Assembler - Basics

1. What is base register in assembler program?

When a program is loaded into memory, assembler stores the address of
the starting point of the program into base register. The assembler
doesnt produce direct addresses but produces an address in the base
displacement format. Addresses in this form consist of 4 hexadecimal
digits or two bytes, BDDD, where B represents a base register and DDD
represents a displacement.
Thus smallest displacement from base register that can be calculated is
x000 = 0 and the largest displacement is xFFF = 4096 bytes.
If the program has size of more than 4096 bytes, then one base register is
not sufficient. We may have to define one/two more base register
depending upon the size of the program
2. Assembler is difficult language to code. Since COBOL compilers can
covert COBOL code into machine language, what is need of assembler?
COBOL is high level language. Due to limitations of the compilers, the
machine code generated by COBOL is not always efficient. A good
assembler program can write more efficient code with assembler.
This where efficiency matters such as online programs where response
time required is minimum, assembler is the preferred language.
3. What is difference between CSECT and DSECT?
A DSECT or Dummy Section provides the programmer with the ability to
describe the layout of an area of storage without reserving virtual storage
for the area that is described. The DSECT layout can then be used to
reference any area of storage which is addressable by the program. Think
of the DSECT as a template, or pattern, which can be dropped on any
area of storage. Once the DSECT is positioned, the symbolic names in
the DSECT can be used to extract data from the underlying storage area
By definition, a control section (CSECT) is a block of coding that can be
relocated (independent of other coding) without altering the operating
logic of the program.For the modern programmer, a CSECT might be
considered as an independentcode module or package. The match in
terminology is not precise, but suggestive.

Very large assembly language programs will require more than one control
section.In any case, the programs we write will require only one CSECT,
even assuming the addressing constraints imposed by the old System/370
architecture.
A program with a single CSECT may be started in one of two ways. For
example,
the program LAB01 may be started in one of two ways.
LAB01 START
LAB01 CSECT
The assembler allows for the specification of a load address in the START
or CSECT.
This is probably a bad idea; it may be ignored by a modern operating
system.
The last line in the CSECT must be END Name, such as END LAB01.
4. What is the functionality of LTORG statement?
The assembler instruction that directs the location of the literal pool is
LTORG. It does not have any operands. If you do not use any LTORG
instructions in your program, the literal pool is placed at the end of the
first control section (CSECT) of your program.
When the assembler encounters a LTORG instruction within a program, it
creates a literal pool at that point, containing all the literals specified
since the last LTORG instruction, or since the beginning of the program, if
this is the first LTORG
To avoid addressability problems in multi modular programs, you should
code a LTORG instruction as the last instruction of each control section in
the program. So, each CSECT will have its own literal pool at the end of

the module.
MOD1 CSECT
LTORG
MOD2 CSECT
LTORG
MOD3 CSECT
LTORG
5. How base register is defined in an assembler program?
Base registers is defined as below
BALR R12,R0
USING *, R12
These statements are coded immediately below CSECT.
BALR instruction is RR type of instruction, which loads the address of the
next instruction into operand 1 i.e. R12. Second operand is specified as
R0 so no branch takes place.
USING establishes addressability. The * is used to represent the current
location counter in the assembler program. The USING instruction tells
assembler that R12 is to be used as the base register and that R12 will
contain the address of the current instruction.
Since BALR has loaded R12 with the address of the instruction following
BALR, this correctly Establishes address in the program.
6. How multiple base registers are defined in an assembler program?
Multiple Base registers are defined as below
BALR R12,R0
USING *, R12,R10,R11
BASE LM R10,R11,BASES
B MAIN
BASES DC A(BASE+4096)
DC A(BASE+8192)
MAIN MVC IN,OUT

In above example three base registers are defined i.e. R12,R10,R11.

R12 is loaded with the address of the instruction following USING. R10 is
loaded with the address of R12+4096 and R11 is loaed with address of
R12+8192.
7. How standard entry statements are coded into assembler program?
MAIN CSECT
STM R14,R12,12(13)
R14,R12,12(R13)
BASR R12,R0
USING *,R12
ST R13,SAVE+4
LA R13,SAVE
... ...
LA R1,=A(X,Y,Z)
L R15,=V(SUB)

SUB CSECT
STM
BASR R12,R0
USING *,R12
ST R13,SAVE+4
LA R13,SAVE

BASR R14,R15
In above scenario, MAIN is main program which calls subprogram
SUB. Standard entry statements would be same in the both cases, since
Main program also gets called by OS modules first.
Since we have very limited GPRS which should be shared between many
programs, it is the programmers responsibilty to save the contenet of the
register in the start of the program and restore the content of the
registers back when exit.
To store the contents, SAVE is delcared as 18 fullword.First fullword is
used by operating system. Second fullword stores address of the save
area of the calling program.Third fullword contains address of save area
of any called program from the current program.
Contents of registers 14,15,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 are stored in this
fullword thereafter.

Register 13 contains address of the save area. Following is how standard

entry statements are coded?
1. store the contents of the 14 to 12 into save area of the calling program
at displacement of 12.( R13 points to save area of calling program)
2.Define base register and establish addressibility.
3.store the address of the save area of calling program (which is stored in
R13) into SAVE+4. (SAVE is save area of the current program)
4. Then load address of the save area in the current program into R13.
8. How standard entry statements are coded into assembler program?
This is how standard exit statements are coded into any assembler
program.
L R13,SAVE+4
LM R14,R12,12(R13)
LA R15,0
BR 14
1. Address of the save area into calling program is again restored in R13.
This address is saved in save area of the current program (save+4)
2. Contents of the registers 14 to 12 are restored back.
3. Return code is set to 0 by LA R15,0
4. And branched to the R14, which store the address of the insturction to
be executed in the calling program.