THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS BULLETIN

DECEMBER 1978

VOLUME 62, NUMBER 12

Depositional Models In Coal Exploration and Mine Planning In

Appalachilan Region'
J. C. HORNE, J. C. PERM, F. T. CARUCCIO, and B. P. BAGANZ2
Abstract Geologic studies in the Appalachian region
have shown that many parameters of coal beds (thickness, continuity, roof and floor rock, sulfur and traceelement content, and ash) can be attributed to the depositional environment in which the peat beds formed
and to the tectonic setting at the time of deposition.
With an understanding of the depositional setting of the
coal seam and contemporaneous tectonic influences,
the characteristics and variability of many of these parameters can be predicted.
Coals formed in "back-barrier" environments tend
to be thin, laterally discontinuous, high in sulfur, and to
exhibit severe roof problems. Therefore, they are not
generally Important as minable coals. Coal beds deposited in the "lower delta-plain" environment are relatively widespread with fewer roof problems but generally are thin and show a highly irregular pattern of
sulfur and trace-element distribution. Conversely, "upper delta plain-fluvial" coals are low in sulfur, are thick
locally, but are commonly discontinuous laterally. Despite these problems, some "lower delta-plain" and
"upper delta plaln-fluvial" coals are successfully
mined. However, most important seams in the Appalachian area are in the transitional zone between these
two environmental fades. In this transition zone, thick
coals attain a relatively high degree of lateral continuity
and are usually low In sulfur.
Contemporaneous tectonic influences are superposed on changes in seam character attributed to variations in environments of deposition. Rapid subsidence during sedimentation generally results in abrupt
variations in coal seams but favors lower sulfur and
trace-element content, whereas slower subsidence favors greater lateral continuity but higher content of
chemically precipitated material.
INTRODUCTION
In the past, the role of geology in coal exploration, mine planning, and mine development has
been relatively insignificant. Primarily responsible for this situation has been the simplicity of
geologic concepts necessary to conduct these operations. Briefly, these concepts can be stated: (1)
coals occur in beds or layers that are underlain
and overlain by shales, sandstones, and limestones in varying proportions; (2) each coal bed
can be given a name, and certain quality charac-

Copyright 1978. The American Association of Petroleum

Geologists. All rights reserved.
AAPG grants permission for a sin^^le photocopy of this article
for research purposes. Other photocopying not allowed by the
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Manuscript received, December 13, 1977; accepted, June 15,
1978.
^Department of Geology, University of South Carolina,
Columbia. South Carolina 29208.
This paper is the result of many years of study of coal beds in
the Appalachian region. In this effort, many more people have
contributed than can be properly acknowledged. However, we
would like particularly to thank J. M. Coleman and S. M.
Gagliano of the Louisiana State University Coastal Studies
Institute; A. D. Cohen. J. R. Staub, and D. A. Corvinus of the
University of South Carolina; and R. S. Saxena of Superior Oil
Co. for information concerning modern peat-forming
environments. In addition, information about coal quality,
thickness variability, and roof quality has been obtained from
the theses and dissertations by G. Geidel, D. J. Howell, D.
Mathew, R. A. Melton, G. W. Pedlow, IIL and J. M. Sewell of
the University of South Carolina.
Geologic studies of the coal-bearing strata in the Appalachian
basin have been financed through funds from the
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
National
Science
Foundation, and U.S. Bureau of Mines. In addition, we
gratefully acknowledge both data and input (engineering and
geologic) from the personnel of: the Westmoreland Coal Co.,
Consolidation Coal Co., Eastern Associated Coal Co..
Bethlehem Steel Corp., United States Steel Corp., Massey Coal
Co.. New River Coal Co.. Kerr-McGee Corp., Zapata Corp..
Slab Fork Coal Co.. Allied Chemicals Co., Olga Coal Co.,
Gaddy Engineering Co., Beaver Land Co., Berwind Land Co..
and Pocahontas Land Co.
With this tremendous amount of industrial cooperation, it is
understandable that the confidentiality of data must be
maintained. Therefore, in some examples used in this paper, the
names and locations of the coals have been deleted or disguised.
Finally, we are grateful to George deVries Klein of the
University of Illinois and Edward Belt of Amherst College for
critically reviewing the manu.script. Their suggestions have
helped to improve the paper.
Article Identification Number

0149-1423/78/B012-()0Ol$03.l)O/()

2379

2380

J. C. Home et al

teristics commonly are associated with this name;

and (3) coal beds (and adjoining rocks) commonly are folded into broad anticlines and synclines
and, in places, are displaced by faults.
Basically, the thickest, most persistent, and best
quality coal seams were found to follow these
concepts reasonably well. However, thickening,
thinning, pinchouts, and changes in coal quality
did occur, but these occurrences appeared to be
random. In addition, when unexpected problems
were encountered, ingenious and often expensive
engineering techniques provided solutions to
most of them.
Today, in many areas, the easily mined, highquality coals are nearing exhaustion, and the increased demand for clean, nonpolluting, safe energy brings a need for new approaches to exploration and mining that will make development of
formerly unminable seams a profitable venture.
Hence, the coal explorationist now must consider
such matters as roof and floor control, methane
problems, and sulfur and trace-element distributions as well as problems of continuity and thickness of coal seams. Because most practical applications occur in relatively small areas of
approximately 15,000 acres (6,100 ha.) or less, all
of the preceding factors require a high level of
precision.
Investigations in the Appalachian region by the
Carolina Coal Group of the University of South
Carolina have shown that one of the most critical
determinants of seam character at this level of
investigation is the depositional environment of
the coal and enclosing strata. These studies indicate that the topographic surface on which the
coal swamp developed was a major factor in controlling its thickness and extent, whereas the environments of deposition of the sediments that covered the peat strongly influenced both roof
conditions in mines and many aspects of coal
quaUty.
Contemporaneous tectonic influences are superposed on changes in seam character attributed
to variations in environments of deposition.
Rapid subsidence during sedimentation results
generally in abrupt variations in coal-seam geometry and petrography but may favor lower sulfur
and trace-element contents, whereas slower subsidence rates favor greater lateral continuity but
higher contents of sulfur and other chemically
precipitated material.
Thus, the principal objectives of this paper are
to show the manner in which the depositional environment influences the thickness, extent, quality, and potential minability of coal seams, and
also, how the tectonic setting modifies these variations.

CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION OF

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
The principal criteria for the delineation of depositional environments are readily illustrated in
the coal-bearing parts of the Carboniferous of
eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia
(Table 1). The identification of these various paleoenvironments in the Carboniferous stratigraphic section is based on the recognition of various counterparts m modern fluvial, deltaic, and
barrier systems. Figure 1 shows all the components of these depositional systems but is not
meant to imply thai they are actually contemporaneous. This figure is based mainly on studies of
modern environments of deposition, but includes
data from mine maps where coal has been
worked out, as well as from maps developed from
borehole and outcrop information. The lower
part of the figure shows a cross section through
these environments with particular emphasis given to the thickness and extent of peat (coal) units.
This cross section was derived mostly from stripmine highwalls, large highway cuts, and closely
spaced borehole cross sections, as well as from
borehole cross sections from modern coastal areas.
On the left of Figure 1 is the barrier environment. In the Appalachian Carboniferous, barrier
environments (Fig. 2) are not important in terms
of minable coals and are not discussed in detail in
this paper. However, this environment is important because barrier sands seal off the oxidizing
effects of seawater and promote peat formation
landward.
The principal criteria for recognizing barrier
environments are the lateral and vertical relations
of sedimentary structures and textural sequences
as well as the mineralogy of the sandstones. In a
seaward direction, the sandstones become finer
grained and intercalate with red and green calcareous shales and carbonate rocks with marine faunas whereas, landward, they grade into dark-gray
lagoonal shales with brackish-water faunas. Because of wave and udal reworking, sandstones of
the barrier system are more quartzose and better
sorted than those of the surrounding environments even though both types had the same
source area.
Landward, the barrier environments grade into
the lagoonal back-barrier environments (Fig. 3).
The characteristics of this setting have been described by Home et al (1974). The principal components of this environment are sequences of organic-rich dark-gray shales and siltstones which
are directly overlain by thin laterally discontinuous coals or burrowed sideritic zones. These la-

Deposltional Models In Coal Exploration

2381

Table 1. Criteria for Recognition of Depositional Environments*

Recognition
Characteristics

I.

B.

B.

IV.

Shale and S l l t s t o n e
sequences

Back-Barrier

Barrier

2-3

2-1

3-2

1.

Greater than 50 f e e t

3-4

2-1

2-1

3-2

2.

5 t o 25 f e e t

2-3

2-1

2-1

2-1

3-2

Sandstone sequences

3-4

2-1

3-2

2-1

1.

Greater than 50 f e e t

2-1

2-1

2.

5 t o 25 f e e t

3-2

2-1

Fine-grained abandoned
fill

2-3

1-2

3-2

1.

Clay and s i l t

2-3

1-2

3-2

2.

Organic debris

2-3

1-2

2-3

2-3

2-3

Active sandstone

fill

1.

Fine-grained

2-3

2-3

2.

Medium- and coarsegrained

2-3

2-3

3.

Pebble lags

2-3

3-2

4.

Coal spars

2-3

3-2

Contacts
A.

Abrupt (scour)

B.

Gradational

2-1

2-3

2-1

1-2

Bedding
A.

V.

Lower Delta
Plain

Channel Deposits
A.

III.

Transitional
Lower Delta
Plain

Coarsening Upward
A.

II.

F l u v i a l and
Upper Delta
Plain

Cross-beds

1-2

1.

Ripples

2-1

2.

Ripple d r i f t

2-1

2-3

3-2

3-2

3.

Trough cross-beds

1-2

2-1

2-1

4.

Graded beds

2-1

3-2

3-2

5.

Point-bar accretion

3-4

3-4

3-4

6.

I r r e g u l a r bedding

3-2

3-2

3-2

1-2

3-2

Levee Deposits
A.

Irregularly interbedded
sandstones and shales,
rooted

Mineralogy of Sandstones
A.
B.
VII.

Lithic graywacke
Orthoquartzites

1-2

4-3

1-2

Fossils
A.

Marine

3-2

2-1

1-2

1-2

B.

Brackish

2-3

2-3

C.

Fresh

2-3

3-2

3-4

D.

Burrow

*Explanation:

1. Abundant

2. Common

3. Rare

4. Not Present

2382

J. C. Home et al
AREA INFLUENCED BY
.MARINE TO BRACKISH WATER.

BAR-1
RIER I

BACK- I
BARRIER I

LOWER
DELTA PLAIN

AREA INFLUENCED
BY FRESH WATER-

UPPER
DELTA PLAINFLUVIAL,

ITRANSITIONALi
I
LOWER
I
DELTA

ORTHOQUARTZITE
SANDSTONE
GRAYWACKE
SANDSTONE

COAL
0

10
KILOMETERS

MILES

FIG. 1Depositional model for peat-forming (coal) environments in coastal regions. Upper part of figure is plan
view showing sites of peat formation in modern environments; lower part is cross section (AA) showing, in relative
terms, thickness and extent of coal beds and their relations to sandstones and shales in different environments
(modified from Perm, 1976).

goonal to bay-fill sequences (Fig. 4) become coarser upward, are extensively burrowed, and commonly contain marine to brackish faunas. Seaward, they intertongue with orthoquartzitic
sandstones of barrier origin; in a landward direction, they intercalate with subgraywacke sandstone of fluvial-deltaic origin. The lagoonal deposits are 25 to 80 ft (7.5 to 24 m) thick and 3 to
15 mi (5 to 25 km) wide.
The orthoquartzitic sandstones which intertongue with the dark-gray lagoonal bay fill are of
three general types. The first type consists of extensive sheets of plane-bedded orthoquartzites
with rippled and burrowed upper surfaces. These
beds dip gently (2 to 12) in a landward direction
(Fig. 3A). Similar features are present in modern
barrier washovers into open-water lagoons
(Schwartz, 1975). The second type consists of
wedge-shaped bodies that extend nearly horizon-

tally in a landward direction for up to 3 mi (5 km;

Fig. 3). Near the main body of orthoquartzite,
they are up to 20 ft (6 m) thick but thin abruptly
and continue as nearly horizontal thin sheets 2 to
3 ft (1 m) thick. In the thicker parts of the deposit,
bedding consists predominantly of planar to festoon cross-beds with amplitudes of 18 to 24 in.
(45 to 60 cm) and landward dip directions. Similar features have been observed in flood-tidal deltas in modern lagoons (Hubbard and Barwis,
1976).
The third type of orthoquartzite intertonguing
with the dark lagoonal shales is tidal-channel deposits that may scour up to 40 ft (12 m) into underlying strata (Fig. 3B). These deposits commonly are associated with the inclined sheet sands or
the wedge-shaped bodies; in addition they occur
as isolated units. Associated levee deposits are absent or inconspicuous. Near the main sandstone

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2383

EXPLANATION
I~Z^
:,,^

SILTSTONE
BlPPttO OK FLASEH1 BEOOEO SILTSTONE

P T v i J ^ l SANDSTONE
F> * ! * i W I > H GRAVEL

[:-:-:-:-:j SHALE

SANDSTONE

SANDSTONE, RIPPLED

U^"^ *
PENECONTEMPOSANEOUS

COAL

^ 7 7

DEFORMATION STRUCTURES

ROOTED ZONE

J^

MARINE FOSSILS

FIG. 2Barrier model. Depositional composite of exposures near Monteagle, Tennessee, showing shoreface, barrier, and back-barrier environments (Ferm et al, 1972).

bodies, the orthoquartzites contain herringbone,

festoon cross-bedding; grain size decreases upward in the unit. However, not all channels are
filled with sandstone; many are filled with darkgray shales, siltstones, coal, or slump blocks.
Carboniferous lower delta-plain deposits of
eastern Kentucky have been described by Baganz
et al (1975). These deposits are dominated by
thick coarsening-upward sequences of shale and
siltstone (Fig. 5A) which range in thickness from
50 to 180 ft (15 to 55 m) and in lateral extent from
5 to 70 mi (8 to 110 km). Recent counterparts of
these sequences are forming in interdistributary
bays and prodeltas of modern lower delta plains
(Coleman et al, 1969).
In the lower part of these bay-fill sequences,
dark-gray to black clay shales are the dominant
lithologies; some irregularly distributed limestones and siderites are present also. In the upper
part of these sequences, sandstones with ripples
and other current-related structures are common,
reflecting the increasing energy of the shallower
water as the bay fills with sediment. Where the
bays filled sufficiently to form a surface upon
which plants could take root, coals formed. However, where the bays did not fill completely, or-

ganisms reworked the subaqueous subsurface,

and burrowed, sideritic cemented sandstones
were formed.
This general coarsening-upward pattern of interdistributary bays is broken in many places by
tongues of coarse-grained detritus introduced by
crevasse splays (Fig. 5B). Chemically precipitated
iron carbonate is common in persistent bands or
as large concretions (up to 3 ft or 1 m in diameter) along bedding surfaces. Undoubtedly, these
secondary siderite concretions formed and Hthified early as evidenced by the compaction of enclosing shales and siltstones around them.
Commonly, the bay-fill sequences contain marine and/or brackish water fossils and burrow
structures. These fossils usually are most abundant in the basal clay shales but also may be present throughout the sequence.
Overlying and laterally equivalent to the bayfill sequences are lithic graywacke sandstone bodies 1 to 3 mi (1.5 to 5 km) wide and 50 to 90 ft (15
to 25 m) thick. Recent counterparts of these deposits are forming at the mouths of distributaries
in modern lower delta plains (Saxena and Ferm,
1976). These distributary-mouth bar sandstones
(Fig. 6) are widest at the base and have gradation-

2384

J. C. Home et al

lOOi
ORTHOQUARTZITE
SANDSTOME

DARK-GRAY SHALE
AND SILTSTONE
RED A N D GREEN
SHALE

TTT

SCALES

ROOTING

->./-

BURROW STRUCTURE

Mjr-

CROSS - BEDS

RIPPLES

ISO
FEET

MARSH

WAVE TRAINS
BARRIER
ISLAND
EBB-TIDAL
DELTA

FLOOD-TIDAL
DELTA SANDSTONE

OFFSHORE]
SHALE
SHORE FACE
SANDSTONE
ORTHOQUARTZITE

TIDAL CHANNEL
SANDSTONE

LAGOONAL
SHALE

FESTOON CROSS-BEDS
PLANAR CROSS-BEDS

GRAY SHALE
RIPPLES
ggjj

RED A N D GREEN SHALE

g ^

LIMESTONE

METERS

COAL
TTTT ROOTING
-^^
BURROW STRUCTURE

KILOMETERS

FIG. 3A, Back-barrier deposits including storm washovers, tidal channels, and flood-tidal delta exposed in clay
pit along Interstate 64 west of Olive Hill, Kentucky. Side panels based on greater than 95% exposure (Home and
Ferm, 1976). B, Barrier and back-barrier environments including tidal channels and flood-tidal deltas exposed in
Carter Caves State Park region near Olive Hill, Kentucky (Home and Ferm, 1976).

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2385

WAMP
BANDONED
TIDAL CHANNEL
^ ^ n ^ ^ l D A L FLAT

COAL SEAT ROCK. CLAYEY

SILTSTONE WITH QUARTZOSE SANDTONE FLASERS
CLAY SHALE WITH SIDERITE BANDS,BURROWED, FOSSILIFEROUS

LAGOON
COAL SEATROCK.CLAYEY

STORM
WASHOVERS

SANDSTONE,QUARTZOSE PLANAR ACCRETION BEDS

SHALE AND SILTSTONE.COARSENING UPWARD, BURROWED

^LAGOON

CLAY SHALE, SIDERITE BANDS, LIMESTONE, BURROWED,

FOSSILIFEROUS
COAL SEAT ROCK,CLAYEY
SANDSTONE, QUARTZOSE, FINING UPWARD,
RIPPLED AND CROSS-BEDDED

SWAMP
TIDAL CHANNEL
TIDAL FLAT

SILTSTONE WITH SANDSTONE FLASERS

BURROWED SIDERITIC SANDSTONE

FLOOD-TIDAL
\- DELTA

SANDSTONE QUARTZOSE, CROSS-BEDDED

SHALE AND SILTSTONE,COARSENING UPWARD, BURROWED

LAGOON
CLAY SHALE, SIDERITE BANDS, BURROWED, FOSSILIFERO

FIG. 4Generalized vertical sequence through back-barrier deposits in Carboniferous of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia.
al lower and lateral contacts. Grain size increases
upward in the sequence and toward the center of
the bar. Laterally persistent fining-upward graded
beds are common on the flanks of the bars as are
oscillation and current-rippled surfaces, whereas
multidirectional festoon cross-beds are prevalent
in the central part of the bar. In the central area,
there is little lateral continuity of beds owing to
multiple scouring by flood currents. Slumps and
flow rolls are associated with the flanks and front
of the mouth bar where the sediment interface
steepened beyond the angle of repose. Fossils and
burrow structures are generally absent within the
bar deposits but, where subaerial levees are constructed protecting the interdistributary areas
from the rapid influx of detrital sediments, organisms returned and burrowed the flanks of the bar.
Distributary channels in the lower delta plain
are characterized by two types of sedimentary
fill: active and abandoned. Because channels in
the lower delta plain are straight with little tendency to migrate laterally, active channel-fill deposits containing point-bar accretion beds are not
common. Where present, these deposits consist of
sandy sequences up to 60 ft (18 m) thick and

1,000 ft (300 m) wide and grade upward from

coarse to fine with trough cross-beds in the lower
part and ripple drift in the upper. The basal contact, which is scoured along an undulating or
wavy surface, in many places truncates the underlying distributary-mouth bar and bay deposits.
Commonly, pebble-lag conglomerates are present
at the base of the channel deposits as are coal
"spars" which represent compressed pieces of
wood or bark.
Because of the rapid abandonment of distributaries, fine-grained clay plugs are the predominant type of channel fill in the Carboniferous
lower delta-plain deposits of eastern Kentucky.
These abandoned fills (Fig. 7) are comprised of
clay shales, siltstones, and organic debris which
settled from suspension in the ponded water of
the abandoned distributary. In some places, thick
organic accumulations (now coal) filled these
holes. The clay shales commonly are root penetrated or burrowed. The only coarse-grained sediments present in the abandoned channels are
thin-rippled and small-scale cross-bedded sands
and silts which probably were deposited during
floods or at sites near the distributary cutoff.

2386

J. C. Home et al

Coal

Seat rock, clayey

Sandstone, fn. to rned.-grained, multidirectional planar and festoon cross-beds
Sandstone, fine-grained, rippled
Sandstone, fine-grained, graded beds
Sandstone, flow rolIs
Sandstone, fine-grained, flaser-bedded
and siltstone

DistributaryMouth Bar

L Distal Bar

Silty Shale and Siltstone with calcareous

concretions thin-bedded, burrowed,
occasional fossil

Interdistributary
Bay
Or
Prodelta

Clay Shale with siderite bands, burrowed,

fossiliferous

SAND 1 SILT
Coal
Rooted Sandstone

Channel

Sandstone, f i n e - g r a i n e d , climbing r i p p l e s
Sandstone, f i n e to medium-grained

Sandstone, med.-grained, festoon cross-beds

Congl. Lag, siderite pebble, coal spar
Sandstone, Siltstone, graded beds
Sandstone, flow rolls
Sandstone, S i l t s t o n e , flaser-bedded
S i l t s t o n e and S i l t y Shale thin-bedded,
burrowed
Burrowed s i d e r i t i c Sandstone
Sandstone, f i n e - g r a i n e d
Sandstone, f i n e - g r a i n e d , r i p p l e d
S i l t y Shale and S i l t s t o n e w i t h calcareous
c o n c r e t i o n s , t h i n - b e d d e d , burrowed
Clay Shale w i t h s i d e r i t e bands burrowed,
f o s s i l iferous

CLAY

DistributaryMouth Bar

Distal Bar
nterdistributary
Crevasse Splay
Interdistributary
Bay
Or
Prodelta

FIG. 5Generalized vertical sequences through lower delta-plain deposits in eastern Kentucky. A, Typical
coarsening-upward sequence. B, Same sequence interrupted by splay deposit (Baganz et al, 1975).

In the Carboniferous lower delta-plain deposits

of eastern Kentucky, levees are thin and poorly
developed, the largest being about 5 ft (1.5 m)
thick and 500 ft (150 m) wide. Levees consist of
poorly sorted, irregularly bedded, partially rooted
siltstones and sandstones. These beds display a
pronounced dip (about 10) away from the associated channel (Fig. 7). Coal beds, other than

those associated with abandoned fills, are thin

but relatively widespread parallel with distributary trends.
The final major component of the lower delta
plain is the crevasse splay (Fig. 8). These deposits
contain all the characteristics of coarsening-upward minideltas. They become gradationally finer
grained away from the breached levee to where

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2387

DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL

LEVEE

CREVASSE
SPLAY

MUDS

DISTRIBUTARY-MOUTH BAR SANDS

200

SANDSTONE
^SHALE AND
SI ITS TONE

BEDDING
RIPPLES

100

300

CROSS-BEDS
f " T T ROOT STRUCTURES
FLOW ROLLS
T^

BURROW STRUCTURES

FIG. 6Distributary-mouth bar sandstone exposed in interval below lower Elkhorn coals along U.S. Highway 23
north of Pikeville, Kentucky. Side panels of block diagram based on greater than 90% exposure (Baganz et al, 1975).

FIG. 7Abandoned channel fill with thin levees near Ivel, Kentucky. Levee dips away
from channel.

2388

J. C. Home et al

LEVEE
DISTRIBUTARY
CHANNEL

CREVASSE

123 SANDSTONE

SPtAY SItTSTONE AND SHALE

l^yj BAYFILL SHALE
i

COAL

SCALES

IN FEET

FIG. 8Crevasse-splay deposits exposed in interval above upper Elkhorn Nos.

1 and2502 coals
along U.S. Highway
)
5C
23 near Betsy Layne, Kentucky. Side panels of block diagram based on greater than 80% exposure (Baganz et al,
1975).
they grade laterally into interdistributary bay-fill
sequences. Commonly, an abandoned channel fill
occurs in a splay which formed as a result of the
closing of the crevasse in the levee. Carboniferous
splays vary in size with thicknesses up to 40 ft (12
m) and horizontal extents ranging from 100 ft (30
m) to 5 mi (8 km).
In contrast to the thick fine-grained bay-fill sequences of the lower delta-plain deposits, the
eastern Kentucky Carboniferous upper delta
plain-fluvial deposits are dominated by linear,
lenticular bodies of sandstone which, in cross section (Fig. 9), are 50 to 80 ft (15 to 25 m) thick and
1 to 7 mi (1.5 to 11 km) wide. These sandstone
bodies contain scoured bases, sharply truncating
the surface upon which they lie, but laterally, in
the upper part, they intertongue with gray shales,
siltstones, and coal beds (Fig. 10). The sandstone
mineralogy varies from lithic graywackes to arkoses; grain sizes are predominantly medium to
coarse. Above the scoured base, grain size diminishes upward within these sandstones; abundant
pebble lags and coal "spars" are present in the

lower part. Bedding in these sandstone bodies is

massive, with thick festoon cross-beds in the lower part; upward, these massive beds merge into
point-bar accretion beds (average dip of 17) containing smaller scale festoon cross-beds. These
beds are overlain by partially rooted sandstones
and siltstones with climbing ripples. All of these
characteristics, in addition to the lateral relations,
suggest a high-energy channel flanked by
swamps, small ponds, and lakes (Fig. 11). The upward-widening cross-sectional shape of the sandstone bodies and the point-bar accretion beds indicate that meandering was important in the
development of these deposits. These sandstone
bodies show an en echelon arrangement suggesting episodes of lateral jumping of channels into
adjoining backswamps.
Backswamp deposits consist of sequences
which, from base up, are comprised of seat earth,
coal, shale with abundant plant fossils and rare
freshwater pelecypods, siltstone, sandstone, seat
earth, and coal. The sandstone thickens laterally
and merges with the major sandstone bodies. The

NORTH

1000

SOUTH

2000

D
(D

-rIO M
5"
3

500M

i5

LEGEND
Em

SANDSTONE

Lin

SANDSTONE A N D SILTSTONE

13

SHALE A N D SILTSTONE

SIDERITE SANDSTONE

^a

BLACK SHALE

F^

PLANT SHALE

M~2

BONE SHALE

^m

COAL

FIG. 9Upper delta plain-fluvial deposits exposed along U.S. Highway 23 south of Louisa, Kentucky. Cross section is based on more than 60%
exposure along highway (Home and Baganz, 1974).

I
O
o
S.
m
X
o

o"
5'
3

00

J. C. Horne et al

2390
COAL W I T H CLAY SPLIT
SEAT ROCK, CLAYEY

BACKSWAMP
LEVEE

SANDSTONE A N D SILTSTONE,
CLIAABING RIPPLES,ROOTED

SANDSTONE,MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED

CHANNEL
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP

COAL WITH SEAT-ROCK SPLITS

SEAT ROCK, SILTY
SANDSTONE A N D SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES, ROOTED

LEVEE

SANDSTONE M E D I U M TO COARSE
GRAINED FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED

CHANNEL

CONGLOMERATE LAGSIDERITE PEBBLES

SLUMPS
SILTSTONE, THIN-BEDDED

^^rr

COAL WITH CLAY SPLITS

LAKE
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP

FIG. 10Generalized vertical sequence through upper delta plain-fluvial deposits of

eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia.

POINT BAR

SWAMP
LEVEE

SCALES
1.;

SANDSTONE

\5^

SILTSTONE AND SHALE

o.c.

^^''
-^^:/5

PEBBLE LAG
COAL
ROOTING
TROUGH CROSS-BEDS
BEDDING PLANES

301

METERS

lOOn

FEET 50

L=_ L.
300

METERS

500

1000

FEET

FIG. 11Reconstruction of upper delta plain-fluvial environments as exposed in interval around Hazard No. 6 coal along Daniel Boone Parkway and Kentucky Route 15 northeast of Hazard, Kentucky.
Side panels of diagram based on greater than 65% exposure.

Depositional iModels in Coal Exploration

thin (5 to 15 ft; 1.5 to 4.5 m), fine-grained, upward-coarsening sequences are typical deposits of
open-water bodies, probably shallow ponds or
lakes. The lateral extent of these deposits is only 1
to 5 mi (1.5 to 8 km).
Levee deposits consist of poorly sorted, irregularly bedded sandstones and siltstones that are
extensively root penetrated. They are thickest (up
to 25 ft; 8 m) near active channels, and decrease
both in grain size and thickness away from the
channels. The levee deposits also display a prominent dip (up to 10) away from the channel.
Coals in the upper delta plain-fluvial deposits are
locally thick (up to 32 ft; 10 m) but are laterally
discontinuous (sometimes pinching out within
500 ft; 150 m).
Between the lower and upper delta-plain deposits of the eastern Kentucky Carboniferous is a
transitional zone that exhibits characteristics of
both the lower and upper delta-plain sequences
(Figs. 12, 13). The fine-grained bay-fill sequences
are thinner (5 to 25 ft; 1.5 to 7.5 m) than those of
the lower delta plain. However, unlike the thin
bay-fill sequences of the upper delta plain, they
contain marine to brackish faunas and are extensively burrowed (Fig. 14).
Channel deposits (Fig. 15) exhibit features of
lateral migration such as point-bar accretion beds
similar to the channels of the upper delta plain,
but these transitional delta-plain channels are finer grained than those of the upper delta plain.
These channel deposits are single-storied sequences having one direction of lateral migration,
whereas upper delta-plain channel sandstones are
multistoried units with many directions of lateral
migration. The levees associated with these channels are thicker (5 to 15 ft; 1.5 to 4.5 m) and more
extensively root penetrated than those of the lower delta plain. Thin (5 to 15 ft; 1.5 to 4.5 m) splay
sandstones are common in these deposits but are
less numerous than in the lower delta plain, yet
they are more abundant than those of the upper
delta plain.
Because many of the interdistributary bays
filled with sediment in the transitional zone between the lower and upper delta plains, a widespread platform developed upon which peat
(coal) swamps formed. The resultant coals are
thicker and more widespread than the coals of the
lower delta plain. Most of the economically important coal seams of the Appalachian region are
in this transitional zone between lower and upper
delta-plain environments.
INTERACTION OF DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENT AND TECTONIC SETTING
Superposed on changes in lithologic character
which can be attributed to variations within and

2391

between depositional environments are those effects that arise from broad-scale contemporaneous tectonic influences. This point is illustrated
by a generalized regional cross section of the Carboniferous from Bluefield in southern West Virginia to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Fig. 16). South
of the Paint Creek fault zone, the section thickens
greatly in response to an increased rate of subsidence (Ferm, 1976).
This large differential rate of subsidence from
south to north produced very pronounced effects
on depositional environments and, consequently,
on the characteristics of distribution and quality
of the enclosed coal seams. In the southern area
of more rapid subsidence, the depositional facies
are stacked on each other and exhibit slow rates
of progradation, whereas in the more stable (less
rapid subsidence) platform area on the north the
depositional facies prograde very abruptly over
this shelf. The transition from upper delta-plain
to barrier environments occurs in a distance of
approximately 10 to 15 mi (16 to 24 km) in the
south, whereas on the more stable platform on
the north the same environmental transition occurs very gradually over a distance greater than
60 mi (96 km). The net effect of this change is
that, generally, the minable coals of southern
West Virginia display a much more restricted
lateral distribution than those of western Pennsylvania.
An equally important consequence of differential regional subsidence is the sulfur content of
coals. Coals of southern West Virginia, like those
of western Pennsylvania, show an increase in total sulfur (and reactive pyrite) as they pass from
upper delta-plain to back-barrier environments.
However, in the south, the effect is muted by the
rapid rate of sedimentation; the coals from southem West Virginia are well known for their low
sulfur content. In contrast, the coals of the Pittsburgh area, which were deposited on a stable
platform where the rates of sedimentation were
lower and chemical activity was higher than in
southern West Virginia, generally have a higher
sulfur content. The same effect may be expected
with the minor trace elements.
In addition to the regional influences of contemporaneous tectonism on depositional facies,
detailed local sedimentary responses to movements of basement features can be identified. Although most of the basement faults in eastern
Kentucky do not offset the deposits of the coal
measures, there is ample evidence of sedimentary
responses to these contemporaneously active
structures. Figure 17 is a regional cross section
(constructed from over 400 highway roadcuts) of
the coal measures exposed along U.S. Highway
23 between Pikeville, Kentucky, on the south and

2392

J. C. Home et al

IDiiiii

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2393

COAL.SEAT ROCK CLAYEY

S A N D S T O N E . F I N E - G R A I N E D , RIPPLED
SHALE AND SILTSTONE, COARSENING UPWARD
SIDERITE BANDS, BURROWED
COAL SEAT ROCK SILTY
SANDSTONE A N D SILTSTONE,CLIMBING
RIPPLES, ROOTED
SANDSTONE FINE TO M E D I U M - G R A I N E D
FESTOON CROSS-BEDOED
CONGLOMERATE LAG,SIDERITE PEBBLES
COAL.SEAT ROCK
SHALE AND SILTSTONE, COARSENING UPWARD
BURROWED
COAL.SEAT ROCK CLAYEY
SANDSTONE F I N E G R A I N E D

RIPPLED

SHALE A N D SILTSTONE COARSENING UPWARD

SIDERITE BANDS. BURROWED
COAL WITH SEAT ROCK SPLITS
SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES, ROOTED

CREVASSE SPLAY
INTERDISTRIBUTARY BAY
LEVEE
CHANNEL
:^?^?7Z^tREVASSE SPLAY
INTERDISTRIBUTARY BAY
fREVASSE SPLAY
INTERDISTRIBUTARY BAY
LEVEE
CHANNEL

SANDSTONE, FINE TO MEDIUM-GRAINED

FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
CLAY SHALE, BURROWED
COAL

FIG. 13Generalized vertical sequence through transitional lower delta-plain deposits of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia.
Louisa, Kentucky, on the north. Although this diagram has been generalized, many relations between the basement structures and lithologic variations can be observed. Terrigenous clastic
wedges thin or pinch out, and coal beds may thin
or merge over these flexures. In addition, the intensity of root penetration also may increase over
the structural highs indicating longer exposure
and deeper soil development.
Finally, the most obvious feature is the "stacking" or localization of channeling along the
flanks of these flexures, which is emphasized on
Figure 18, a block diagram of the area near the
Blaine-Woodward fault. This fault is also shown
at the north end of the regional cross section (Fig.
17) in the area 3 mi (5 km) south of Louisa, Kentucky. Regional paleocurrent analyses indicate
the channels shown on Figure 18 were carrying
sediment from southeast to northwest. However,
just south of the Blaine-Woodward fault, the paleocurrent directions indicate the channels were
deflected to the west. Thus, the channels were localized on the downthrown (southern) side of the
fault. This area should be avoided from the standpoint of coal exploration because the coals have
been removed by the channeling.
APPLICATION OF DEPOSITIONAL MODELS
The deUneation of depositional environments
can be applied to produce predictive models that

are of economic significance in coal exploration

and mine planning.
Variations in Thiciiness and Extent
The three-dimensional shape (thickness and
lateral extent) of coal bodies is affected directly
by the depositional setting in which they accumulated. The depositional environments that precede, coexist with, or are postdepositional modify
the shape of the coal bodies, as do the internal
processes active within the coal swamps. The sedimentary environments that immediately precede
the coal swamp shape the topography on which
the swamp develops. This topography affects
most directly variations in coal thickness, although to a lesser extent it also affects the lateral
continuity of the seam. Those environments that
coexist laterally with the peat (coal) swamp, as
well as internal processes within the swamp such
as the plant growth, plant decay, fires, and water
flow, directly affect the lateral continuity of the
coal-forming deposits and, to a lesser extent,
thickness variations of the seams. Following
burial of peat (coal) beds, the processes of postdepositional environments, such as channeling, may
impinge downward and modify the upper surface
of the deposits. These processes cause local thinning and the interruption of the lateral continuity
of seams by channel "washouts" (the removal of
coal by channel scouring).

2394

J. C. Home et al

CREVASSE

SPLAY

LEVEE

SWAMP

POINT BAR

\~~]
I

100

SANDSTONE
] SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE
3 0Ia

^ ^

SHALE

r7Tf
~-^
^
^5??
V>^

COAL
ROOTING
BURROW STRUCTURE
MARINE FOSSIL
BEDDING PLANES
TROUGH CROSS-BEDS

METERS

FEET 50
5ol
FEET

SCALES

1000
FEET

2000

FIG. 14Reconstruction of transitional lower delta-plain environments as exposed along U.S. Highway 23 near
Sitka, Kentucky. Side panels based on greater than 70% exposure (Home and Perm, 1976).

On a regional scale, depositional models can be

used to predict the trends of coal bodies. These
models are useful in an initial phase of coal exploration. Moreover, locally, they permit a detailed
understanding of variations in coal thickness and
lateral continuity that can aid in mine planning
and development.
Regionally, back-barrier coal bodies formed
landward of contemporaneous or preexisting barrier systems. The coal swamps developed on platforms that evolved as the result of infilling of the
lagoons behind the barriers. Coexisting and postdepositional tidal channels may modify the backbarrier coals into pod-shaped bodies. However,
the trend of these pod-shaped seams parallels the
trend of the associated barrier systems, and barriers, most commonly, are elongate parallel with
depositional strike.

By contrast, in river-dominated lower deltaplain deposits of the Appalachian Carboniferous,

the coal bodies are elongate parallel with depositional dip. This trend exists because the only sites
where peat swamps can develop are on the narrow, poorly developed levees along the distributary channels. These river-dominated lower deltaplain channels generally are straight and rapidly
prograde seaward in the direction of depositional
dip. For this reason, the coals that develop in this
environment are continuous laterally in the direction of depositional dip but discontinuous parallel
with depositional strike, being interrupted by interdistributary bay-fill deposits. These seams
commonly are relatively thin and contain numerous splits caused by crevasse splays that breached
the poorly developed levees along the distributary
channels.

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2395

ms^Mi^^^

)CXZ3EX3dCSZ3dCCZZaSDDCZ3X3SE
^^'TrTTTTTTT-T-T-^rT-T-TT-T7r-T?r-?f

t- ^ , -r f

-t7-< < <'!. f v '^ " "^^ >".<"<

lOOn
SANDSTONE
SANDSTONE
AND SIITSTONE
SHALE AND
SILTSTONE
BURROWED
SIDERITE SANDSTONE

o.o*

PEBBLE LAG

COAL

jrr

ROOTING

<2l^

SLUMP STRUCTURE

20n

600

1000

2000

FIG. 15Fine-grained point-bar, channel, and backswamp deposits exposed along Interstate 64, 4 mi west of Rush,
Kentucky (Home and Ferm, 1976).

Upper delta plain-fluvial coals also tend to

parallel depositional dip. However, they are not
so laterally continuous in that direction as the
coals of the lower delta plain. These seams occur
in pod-shaped bodies that accumulated on flood
plains adjacent to coexisting meandering channels. As a result, coals formed in this setting display abrupt variations in thickness over short
lateral distances with numerous splits occurring
in the coals near the levees of the contemporaneously active channels. In addition, postdepositional channeling may interrupt further the lateral
continuity of these seams by causing "washouts."
Within the transition zone between the lower
and upper delta plains, many of the large interdistributary bays have filled with sediment providing
a broad platform upon which widespread coal
swamps can develop. In this depositional setting,
the resultant coal bodies are extensive laterally
with an inclination to be slightly elongate parallel
with depositional strike. Similar to the upper delta
plain-fluvial coals, these transitional lower deltaplain seams develop splits adjacent to levees of

coeval channels, and in some places, they contain

"washouts" where later periods of channeling
have scoured through the coals. Although the
other depositional settings contain many economic coals, most of the important widespread coals
of the Appalachian region have accumulated in
this transition zone between the lower and upper
delta plains.
Thus, in an initial exploration phase, an understanding of the controls depositional environments exert on the shape of coal bodies is important in designing a drilling program that can trace
the trends of coal bodies. However, at the stage of
mine planning and development, a detailed
knowledge of the influence of depositional environments on variations in coal thickness is most
critical.
The Beckley coal of southern West Virginia illustrates these characteristics. Figure 19 is a paleogeographic reconstruction of the depositional
setting of the Beckley coal. This reconstruction is
based on data from 1,000 core holes in a 400 sq
mi (1,000 sq km) area. Regionally, this coal accu-

DUNKARP BASIN

POCAHONTAS BASIN

0>

AUfCHCNT

POTTS VIILI
MISSlSSIfPlAN

o
3
(D

<5.

BLUEFIELD

c * * r o w c i KM ot cicx

SCALES

0
50
KILOMETERS

F I G . 16Cross section of Pottsville a n d Allegheny Formations from vicinity of Bluefield, West Virginia, to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, showing general arrangement of
coal beds a n d depositional environments in which they formed (after Ferm a n d Cavaroc, 1969).

REGIONAL CROSS SECTION

ALONG U.S. 23
PIKEVILLE TO LOUISA, KENTUCKY

f
O

BtAINE
WAIBRIDGE
SYSTEM f f T y v ^ < t < t '>i.yT y >
LEGEND
'_ Q

ORTHOOUARTZITE

SANnSIONE

I
,

^\\ r-^'-r-'-i''^'^'^,-^

t
'J
f^^^

1 bHAlE ANO SIlISTONf

^ 1

V ^

\ ?^
^' ; < ' A r f , > ^ . ) < ^ . ^ ^

o"

BURROWED SIOEKIIE

~=H IIMESTCINE

["^'^

,
I

^..^-y-f'-: " J ^ * ^

COAl

Q>

PAINT CREEK
IRVINE
SYSTEM

ROOTS

0 KIIOMETERS

10

SCALES

FIG. 17Regional cross section of lateral relations of coal beds and enclosing lithologies exposed along U.S. Highway 23 between Louisa, Kentucky,
on north and Pikeville, Kentucky, on south. Cross section is constructed from over 400 highway roadcuts (Home et al, 1976a).

2398

J. C. Home et al

LEGEND
CZ] SANDSTONE
SHALE AND SILTSTONE
COAL
TTf
< ^

ROOTS

360

500

1000

DIRECTION OF PALEOCURRENTS

FIG. 18Localization and deflection of channeling along Blaine-Walbridge fault south of Louisa, Kentucky.
Side panels based on greater than 60% exposure (Home et al, 1976a).

mulated landward (south) of a barrier system

trending from east-northeast to west-southwest
(Galloway, 1972; Robinson, 1975). The trend of
this back-barrier coal body parallels closely that
of the associated barrier system, although it is absent in places owing to concomitant and later
tidal channels that produced "want areas" (areas
of little or no coal). Thus, the Beckley coal behaves as other back-barrier coals with respect to
coal-body shape and regional trend, and present
and future exploration programs should be designed to take advantage of these characteristics.
At the lease-tract level (15,000 acres; 6,000 ha.,
or less), an understanding of coal-thickness variations is important economically. To depict the influence depositional environments exert in controlling coal-thickness variations, the details of a
mined-out area of the Beckley coal were used
(Fig. 20).
Regionally, this mined-out area of the Beckley
coal is situated in a back-barrier depositional set-

ting (Fig. 19). The coarsening-upward sequence

that was deposited over the preexisting coal (front
panels. Fig. 20) formed as a result of the infilling
of the lagoonal area landward of the associated
barrier system. As the lagoonal area filled with
sediment, tidal flats (flasered siltstone and sandstone) and salt marshes became established between intervening tidal channels (upper surface,
Fig. 20A). This setting provided the topography
upon which the subsequent coal swamp formed.
Initially a freshwater marsh and/or swamp developed on the high areas over the previous saltmarsh surface and eventually spread over most of
the area. As plant growth continued, the smaller
channels and the upper parts of the larger channels became clogged with organic material, and
only the major tidal channels continued to remain open (Fig. 20B). Consequently, the thickness variations in the resultant coal deposit reflect
very closely the influence of the preexisting depositional topography, with the thicker coal occur-

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

r ^ ORTHOQUARTZITIC
L 2 J SANDSTONE
FIASERED
SILTSTONE

SCALES
0

KILOMETERS

tfVKLl COAL < 2'

COAL>2'

2399

3.5
1

'1

AREA
DETAILED
BLOCK DIAGRAM

MILES

FIG. 19Regional depositional setting of Beckley coal and surrounding lithologies. Reconstruction is based on data from 1,000 core holes in 400 sq mi (1,000 sq km) area. Area
enclosed by heavy lines is detailed on Figure 26.

COAL
SWAMP

X' COAL
THICKNESS

5-lOft

SANDSTONE
F ~ n FLASER-BEDDED SILTSTONE
b ^ AND SANDSTONE
p S i l SHALE AND SILTSTONE
2000 0

600

FIG. 20Block diagrams showing detailed relations of depositional topography and coal thickness. Front panels of
block diagrams are reconstructed from core-hole (average spacing, one record per 500 ft or 150 m) and mine data,
whereas plan views are reconstructed from mine maps. Depositional topography shown on surface of diagram A is
residual topography after regional dip has been removed by trend-surface program. On block diagram B, coal
thicknesses were contoured from thicknesses recorded on mine maps; within mine, elevations of base of coal and
thickness were recorded by engineers approximately every 75 ft (25 m). Regional setting of these detailed diagrams
of Beckley is shown on Figure 19.

ring in the former lows and the thinner coals over

the highs. The coal is absent or badly split in
places where a few contemporaneous tidal channels remained active.
As observed in this example, at the lease-tract
level, coal-thickness variations are closely related
to the preexisting depositional topography. This
topography is the result of the depositional environments that existed prior to coal formation. In
addition, the shape of the coal body is modified
by coexisting and postdepositional environments
such as channels. If these factors are considered
during mine planning, the main tunnels of the
mine could be designed to maximize economically the recovery of the thicker bodies of coal
while avoiding the "want areas."
COAL QUALITY: SULFUR PROBLEMS
Iron disulfides (FeSi) are present in coals either
as marcasite or pyrite. They occur as euhedral
grains, coarse-grained masses (greater than 25ft)
which replace original plant material, coarse-

grained platy masses (cleats) occupying joints in

the strata, and framboidal pyrite (Fig. 21; Caruccio et al, 1977). The last is in clusters of spherical
agglomerates comprised of 0.25/1 grains of iron
disulfide and is disseminated finely throughout
the coal and associated strata. Of these four basic
types, only the framboidal form decomposes
rapidly enough to produce severe acid mine
drainage in the absence of carbonate material
(Caruccio, 1970) and is so disseminated through
the coal that it cannot be removed in the 1.50density sink fraction in washability tests.
Research by Love (1957). Love and Amstutz
(1966), Cohen (1968), Rickard (1970), Berner
(1971, Chap. 10), and Javor and Mountjoy (1976)
suggests that the framboidal form of pyritic sulfur
is produced by sulfur-reducing microbial organisms which are found in marine to brackish waters but not fresh water. Mansfield and Spackman (1965), working with selected bituminous
coals from western Pennsylvania, have shown
petrographically that coals formed under the in-

Depositlonai Models in Coal Exploration

2401

SECONDARY REPLACEMENT

CLEAT COATS

EUHEDRA

FRAMBOIDAL
PRIMARY

FIG. 21Forms of pyrite that occur in coals.

fluence of marine water contained more sulfur

than those formed in fresh water. Similar sulfur
variations were reported by Cohen (1968) and
Cohen et al (1971) in the modern peats of the
Everglades.
Among Carboniferous coal-bearing rocks in
western Pennsylvania, Williams and Keith (1963)
demonstrated statistically that coals having roof
rocks of marine or brackish-water origin contain
more sulfur than those with roof rocks of freshwater origin. On the basis of research in the Carboniferous of eastern Kentucky and southern
West Virginia, Ferm et al (1976) and Caruccio et
al (1977) have established that sulfur present in
the framboidal form of iron disulfide is most
strongly associated with roof rocks deposited in
marine to brackish-water environments. Sim
larly, in the Everglades (Cohen et al, 1971) and

along the South Carolina coast (Corvinus and

Cohen, 1977), it has been documented that peats
with high sulfur contents in the form of framboidal pyrite are formed where the marshes are being
transgressed by marine to brackish-water environments. The only exception occurs where a sufficient thickness of sediment is introduced early
enough to shield the peat from the marine to
brackish waters.
Thus, the environments of deposition of the
sediments that overlie the coal are more important to the distribution of the type and amount of
sulfur in the coal than the environments of deposition of the sediment on which the coal developed. Consequently, coals that accumulated in
areas under marine influence such as back-barrier
and lower delta-plain environments are likely to
be overlain by marine to brackish sediments and

2402

J. C. Home et al

contain high amounts of disseminated pyritic sulfur in the reactive framboidal form.
Coals that amassed in the transitional lower
delta-plain environment were farther from marine
influences and, generally, contain less framboidal
pyritic sulfur. However, some of these coals are
overlain by sediments that were deposited in shallow-marine to brackish-water bays. That these
bays were open to marine influences is shown by
the marine to brackish faunas preserved in the
strata. Where this marine to brackish roof rock is
present, the pyritic sulfur in the underlying coal
increases greatly, most of it being present as
framboidal pyrite. For this reason, the distribution of disseminated pyritic sulfur is highly variable in the transitional lower delta plain, although,
overall, deposits in this environment are lower in
pyritic sulfur than those in the more marginal marine environments.
Upper delta-plain to fluvial environments seldom are transgressed by marine to brackish waters, and almost all coals formed in these depositional settings are low in pyritic sulfur. In
addition, most of the iron disulfide present is of
secondary origin in the forms of massive plant
replacements and cleat fillings.
At the lease-tract level, an understanding of the
controls that the depositional setting exerts on the

distribution of the amount of sulfur and the type

of pyrite can permit the exploration for low-sulfur
coals in areas where the sulfur content is usually
high. This strategy can be illustrated by an example from the Carboniferous of the eastern United
States. In this example, based on 450 core holes in
a 200 sq mi (500 sq km) area, the coal accumulated in a lower delta plain environment. Where overlain by marine to brackish roof rock, coals
formed in this depositional setting commonly display a propensity toward high (greater than 2%)
sulfur contents with most of the sulfur (greater
than 75%) in the form of framboidal pyrite (Caruccio et al, 1977). However, when splay deposits
are introduced early and are of sufficient thickness, they shield the coal from the sulfur-reducing
bacteria, and the sulfur content remains low (less
than 1%; Home et al, 1976b).
An east-west cross section (Fig. 22) through the
exploration area shows a fossiliferous hmestone
and black shale that he directly on coal X in the
eastern part of the cross section. However, the
limestone and black shale rise stratigraphically
above the coal to the west, being separated by an
intervening wedge of terrigenous clastic sediment.
The distribution and thickness of this detrital
wedge, as well as the area where the limestone
and black shale directly overlie the coal, are

EAST-WEST GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION

SANDSTONE

pg5^ LIMESTONE

SHALE AND
SILTSTONE

B l COAL

BLACK SHALE

^TT ROOTING

I00|

L L_

FEET

30|

50|

000

FEET

SCALES

KILOMETERS

FIG. 22Cross section showing distribution of lithologies overlying coal X. Location of cross section shown on
Figure 23.

2403

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

shown in Figure 23. That the detrital sediment
was introduced early and shielded the coal from
the marine to brackish waters is demonstrated by
the fact that the deposits of these waters (the
limestone and black shale) overlie the terrigenous
clastic rocks. This configuration indicates that the
detrital influx occurred before or during marine
inundation.
Figure 24 is a reconstruction of the depositional setting immediately after the formation of
coal X. It is based on data related to lithologic
and sediment-thickness variations. These data
suggest that the levees of a distributary channel in
the southwestern part of the area were breached
several times forming large splay deposits in the
north and east over the coal and into the intervening interdistributary bay. In areas removed
from this detrital influx, fossiUferous limestone
and black shale were deposited from the marine
to brackish waters of the bay.
Figure 25 illustrates the distribution of the sulfur in coal X that cannot be removed in the 1.50density sink fraction of washability tests. As expected, the coal in the eastern part of the area,
where it is overlain by roof rock of marine to
brackish origin, is high in sulfur (greater than 2%)
with most of the pyritic sulfur in the form of
disseminated framboids. On the west and south
where the coal is overlain by the wedge of terrige-

nous clastic sediment, the sulfur content decreases to less than 1%.
This example demonstrates the importance of
splay deposits in the formation of pockets of lowsulfur coal of sufficient areal extent to be economic in the lower delta-plain setting, normally a
high-sulfur coal realm. Because splay deposits
form adjacent to the distributary channels in this
depositional setting, drilling programs should be
devised to define these features. In this manner,
the areas of the lower delta plain with the greatest
potential for low-sulfur coal can be delineated.
The relations shown in this example illustrate
the closely parallel distributions of coals with disseminated pyritic sulfur and roof rock of marine
to brackish origin. Moreover, when terrigenous
clastic sediment is introduced early and is of sufficient thickness, the sulfur content in the underlying coal remains low. With a knowledge of
these characteristics and an understanding of the
depositional setting, exploration programs can be
designed to outline areas of low-sulfur coal in
what is most commonly a high-sulfur coal province.
ROOF CONDITIONS
In the mines of southern West Virginia and
eastern Kentucky, roof quality is dependent on
the interrelations of rock types, syndepositional

SCALES

miles

5
kilometers

pnqq LIMESTONE AND

^ 3 BLACK SHALE
^ ^

Otf-IOft

I lOft-20Jt

] greater than 20 ft

^ line of cross section

FIG. 23Thickness of terrigenous clastic wedge of sediment between coal X and overlying marine limestone and
black shale. Location of cross section in Figure 22 shown by heavy line.

2404

J. C. Home et al
SCALES

5
kilomalars

DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS
OF ROOF ROCK
(

FIG. 24Reconstruction of depositional setting immediately after formation of coal X. Diagram is based on data
related to lithologic and sediment-thickness variations.

SCALE
0

1 2
milM
kilomatars

SULFUR PERCENT
1

1 iMslhanl

E '2
S 2 3

ma 4
[*'] gralr than 4

FIG. 25Distribution of sulfur in coal X that cannot be removed in 1.50-density sink fraction of washability tests.

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

structures, early postdepositional compactional
traits, and later tectonic features (Ferm and Melton, 1975). Because most of the deposits of the
coal measures in this region are terrigenous clastic rocks, rock types are contingent upon grain
size and degree of cementation. Most commonly,
the syndepositional features are burrow and root
structures, bedding, and slickensided surfaces in
clayey rooted zones. Where less compactible
rocks such as sandstone are surrounded by more
compactible types such as shales and siltstones,
differential compactional features occur. Superposed on these characteristics are later tectonic
structures such as jointing and fracturing.
The best quality roof conditions in this region
of the Appalachians occur in hard graywacke
sandstones that are more than 10 ft (3 m) thick
and extend horizontally more than 2,000 ft (600
m). These sandstones were deposited in active,
laterally migrating channels. This type of channel
is predominantly in upper delta plain-fluvial and
transitional lower delta-plain depositional settings. Lag deposits, composed of shale and coal
pebbles, commonly formed near the base of the
channels. These lags can weaken the sandstone
and cause roof problems.
Unjointed,
well-cemented,
orthoquartzitic
sandstones, with similar thickness and areal extent such as the graywacke sandstones, also may
provide excellent roof conditions. Unfortunately,
they usually are jointed and fractured, and in this
state, the resulting blocks come loose causing severe roof falls. These quartzose sandstones normally are most abundant in back-barrier depositional settings in close proximity to the associated
barrier system.
In flat-bedded sandstones and interbedded
sandstones and shales, the roof quality is dependent on bed thickness. If the beds are less than 2
ft (0.6 m) thick, parting separations can occur
along bedding planes, making bolting necessary.
Where the beds are 2 to 10 ft (0.6 to 3 m) thick,
the roof conditions are excellent because bridging
strengths are sufficient to prevent falls. However,
where bed thicknesses exceed 10 ft (3 m), slickensided surfaces may develop owing to differential
compaction, and failure may occur along these
surfaces. Flat-bedded sandstones and interbedded sandstones and shales are most common in
the flanks of distributary-mouth bars and in splay
deposits. Predominantly, these features are developed best in lower delta-plain sequences, but they
also may be present in the transitional lower delta-plain setting.
Coarsening-upward rock sequences that grade
from shale upward through shales with thin sandstone streaks (flasers) to interbedded sandstone
and shale, capped by sandstones, provide few

2405

roof-support problems. However, separations at

sandstone-shale bedding planes can produce roof
falls. Hence, roof bolting is an essential precaution. Coarsening-upward rock sequences are
characteristic of bay-fill deposits. Thick widespread bay-fill units dominate the lower deltaplain depositional setting, but they are also abundant in lagoonal bay fills of the back-barrier setting. To a lesser extent, they are present in the
thin bay fills of the transitional lower delta plain.
In some places, the coals are overlain by a brittle, nonbedded, carbonaceous black claystone
that is jointed (called "cube rock" by miners).
Blocks of this "cube rock" may come loose suddenly from the roof causing dangerous falls.
Thus, this lithology always should be bolted and,
in places, it may have to be removed to prevent
dangerous roof conditions. These carbonaceous
black shales are the result of the low-energy reworking of the upper surface of peats during the
drowning phase of coal swamps. They are present, to a limited degree, in all the coal-forming
environments. However, carbonaceous shales are
developed most extensively in the transitional
lower delta-plain setting, and they may also be
abundant in lower delta-plain deposits.
Another roof problem occurs where finegrained rocks such as shales, siltstones, and shales
with sandstone streaks are extensively burrowed.
The burrow structures can reduce significantly
the strength of these fine-grained rocks and cause
roof falls. Bolting is a necessity but often is insufficient to prevent falls and, in some places, the
underlying coal must be abandoned. Extensively
burrowed fine-grained rocks are formed where
sedimentation rates are low and/or infaunal activity is intensive. The environments that are open
to marine or brackish waters, such as the backbarrier, lower delta plain, and transitional lower
delta plain are most likely to fulfill these criteria.
Some of the poorest roof conditions occur
where the coal is overlain by seat earths (silty
clays that are extensively root penetrated). These
root-penetrated, fine-grained rocks are crosscut
by slickensided planes which commonly intersect
at angles ranging between 90 and 120 and may
display pronounced local vectoral attributes
(Ferm and Melton, 1975). However, any regional
orientation of the slicked surfaces is lacking. Because of the slickensided surfaces and the extensive rooting, such fine-grained seat earths possess
little strength. So, when they are present above
coals, no amount of bolting will prevent roof falls.
Either this material must be removed, or the coal
beneath has to be abandoned.
Although the origin of these slickensided surfaces is not known, similar features are reported
in the root-penetrated swamp soils of the Missis-

2406

J. C. Home et al

sippi delta (Coleman et al, 1969). Rooting is

abundant in areas that are more continually exposed. Thus, the upper delta plain-fluvial environment and transitional lower delta-plain enviroimient have the largest potential for seat earths
to develop over coals.
Frequently, upright stumps of trees remained
when a coal swamp was buried by fine-grained
terrigenous clastic deposits. Ultimately, the cores
of these stumps filled with sediment and, with
time, the bark surrounding the sediment altered
to a thin film of coal. When the underlying coal is
removed, the stumps (called "kettles" by miners)
remain in the roof of the mine. Because the thin
film of coal has little strength and, like most trees,
the diameter of the stumps increases downward,
these "kettles" may fall suddenly of their own
weight. As they usually weigh several hundred
pounds, they can easily kill or severely injure a
worker. For this reason, they should be bolted or
removed immediately when they are encountered.
Although these buried stumps are present in all
the coal-forming environments, they are most
abundant in the upper delta plain-fluvial and
transitional lower delta-plain settings owing to
the broad flood-plain platforms for plant growth
and the rapid rates of sedimentation during
floods.
In areas where less compactible coarse-grained
rocks (principally sandstones) are present as discrete bodies in more compactible fine-grained
sediments, slickensided surfaces form at the contact between the lithologies. Zones of weakness
are developed along these surfaces, and separations may cause severe roof falls. This situation
occurs only in environments with high shale-tosandstone ratios, such as the lower delta-plain
and back-barrier depositional settings.
Another place where severe roof problems may
develop is where channel-bank slump blocks
form the roof over the coal. The slickensided
planes present with these disturbed blocks are
analogous to slicked surfaces associated with
modern channel-bank slumps. Because of the
numerous slickensided surfaces and the size of
the blocks, severe roof problems can be anticipated wherever these slumps are encountered.
Roof bolting and bracing are of little use, and the
area of the slump blocks should be avoided.
Channel-bank slump blocks (Fig. 26) develop
normally on the cutbank side of laterally migrating, meandering, stream channels. This type of
channel is most common in the upper delta plainfluvial and transitional lower delta-plain environments. In addition, cutbanks and slump blocks
may be present in the meandering tidal channels
of the back-barrier setting.

Finally, some of the most severe roof problems

arise where rider coals have formed within 20 ft (6
m) above the main seam, and the intervening
rock type is dominantly fine-grained material
such as shale or siltstone. Because the rider coals
and underlying root-penetrated clays have little
strength, they provide zones of weakness along
which separations can occur. When these separations develop, severe roof falls evolve and encompass all the material up to the rider seam. Such
areas should be circumvented wherever possible.
The rider seams developed in areas where the
levees of sediment-laden channels were crevassed
and detritus splayed over the adjoining coal
swamps. After the floodwaters subsided, the
swamps reestablished themselves, and peat, from
which the rider coals formed, accumulated. This
situation is common in any of the delta-plain environments.
As shown previously, most of the features of
roof conditions can be related to depositional or
early-stage compactional processes. It appears
probable that later tectonic events may have accentuated these early traits, but the basic characteristics seem to have been established during or
shortly after the sediments were deposited. Thus,
by depicting the depositional setting, much can
be predicted about the lateral distribution of roof
types, and potential roof problems can be anticipated (Table 2).
To demonstrate how depositional environments can affect roof conditions in underground
mines, a case history of a roof problem is illustrated for a mine in the Cedar Grove coal of
southern West Virginia. On the basis of regional
exploration data, the depositional setting in which
the Cedar Grove formed was the transitional lower delta plain (Fig. 27). In this area, peat (coal)
accumulation was interrupted at many localities
by terrigenous clastic sediment that splayed over
the coal swamp. The sediment for these splays
originated from the waters of the distributary
channel located in the northern part of the area.
After the periods of splaying, the swamp reestablished itself, and a thin rider coal developed over
the splay deposits (Fig. 28A).
Between the splays, peat accumulation continued uninterrupted, and economically thick bodies
of coal were amassed. In the area of exploration,
there were two bodies of thick coal. Separating
these two bodies of thick coal is a zone where the
coal has been split into two thinner seams by a
splay deposit (Fig. 28A). On the basis of detailed
exploratory drilling, a company developed a mine
in the western pocket of thick coal. In addition,
the company's property encompassed a sizable
part of the eastern body of thick coal and, ulti-

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

2407

FIG. 26Exposure of slump deposits along base of cutbank side of channel near Ashland, Kentucky.

Table 2.

Abundance of P o t e n t i a l Roof Problems Related to Depositional

Environments

Roof Problems

Back-Barrier

Lower Delta
Plain

Transitional Lower
Delta Plain

Fluvial and Upper

Delta Plain

Clay-r1ch Rooted Zones

3-2

2-1

Slump Blocks

1-2

3-2

2-1

1-2

Rider Coals within 20 f t .

(6 meters) of Mined
Coal (Intervening
Material Fine-grained)

3-2

2-1

1-2

Kettles (Upright Stumps)

in Fine-grained Rock

2-1

1-2

Sandstone Channels
Enclosed in Shales

1-2

2-1

3-4

Cube Rock (Non-bedded

Black Claystones)

2-1

3-2

Conglomerate and Plant

Debris Lags

3-2

2-3

2-1

Fine-grained Burrowed
Zones

1-2

1-2

2-1

3-2

Jointed Orthoquartzitic
Sandstones

1. Abundant

2. Common

3. Rare

4. Not Present

2408

J. C. Home et al

FIG. 27Transitional lower delta-plain setting in which Cedar Grove coal of southern West Virginia accumulated. Area enclosed in heavy lines is location of mine property shown in Figure 29. Cross-section location in
Figure 28 is shown by heavy line XX'.

mately, they planned to extend their mine into

that area.
With the continued removal of coal from the
thick western pocket, the mine eventually began
to impinge onto the edge of the splay (Fig. 29).
This splay divided the coal into two benches with
the interval of sediment between the benches increasing toward the center of the splay (Fig. 28A).
For this reason, as mining proceeded into the
splay, the percentage of rejects increased until it
became uneconomical to continue mining both
benches of coal.
Initially, the company tried to circumvent the
splay by going around its southern terminus but,
unfortunately, ran out of property before reaching the end of the splay. Then, they decided to
extend the mine to the eastern body of thick coal
by driving a tunnel through the splay. As neither
bench of the coal was of economic thickness by
itself, the company chose to have the tunnel follow the thicker of the two benches (the lower
seam) so they could continue to mine some coal.
In this manner, the economic losses incurred in
cutting this tunnel were to be minimized. Figure

28B is a cross section showing the planned route

of the tunnel.
As might be expected, severe roof falls were
encountered almost immediately as tunneling
proceeded under the splay. The falls encompassed all the material up to the rider coal. Undaunted, the engineers pulled out and tried again
and, then, a third time. Each time, severe roof
falls occurred.
Finally, after considerable expense and loss of
equipment, the engineers for the company were
convinced that this was not the way to reach the
eastern body of coal. At this point, a study of roof
conditions related to depositional setting was
commissioned. From this study, a revised plan for
reaching the eastern pocket of coal was proposed.
This plan took into account the geologic patterns
imposed by the depositional setting. Thus, rather
than go under the splay and contend with severe
roof problems, it was proposed that the tunnel go
directly over the top of the splay where roof conditions were favorable.
The company engineers and miners were cautioned strongly to go straight over the top of the

Deposltlonal Models in Coal Exploration

30|

SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE

SHALE AND SILTSTONE

2409

15|
I

2ol
loU

SCALE
'N ET
5000

^ / J COAL
T T - ? ROOTING
mm HEIGHT OF ROOF BOLTS

IN METERS
1000

PROPOSED ROUTE OF TUNNEL

FIG. 28A, Cross section of splay deposit that crosses mine property and splits Cedar Grove coal.
Location of cross section is shown on Figures 27 and 29. B, Location of proposed tunnel under splay
deposit; dashed line is height to which roof bolts are driven. C, Location of proposed tunnel over
splay deposit.

2410

J. C. Home et al

FIG. 29Detailed diagram of mine property showing location of mined-out Cedar Grove coal and position of
cross-section XX'.

splay and not follow the rider coal down into the
central gut of the splay (Fig. 28C). It is difficult to
convince mine owners and operators that it will
be profitable economically in the long term to
mine rock even for a short time. However, if they
had followed that rider coal into the gut of the
splay, they would have encountered considerable
difficulty in getting the machinery back out. Continuous mining machines may do well going
downhill, but they do not function well going uphill, especially when it is the steep side of a channel, and the floor is clay.
Fortunately, the warnings were heeded, and
this story has a happy ending. The tunnel over the
top of the splay has been completed, and coal is
being removed from the eastern body of thick
coal.
SUMMARY
Increased demands for energy in the face of
diminishing supplies of readily available liquid
hydrocarbons have turned the attention of the energy industries to coal. Geologic studies in the
Appalachian region have shown that many of the
characteristics of coal bedsthickness, continui-

ty, roof and floor rock, ash, sulfur, and trace-element contentscan be attributed to the environments in which the peat beds accumulated and to
the tectonic setting at the time of deposition.
These studies indicate that the topographic surface on which the coal swamp developed is a major factor in controlling its thickness and lateral
extent, whereas the environments of deposition of
the sediments deposited on top of the peat markedly influenced many aspects of coal quality and
roof conditions within mines. Rapid subsidence
during sedimentation results in abrupt lateral
variations in coal seams but favors lower sulfur
and, probably, trace-element contents, whereas
slower subsidence rates favor greater lateral continuity of seams but higher content of chemically
precipitated material.
Thus, a knowledge of depositional environments and contemporaneous tectonic influences
should aid in the exploration and development of
economic coal bodies.
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Baganz, B. P., J. C. Home, and J. C. Perm, 1975, Carboniferous and recent Mississippi lower delta plains;

Depositional Models in Coal Exploration

a comparison: Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Socs. Trans.,
V. 25, p. 183-191.
Bemer, R. A., 1971, Principles of chemical sedimentology: New York, McGraw-Hill, 240 p.
Caruccio, F. T., 1970, The quantification of reactive pyrite by grain size distribution: 3d Symposium on Coal
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2411

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