,in
particular,thefactthatproportiondiscoveredinoffshootnaturalmeasurementsinfactapproximatesgoldensection.Here
goldensectioncannotberealizedinitsabsolutevalue.
And some more words about natural lattices symmetry transformation. We shall not describe it in details but
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emphasizethatthistransformationisbasedoncompositemotioncompositerotationthatcombinesbothhyperbolicand
circularrotation.Thisissuewillbediscussedinaseparatearticle.
Finally,weshalldothegeneralizations.BesidesHambidge'svariantweshalluseinourcomparativeresearchanother
theoreticalresultwhichiswellknowninarchitectureModularofFrencharchitectofLeCorbusier.
Fig.25.aschemeofcontinuoussectiondivisioninthegoldenproportion.
Bintegralvaluedscalesthatwereobtainedasaresultofapproximationofirrationalscalesvalues.
Fig.25ontheleftshowstheschemesuggestedbytheauthorofModulartoillustratetheinfinitedivisionofsectionin
the golden proportion. Le Corbusier links such a division to the proportions of human figure. On the right side of the
drawing one can see the so called red and blue scales where irrational numerical values obtained by means of infinite
divisionschemearerepresentedinapproximatedintegralvaluedway.Itisclearthatirrationalnumbersexpressthegolden
exponential function. Integralvalued sequences onto which Le Corbusier transfers the additive features of the golden
sequencecanbeconsideredrecurrenttoacertaindegreeofconventionality.LeCorbusierpresentstheformulaeofredand
bluescalesinthefollowingway:
an=kn,bn=2kn,
wherenisanarbitraryintegerkdimensionfactorequal1,13m.
Healsoacceptsthat:
an2+an1=an,
bn2+bn1=bn.
Naturally, due to approximation on certain section of integralvalued sequences additivity is violated: the golden
sequenceanditsintegralvaluedapproximationsideallycannotcoincideastheyexpressvariousmathematicalregularities.
Butwehavetoshowhowtoadjusttheimbalance.Modularirrationalandintegralvaluedscalesaretobeinsomeways
linkedtothehyperboliccoordinatesaxes(Fig.26).Thesequenceofirrationalrelationswillbereflectedontheaxis0y,the
integralvalued sequences will be created from Y' coordinates by the same series of points located on the neighboring
hyperbolebranchesthroughonerotationmodule.
Fig.26.ReferenceofModularscalestoaxesofhyperboliccoordinates.
So,whatarethecommonfeaturesofphyllotaxisdynamicsymmetry,ModularandHambidge'sdynamicsymmetry?
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The answer is that in

all these cases we
deal with the same
mathematical
regularities, namely,
golden
hyperbolic
functions. Really, on
Hambidge's scheme
(Fig. 2) the base of
the
arbitrary
parallelogram can be
interpreted
through
the golden sine (Gsh

x)
and
diagonal
throughthegoldencosine(Gchx).ThenwegettheformulaofJ.Hambidge'sinvariantofdynamicsymmetry:
Gch2xGsh2x=1.
OfsimilarinterestisthepossibilityofModularnumericalregularitiesinterpretation.Thenumericalsequencesofred
andbluescalesareconsideredrecurrent(ignoringsome,,small"ambiguities)itmeans,wecanapplytothemtheformula
ofconstant(invariable)ofphyllotaxisdynamicsymmetry:
|un2+unun1u2n1|=const.
Letusdeterminetheinvariantvaluefortheredscale.Wetakeanycoupleofneighboringnumbers,forexample,6and
9.Weshallget|62+6992|=9.Nowweshalldeterminetheinvariantforthebluescale.Wetakenumbers18and30:
|182+1830302|=6.Itisnecessarytorememberthattheformulausedinthiscaserevealscharacteristicdependence
(12)ofgoldenhyperbolictrigonometry,discoveredbyus.
ThenumbersofredandbluescalescanbeconsideredashyperboliccoordinatesX'andY' of square lattice vertices
(seeFig.17)thatbelongtotwospecifichyperboles.Foroneofthema'=const=9,fortheothera'=const=6.
Ourgeneralizationwillbeincompleteifwedonotremindthatfeaturesofspacetimeinspecialtheoryofrelativityis
alsocharacterizedbyinvariant.Suchinvariantisthesocalledspecialtemporalintervalwhichvalue is preserved in the
process of transfer from one inertial system to the other and is expressed in the formula t2 x2 = const. Here
dependenceofhyperbolictrigonometrych2xsh2x=constalsoisthemathematicalsubbaseofthisexpression
Thus,wehavegroundsforthefinalconclusions.
1.Mathematicalresearchofphyllotaxisdescribedaboveestablishesthefactthatthisphenomenonshowsregularities
ofnonEuclid,tobemorespecific,pseudoEuclidgeometrymoreknownasMinkowski'sgeometry.Sofar,physicswas
consideredtobetheonlyfieldwherethisgeometrywasrealized.ButitwasV.E.Vernadskiywhosuggestedthatthelaws
ofnaturalpatternformationarebasedonnonEuclidgeometry.[6].Therefore,ourfindingscanbeconsideredasthosethat
specifyofV.E.Vernadskiy'ssuggestions.
2.Phyllotaxisgeometryanditstrigonometricapparatusreflectpeculiaritiesofmathematicsofnature.Thisistheform
ofmathematicswherefundamentalrolebelongstogoldensection.
3.J.Hambidge'sprincipleofdynamicsymmetry,LeCorbusier'sproportionalsystemofModular,phyllotaxisdynamic
symmetry as well as spatialtemporal invariant of special theory of relativity have common mathematical grounds of
Minkowski'sgeometryregularities.Therefore,therearesubstantialgroundstorefertothemascommonregularitiesofart
andnature.
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. However, he pays particular attention to the

which is directly connected with the golden rectangle

Hambidge conducts thorough

As follows from the statement of the problem

= . Now one can easily make conclusions. The

tor the indicator of their reproduction intensiveness N =

. In every specific case the values of, h and t are

The answer is that in

the golden sine (Gsh

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