DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Tingkatan dalam komparatif bisa diekspresikan secara morfologis atau

sintaksis. Dalam bahasa Inggris misalnya, kebanyakan kata sifat yang bersifat
monosilabel atau kata sifat yang dua silabel memiliki tingkatan perbandingan
morfologis misalnya ; green (positif), greener (komparatif), greenest
(superlatif); pretty, prettier, prettiest; sedangkan kebanyakan kata sifat yang
banyak silabelnya menggunakan sintaksis yang dicontohkan sebagai berikut:
complex, more complex, most complex.
1. BENTUK POSITIF merupakan bentuk kata sifat yang paling mendasar.
Dikatakan positif karena tidak berkaitan dengan kualitas yang superior atau
inferior dibandingkan benda atau entitas lain dalam wacana. Rumusnya : (+)
Subyek + to be (kata kerja bantu) + as (kata sifat ) as + kata benda. Misalnya :
He was as white as a sheet. (-) S+ to be (not)+ as (kata sifat) as +kata
benda. Misalnya : Your coffee is not as good as the coffee my mother
makes.
2. TINGKATAN KOMPARATIF menunjukkan jumlah yang lebih besar
kualitasnya secara relatif dibandingkan sesuatu yang lain. Frasa Fatimah is
taller than her father berarti bahwa tingkat ketinggian badan Fatimah
lebih besar dibandingkan tingkat ketinggian badan ayahnya. (+) Subyek + to
be (kata kerja bantu) + kata sifat+er+than+ kata benda. Misalnya : Ainul is
cleverer than Ahmad. (+)Subyek+ to be (kata kerja bantu)+ more-kata
sifat+than+ kata benda. Misalnya : Andra is more handsome than
Andri.
3. BENTUK SUPERLATIF menunjukkan kualitas yang paling besar dst, yang
membedakan dirinya dengan yang lain. (+)Subyek +to be + the most (yang
paling)+kata sifat + in/of misalnya : Zety is the most beautiful in her
school.
Komparatif, dalam tata bahasa , merupakan properti kata sifat dan kata
keterangan yang paling banyak dipakai dalam bahasa-bahasa; bentuk ini
memerikan sistem yang membedakan tingkatan yang mana modifiernya
memberi batasan kepada complement (pelengkap).
Bahasa Inggris, karena rumitnya etimologi leksikon-nya, memiliki dua sistem
perbandingan yang paralel. Yang satu melibatkan penggunaan suffix er
(bentuk komparatif) dan bentuk est (bentuk superlatif). Infleksi ini berasal
dari pola tata bahasa rumpun Indo-Jerman, dan merupakan sebuah
cognateatau memiliki kemiripan bahasa seperti istilah Latin dengan sufiks
ior dan issimus. Mereka biasanya ditambahkan kepada kata-kata yang lebih

pendek, kata-kata yang berasal dari rumpun Anglo-saxon, dan kata-kata

pinjaman yang telah diasimilasikan ke dalam kosa kata bahasa Inggris.
Biasanya kata yang menggunakan infleksi ini memiliki silabel/suku kata yang
jumlahnya kurang dari tiga silabel. Sistem ini berisi sejumlah bentuk yang
tidak tetap (irregular forms), beberapa diantaranya seperti perubahan dari
kata sifat good, better, and best yang berisi perubahan dari bentuk positif,
komparatif dan bentuk superlatif.
Bentuk-bentuk yang tidak tetap yang lain misalnya:

Sedangkan bentuk yang tetap misalnya

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n grammar, the comparative is the form of

an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a
person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in
extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a
subordinating conjunction, such asthan, as...as, etc.[1] If three or more
items are being compared, the corresponding superlative needs to be
used instead.
Contents
[show]

[edit]Structure
The structure of a comparative in English consists normally of
the positive form of the adjective or adverb, plus the suffix -er, or (in the
case of polysyllabic words borrowed from foreign languages) the
modifier more (or less/fewer) before the adjective or adverb. The form is
usually completed by than and the noun which is being compared, e.g.
"He is taller than his father", or "The village is less picturesque than the
town nearby". Than is used as a subordinating conjunction to introduce
the second element of a comparative sentence while the first element
expresses the difference, as in "Our new house is larger than the old
one", "There is less water in Saudi Arabia than in the United States",
"There are fewer people in Canadathan in California."
[edit]Two-clause

sentences

For sentences with the two clauses other two-part comparative

subordinating conjunctions may be used:[2][3]
1. as...as "The house was as large as two put together."
2. not so / not as ...as "The coat of paint is not as [not so]
fresh as it used to be."
3. the same ... as "This car is the same size as the old one."
4. less / more ... than "It cost me more to rent than I had hoped."
[edit]Adverbs
In English, adverbs are usually formed by adding -ly to the end of an
adjective. In the comparative, more (or less) is added before the adverb,
as in "This sofa seats three people more comfortably than the other
one." Some irregular adverbs such as fast or hard do not use more, but
add an -er suffix, as the adjectives do. Thus: "My new car
starts faster than the old one" or "She studies harder than her sister
does."
For some one-syllable adjectives, the comparative of adjectives may be
used interchangeably with the comparative of adverbs, with no change
in meaning: "My new car starts morequickly than the old one" or "My
new car starts quicker than the old one".

However, if the adjective has an irregular comparative, then the adverb

must use it: "She writes better than I do" or "He threw the ball farther
than his brother did."
[edit]Null

comparative

The null comparative is a comparative in which the starting point for

comparison is not stated. These comparisons are frequently found
in advertising. For example, in typical assertions such as
"our burgers have more flavor", "our picture is sharper" or "50% more",
there is no mention of what it is they are comparing to. In some cases it
is easy to infer what the missing element in a null comparative is. In
other cases the speaker or writer has been deliberately vague in this
regard, for example "Glasgow's miles better".
Prepared by Tran Anh Thong Department of Foreign Languages
COMPARISONS
The ways to form adjectives/adverbs of the comparative and
superlative degree
:Add er/est after the adjectives/adverbs in the following cases Adjectives/adverbs of one syllable +
EX: wise wiser wisest
cold colder coldest
Adjectives/adverbs of two syllables ending in y, ow, er, le +
EX: pretty prettier prettiest
narrow narrower narrowest
clever cleverer cleverest
noble nobler noblest
+
.Adjectives/adverbs of two syllables with the stress falling on the second one
EX: polite politer politest
severe severer severest
Add more/most before the adjectives/adverbs of other cases and of 3
or more syllables
EX: handsome more handsome most handsome
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
:Note
:If the one-syllable adjectives/adverbs end in vowel+ consonant (except h, w, x, y) , double the consonant before adding er/est
EX: fat fatter fattest

If adjectives/adverbs end in consonant + y, we change y to i and add er/est

EX: happy happier happiest
If adjectives/adverbs end in vowel + y, we just add er/est EX: gay gayer gayest
If adjectives end in the suffixes of -ed, -ing, -ful, -ish, -ous and past participles used as adjectives, we add more/most before them to form
the comparative and superlative degree
.
EX: interesting more interesting most interesting
bent more bent most bent
Irregular Forms of Comparison
Positive form Comparative form Superlative form
Good Well (adj)
Well (adv)
Better Best
Bad
Badly
Worse Worst
Many
Much
More Most
Little Less Least
Old Elder (preferably used in family) Eldest Prepared by Tran Anh Thong
Department of Foreign Languages
Older (other cases) Oldest
Far
Farther ( for distance)
Further (implying abstract
(meaning
Farthest
Furthest
Late
Later
Latter (order)
Latest
Last
o Adjectives/Adverbs of two forms of comparative and superlative
degree
quiet, pleasant, common, early, often
o Structures of Positive Degree
Pattern 1
S + Be/ Vl + as + adjective + as + N/NP/O/Clause
.EX: He is as tall as me
:Note: We can use so in place of as in negative statements
.EX: You arent so tall as her

Pattern 2
.EX: Salt Lake is five times as salty as any oceans
S + Be/ Vl + times + as + adjective + as + N/NP/O/Clause
Pattern 3
S + V (V+O) + as + adverb + as + N/NP/O/Clause
.EX: I run as fast as you do
.I will practice English as hard as you will
Pattern 4
S + V (V+O) + times + as + adverb + as + N/NP/O/Clause
.EX: A plane can fly three times as fast as a helicopter can
o Structures of Comparative Degree
Pattern 1
adj-er
S + Be/ Vl +
+ than + N/NP/O/Clause
more-adj Prepared by Tran Anh Thong Department of
Foreign Languages
.EX: You look taller than me
Pattern 2
adv-er
S+V+
+ than + N/NP/O/Clause
more-adv
.EX: She can type faster than me
Pattern 3
adj-er
S + Be/ Vl + period of time +
+ than + N/NP/O/Clause
more-adj
.EX: She is twelve years younger than her husband
Pattern 4
.EX: A computer can work 500,000 times faster than a person
:The comparative and superlative in noun phrases Adj-er
More Adj
+ Noun
The most Adj
.EX: This is a more difficult question
adv-er
S + V + times +
+ than + N/NP/O/Clause
more-adv
.He is the last person to leave
Pattern 5
adj-er + and + adj-er
+ S + Be/Vl
more + and + more adj
.EX: It is getting darker and darker
.She looks more and more beautiful
Pattern 5
adv-er + and + adv-er

+S+V
more + and + more adv
EX: They are learning more and more actively.Prepared by Tran Anh Thong
Department of Foreign Languages
o Structures of Superlative Degree
Pattern 1
adj-est
S + Be/ Vl + the +
+ singular Noun + of all/in + NP
most-adj
Pattern 2
adj-est
S + Be/ Vl + the +
+ of all + plural Noun
most-adj
.EX: English is the most international language of all
.English is the most international of all languages
Pattern 3
.EX: He likes football the most
adv-est
+
+ S + V + (O) + the
most-adv
Pattern 4
adi-est
S + Vt + the + + Noun
most-adj
.EX: He ate the biggest cake yesterday
Pattern 5
adj-est
S1 + Be/ Vl + the +
+ Noun + that + S2 + has/have + ever + PP
most-adj
.EX: Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist that England has ever had
o Double Comparisons
the + adj-er, the + adj-er the + more + adj, the + more + adj the + adv-er, the + adv-er the + more + adv, the + more + adv the + adj-er, the + more + adj the + more + adj, the + adj-er the + adv-er, the + more + adv the + more + adv, the + adv-er Prepared by Tran Anh Thong Department of Foreign Languages
EX: the sooner, the better
the more intelligent, the lazier
adj-er/adv-er adj-er/adv-er
+
+ the + + , the more + adj/more + adv more + adj/more + adv
adj-er
+ the +
+N+Vmore + adj
adj-er

 + the + + N + S + V more + adj

adj-er
+ the + + S + Be/Vl more + adj
adv-er
+ the + + S + Vi/Vt+O more + adv
.EX: the more goods are produced, the cheaper they are
.the more you travel, the more you learn
o Other forms of Comparison
the former the latter .EX: I walk with a boy and a girl. The former is my friend, the latter is my sister
other + plural Noun + than + N/Pronoun .EX: I have no other friends than you
rather than + N/Pronoun .EX: I like that blouse rather than this one
+ had better (not) + Vo + + than + Vo .EX: You had better learn English than do nothing
+ would rather (not) + Vo + than Vo EX: She would rather go to work than wash dishes
1. in is world? the What longest river the
2. I most intelligent know. woman the She's
3. Carol. Mary as is calm not as
4. My my older uncle. aunt than is
5. other this more I one interesting. but is film like the
6. older My than me. father is
7. in one is He French thinks world. the tastiest food the
8. his This his the be will best . life party in in .This be best will party th
e life
9. is in the the pupil class? Who cleverest
10. powerful the Joe is boss. as as not

Intermediate
English exercise "Comparison : as.....as" created
by anonyme (05-08-2006) with The test builder

Click here to see the current stats of this English test

1. Sorry for being so late ! I ran here
mile in 10 minutes!
2. The question of the test was awfully difficult. The pupils
answered

I could. 1

they could.

3. She can rest at home

hurry.

she likes. We are not in a

4. We need your photo. It's urgent. Send it

possible.
5. My mother is really fit. She goes swimming
can: twice a week.

she

6. There's plenty to eat. They can have

they like.

7. I know he is not easy, so I will try to be

I can.

8. Although he was bored, he managed to look

usual.

.1. Comparatives : My friend is

(bad +) than me.

2. His girlfriend is
3. She is

(friendly +) than him.

(good +) than us.

4. My bed is
5. My lamp is

(comfortable +) than my sofa.

(bright -) than the sun

6. Superlatives : David is
7. Johny is

(fit +)
(suitable +) to win this programme

8. We can't stay here,

9. This song is

(good +) solution is to go back.

(melodious -) of all.

10. He is unlucky because he is

(bad +).

he Degrees of Comparison
Category - Degrees Of Comparision
Degrees of Comparison
in grammar
Topic Introduction
The Degrees of Comparison in English grammar are made with the Adjective and
Adverb words to show how big or small, high or low, more or less, many or few, etc.,

of the qualities, numbers and positions of the nouns (persons, things and places) in
comparison to the others mentioned in the other part of a sentence or expression.
An Adjective is a word which qualifies (shows how big, small, great, many, few, etc.)
a noun or a pronoun is in a sentence.
An adjective can be attributive (comes before a noun) or predicative (comes in the
predicate part):
e.g. He is a tall man. (tall adjective attributive)
This man is tall. (tall adjective predicative)
An Adverb is a word which adds to the meaning of the main verb (how it is done,
when it is done, etc.) of a sentence or expression.
It normally ends with ly, but there are some adverbs that are without ly:
e.g. She ate her lunch quickly. He speaks clearly. They type fast.

Kinds of comparison:
1. POSITIVE DEGREE: Tom is tall a boy.
In this sentence the word tall is an adjective telling us how Tom is. There is no other
person or thing in this sentence used to compare Tom with, but it is the general way of
saying about persons, animals and things that they have some quality (here tallness)
above average in general sense. The adjective word tall is said to be in the positive
form.
This comparison is called positive degree comparison.
There are two more comparisons with the positive form of the adjective words.
They are:
(i) Degree of Equality: This comparison is used to compare two persons, animals or
things to tell us that they are equal having the same quality.
There are two cats with the same height and weight, and look the same except for the
colour.
Therefore we say:
The brown cat is as beautiful as the grey cat. (= Both the cats are the same.)
The word beautiful is an adjective in the positive form, and with the conjunction
asas it expresses the degree of equality.
(ii) Degree of Inequality: This comparison is used to compare two persons, animals
or things to tell us that they are not equal not having the same quality.

The brown cat is not so beautiful as the black & white cat.
same.)

(= They are not the

The word beautiful is an adjective in the positive form, and with the conjunction
soas (and the negative not) it expresses the degree of inequality
2. COMPARATIVE DEGREE:
Tom is a tall boy.

Tom is taller than his sister.

In the second sentence the word taller is an adjective used to compare the tallness
of these two persons Tom and his sister and to tell us that Tom has more of the
quality of tallness.
Therefore, an adjective word which shows the difference of quality between twotwo
groups of persons, animals or things is said to be in the comparative form. persons,
animals or things, or
This comparison is called Comparative Degree.
There are two more degrees of comparison with the comparative form of an
adjective. They are:
(i) Parallel Degree: This comparison is used to show that the qualities of two items
(adjectives or adverbs) talked about in the given sentence go parallel, i.e. if one
quality (adjective or adverb) increases, the other quality (adjective or adverb)
increases, and if one quality decreases, the other quality also decreases.
The bigger the box, the heavier it is.
(ii) Progressive Degree: This comparison is used to show that the quality of a thing
(adjective or adverb) talked about in the given sentence increases as the time passes,
for example:
MON

TUE

WED

THU

FRI

SAT

SUN

25 27 30 33 35 38 40
Its getting hotter and hotter day by day. [as the time passes the temperature
increases] OR The days are getting hotter and hotter.
3. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE:
A musk ox is a large animal.

An elephant is larger than a musk ox.

The blue whale is the largest of all animals.

The blue whale is the largest of all animals in the world.

In this sentence the word (the) largest is an adjective used to compare the
largeness of the blue whale and to tell us that the blue whale has the most quality of
largeness.
This comparison is used to compare one person, animal or thing with more than two
persons, animals or things (the rest of the group of more than two), and to say that the
particular one has the highest degree of that
particular quality (here the
comparison is between the blue whale and the rest of the animals, more than two).
The adjective large is said to be in the superlative form.
This comparison is called Superlative Degree.
[For power presentation slides on comparisons, click on degrees.of.comparison. For
continuity, please keep clicking after each feature in each slide.]
______________
The next point to be considered is the forms of the adjectives and adverbs.
There are three forms positive form, comparative form and superlative form and
seven degrees of comparison. That means we make seven degrees of comparison
using the three forms of almost every adjective or adverb word. Therefore, it is
important for us to discuss the forms before going any further into this topic.
Most adjective or adverb words in their positive form take er to change to
comparative and est to change to superlative form. However, the words ending in
e take only r to change to comparative form and only st to change to superlative
form. And there are other differences with words having different spelling.
The meaning of an adjective or adverb in Comparative and Superlative form does not
change; it is only the form that is changed but not the meaning.
Therefore, depending on the spelling, the adjective or adverb words are separated into
groups so that we can memorise the spellings of the words in their different forms
easily.
Positive comparative superlative
a) the words which end in e belong to his group and take only r in
comparative form and st in superlative form:
brave braver the bravest
large larger the largest
wise wiser the wisest
b) the words which end in any letter other than e and/or y belong to this group and
take er in comparative form and est in superlative from:

sweet sweeter the sweetest

tall taller the tallest
young younger the youngest
c) the words which end in y preceded by a consonant belong to this group; they lose
the last letter y and take ier in the comparative form and iest in superlative form:
happy happier the happiest
easy easier the easiest
heavy heavier the heaviest
The words which end in y preceded by a vowel, however, do not change their
spelling but take r/er in
comparative form and st/est in superlative form: e.g. gay gayer gayest (this
word is now considered old-fashioned in the sense of happy; excited, and in the
present day English it is used for male homosexual).
d) the words which end in a consonant having a vowel before that consonant
belong to this group, and have their last consonant letter doubled before taking er
in comparative form and est in superlative form:
red redder the reddest
thin thinner the thinnest
hot hotter the hottest
e) the words which have two or more vowel sounds in them belong to this group,
and take the word more before them in comparative form and the word (the)
most in superlative form:
beautiful

more beautiful

the most beautiful

difficult

more difficult

the most difficult

splendid

more splendid

the most splendid

f) the words in this group do not take any suffix or any other word before them, but
change their spelling and pronunciation entirely to form new words with the same
meaning, of course:
good/well better the best
bad/evil/ill worse the worst

little less/lesser* the least

much more the most
many more the most
late later/latter* the latest/last*
old older/elder* the oldest/eldest*
far farther the farthest
fore former the foremost/first*
fore further the furthest
in inner the inmost/inner most
up upper the upmost/uppermost
out outer/utter the utmost/utter most
There are some words in the list that take more than one form in comparative and
superlative form.
Each of the two words gives a different meaning; therefore, it is best to know them
well before going any further in this topic.
Late later, latter; latest, last; old elder, older; eldest, oldest
Far farther, further; farthest, furthest; near nearest, next
Later, latter; latest, last
Later and latest refer to time
Latter and last refer to position
e.g. He is later than I expected.
news. (recent news)

(he has come late)

I have not heard the latest

The latter chapters of the book are interesting. (order of position)

The last chapter is bad. (order of position)
[Suppose there are ten chapters in a book, the latter chapters could be
Chapters 7,8,9 & 10; the last chapter is chapter 10. latter is also used
to talk about the second of the two people or things mentioned.]

The word latter is, strictly speaking, used for only two persons or things; however, it
is also used for three persons or things, as in the latter of the three, but in American
English.
Elder, older; eldest, oldest
Elder and eldest are used only of persons seniority than age.
(they are used with members of the same family.)
** Elder is not used with conjunction than.
Older and oldest are used of both persons and things time (age)
e.g. John is my elder brother. Ahmed is his eldest son. (family relation seniority)
Tom is older than his sister. (of people family relation age)
Sarah is the oldest girl in the class.

(of people no family relation age)

Town Hall is the oldest building in our town. (of things age)
Tom is older than his sister. so Tom is her elder brother. and She is his
younger sister.
There are, however, some occasions where older and oldest are used for showing
the seniority of members of the same family. Here we have a good example:
Is Aunt Dee your oldest sister, Dad?
(family relation seniority but oldest
is used) Taken from BASIC SKILLS IN ENGLISH Book 6, by The Editorial Staff
of Mc Dougal, Littell and Company, USA
_______________
[According to the traditional grammar rule, we are supposed to use the definite article
'the' before the superlative form of an adjective. However, here we have a classic
example showing the article 'a' before the superlative form of an adjective by Moshe
Riess:
BIRTH AND GROWTH IN EGYPT
The first we hear of Moses is that a man of the tribe of Levi marries a woman of the
same tribe. This may the only time that the Torah mention that both parents are of the
same tribe. In this to emphasis that despite Moses growing up as an Egyptian he is a
Hebrew? They have a son. 1From this it would appear that Moses is a firstborn, but he
has an older brother Aaron and an older sister Miriam. Thus Moses appears to be an
oldest and a youngest. The Midrash has a different explanation. In Egypt a
prophecy ...]
_______________

Less/lesser
These two words are the comparative forms of the word little.
The difference is: less suggests amount, and lesser suggests degree showing
some negative sense in a choice of two!
For example,
She has less money than he (has).
Which is the lesser of the two evils, drinking or smoking?
[Both drinking alcohol and smoking tobacco are evils, but wed like to compare
and decide which one is more harmful more negative -- in this choice of two!]
Though there is a debate in the educated circles as to when and where to use
which word, less or lesser, the learners at this basic level need not worry much
about this pair, but keep an eye on these words and note down the examples
whenever they come across these words.
Foremost/first
These two words are synonyms, i.e. either word can be used. However, there is some
difference in their usage.
Foremost means the best or the most important; in a top or leading position
in a group of people or things; for example,
Gerald Durrell is one of the foremost authorities on animal protection plans.
Gerald Durrell is the first person to start a Trust (zoo) to protect the endangered
species of animals from around the world
Inmost/innermost ; upmost/uppermost; utmost/utter most
These pairs of words are synonyms. There are sentences where both these words are
used for the same context. Learners at this basic level need not worry about these
pairs right now.
[Visit WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED under VOCABULARY for more sets of
words that usually confuse us.]
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Now lets discuss each Degree in some detail:

The positive degree of an adjective or adverb is in its simple form. It is used to

denote or say the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used
when no comparison is made, but just to point out that the quality is above average.
[see figure 1] Tom is a tall boy. Here we have only one person and one quality; and
Toms quality of being tall is above average.
The comparative degree of an adjective or adverb denotes more degree of the quality
than the positive degree, and is used when two persons, animals or things, or two
sets/groups of persons, animals or things are compared with one another. [see figure
4] Tom is taller than his sister. Here we have two persons Tom and his sister
and the comparison is made to show that one is more in the quality of being tall than
the other. The word than is the conjunction we must use in the comparative degree.
In fact the example sentence in full is: Tom is taller than his sister is tall. The
predicate part in the subordinate clause (is tall) is normally not mentioned but
understood. Please see item (f) under Some Extraordinary Rules.
The superlative degree of an adjective or adverb denotes the most degree of the
quality, and is used for more than two persons, animals or things one against the
rest one having the highest degree of the quality in/of the rest. The Definite Article
the is used before the adjective word in its superlative form, and the preposition of
is used with people, animals and things and in or under with places and position.
[see figure 7] The blue whale is the largest of all the animals in the world. Here we
have the blue whale and the rest of the animals, and the blue whale has the quality of
being large in the highest degree (above all others) the supreme.
The Definite Article the is not used with the superlative form most when it is
used to mean very, and when it is used to indicate the possession of a quality in a
very high degree but without any comparison: This is most unfortunate. A
most ingenious idea! Note that it is not the definite article the that is always
used before the superlative form of an adjective or adverb. The demonstrative
adjective or the possessive adjective is also used depending on the context! e.g.
Our football player is in his best form this season.
The degree of equality of an adjective or adverb is used when two things are
compared with a quality to show that they both have the same degree of that quality.
It is almost like saying that they both are the same. [see figure 2] The positive form
of the adjective or adverb word is used with the conjunction asas. For example:
This building is as tall as the next one. In other words The two buildings are the
same in height.
The degree of inequality of an adjective or adverb is to show that two persons,
animals or things are not the same in having a quality. [see figure 3] The positive
form of the adjective or adverb word is used with the conjunction soas. For
example, The male dancer is not so graceful as the female dancer. They are not the
same in being graceful. This comparison is almost the same as the Comparative
Degree: The female dancer is more graceful than the male dancer. Or The male
dancer is less graceful than the female dancer.
The conjunction in the Degree of equality is asas, but in the Degree of
inequality the conjunction used is soas. In spoken English the conjunction

asas is accepted even in the Degree of Inequality; in written or formal British

English, however, only soas is accepted. Not everyone accepts or follows this
rule!
The parallel degree is a comparison having two adjectives or adverbs one dependent
on the other which means when one activity with one adjective or adverb increases or
decreases the other activity with another adjective or adverb also increases or
decreases. [see figure 5] For example, The higher you climb, the more difficult you
will feel. Here we have two adjectives high and difficult, and when the height of a
hill (or a ramp) increases, the difficulty in climbing also increases, and when the
height decreases, the difficulty also decreases.
The comparative form of the adjectives or adverbs is used in this comparison, and
the most important point to remember is that the article the is used before the
comparative form of the adjective or adverb words the higher and the more
difficult. {In the comparative degree, the comparative form of and adjective or
adverb is not used with any article! For example, This hill is higher than that
hill. you notice that the article the is not used before higher.}
So, what we understand from these examples is that in Comparative Degree the
comparative form of an adjective or adverb word is not used with any article in
the Parallel Degree, however, we should use the article the before the
comparative form of the adjective or adverb word!
Some dictionaries categorise the article the in this parallel degree comparison
as an adverb; some others say this use of article the before a word in its
comparative form is idiomatic (an idiom), and yet some other dictionaries accept
this as comparative degree!
The progressive degree of an adjective or adverb is used to show that some quality is
on the increase or decrease as the time or some other course of action passes. [see
figure 6] The comparative form of the word is repeated, using the conjunction and,
without any article.
The patient is getting weaker and weaker day by day.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
SOME EXTRAORDINARY RULES
There are some exceptions to some of the rules we have already discussed, and it is
necessary for any learner to know them and apply them whenever they are needed.
*In case you find the following rules difficult to understand right now, please
leave them out for the time being and proceed to the other items and try to
understand them, and once the other points in those items are clearly
understood, then you can come back to these rules to revise them one by one.
1. The comparative form with r or er in Comparative Degree is not used when we
compare two qualities in the same person, animal or thing:

e.g. Mr. George is more fast than skillful.

George One player; two qualities fast & skillful fast being more
In the example above, we have only one person, Mr. George, and two qualities
fast and skillful in him; and we are comparing those two qualities to say that he
has one quality more than the other fast being more than skillful. So in such
cases we do not use the original comparative form with r or er though the adjective
has the form, but use more before the word in its positive form. That is to say the
adjective word fast has faster for its comparative form, but we have not used it
here because we are not comparing Mr. George with anybody else, but are comparing
the two qualities Mr. George has in him!
Mr. George runs faster than Mr. David.
two players George & David one quality fast George has more faster
In this sentence Mr. George is compared with another person called Mr. David,
and the quality being only one fast, it is used in its comparative form faster.
Here is a classic example from the book The Rare Birds of Southern Africa by Dr.
Phillip Alexander Clancy, published by Winchester Press Ltd., 1985:
Due to its secretive habits, (the bird is) generally considered more rare than it is.
2. When two persons, animals or things of the same group or kind are compared
with
each other, the latter (i.e. the second of the two) of the comparison must exclude the
former (i.e. the first of the two):
e.g. Iron is more useful than any other metal. {Remember iron is a metal.}
The phrase any other shows that the metal iron is separated from the other metals
in this context. Suppose the expression is put in this way:
Iron is more useful than any metal. [without the word other], it will be the same
as saying: Iron is more useful than iron. which is meaningless because iron is itself
a metal!
Compare:
Mary is cleverer than any boy in the class. [without other]
This expression (sentence) is accepted because Mary is a girl and she is compared
with boys who are not her (gender) kind or group.
Mary is cleverer than any girl in the class. (wrong)

This expression (sentence) is not accepted because Mary is a girl and she is
compared with her own kind or group.
Therefore, this expression should be: Mary is cleverer than any other girl in the
class.
3. With the superlative form of the adjective or adverb in the Superlative Degree,
the article the must be used before the form with almost all the adjectives and
adverbs.
There are, however, a couple of words which do not take the article the before them
in some special expressions. One word most has already been mentioned in the
explanation for the Superlative Degree; the other one is best which needs to be dealt
with separately.
For example, in the expression with best wishes we do not use the article the
before best. So it is advisable to refer to a dictionary to learn about best and most
in detail.
____________________________________
As rule number 4 is related to the PERSONAL PRONOUNS, we need to revise this
topic thoroughly. Please go to the topic Personal Pronouns.
However, the following table and the short description below it may help us to take a
quick look at the PERSONAL PRONOUNS:
Person =
1st person the person speaking or narrating something
2nd person the person spoken to (the person listening to the speaker)
3rd person the rest of all the persons, animals and things that are talked about
excluding the 1st and the 2nd persons
Number = singular only one person, animal or thing; plural more than one
person, animal or thing (two, ten, a hundred, a million, etc.)
Gender = {masculine gender & feminine gender} (the sex of the person or animal)
male or female = boy or girl, man or woman
neuter very young babies of people; all the animals when spoken in general and
all the things; not man, not woman
common gender either man or woman; for example, A teacher is a person who
teaches. A teacher can be a man or a woman, so it is common gender.
CASE:

nominative case = person, animal or thing that comes before the verb and does an
action in a sentence
e.g. He is a good boy.

[He is the subject in this sentence.]

objective case = person, animal or thing that comes after the verb or preposition
in a sentence
e.g. He gave her a book.

[Her is the object of the verb gave.]

He gave a book to her. [Her is the object of the preposition to]

possessive case = used to show that something belongs somebody or something
e.g. This is my book.

[My and mine show that the book belongs to me.]

This book is mine.

My, our, your, your, his, her, its, their, their and their are called
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES because they are always used before nouns.
Mine, ours, yours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, theirs, and
theirs are called POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS because they are used without nouns
after them; the nouns whose possession they show are placed somewhere else in the
sentence (expression).
Reflexive pronouns = the action of a subject in the sentence comes back to the doer of
the action when we use these Reflexive pronouns {They are also called reciprocal
pronouns, but the function is different.}
e.g. I painted this picture myself.
[Myself in this sentence shows that the subject I did the action of painting the
picture, not bought or get somebody paint it for me. The action does not pass to any
other object but comes back to the subject]
They taught themselves.
[Themselves in this sentence shows that the subject they did not get their
education from any teacher or they did not teach anybody else, but got their education
on their own.]
4. Nominative (subjective) Case or Accusative (objective) Case or Possessive
(genitive) Case?
There is a chance of our getting confused when using personal pronouns after than
in comparative degree because the personal pronouns take different forms in different
cases. For instance, the First Person Personal Pronoun in the Nominative Case is I,
the same pronoun word in the Objective case (Accusative Case) is me and again in
the Genitive Case it is my/mine. Therefore, while using them after the conjunction

than in the comparative degree, we are bound to make some mistakes in placing the
case of the pronoun in its right form.
The following rules may clear some of the confusion:
a) When we compare two persons with one adjective or adverb in Comparative
Degree, the PRONOUN used after than must be in Nominative Case (subjective
case). This is considered formal English.
e.g. He speaks more fluently than I. [I is the nominative case]
= He speaks more fluently than I speak.
In this sentence He speaks more fluently than me speak. sounds silly.
[me is the Objective Case of the pronoun I]
Nevertheless, the Objective Case form of the pronoun is also used by many people,
including some grammarians.
This is considered informal or spoken English. For example: He is taller than me.
The famous grammarian, John Silverlight, accepted the use of Objective Case of
the Pronoun when the context demands a nominative case form in his book
More Words (page 123) quoting a letter from Mr. Gideon Cohen Jerusalem,
himself a famous person.
Therefore, we can say: She has more money than he. [he in nominative case
form]
She has more money than he has. Or *She has more money than him. [him in
objective case form]
{Sentences of this type are not very clear; there is bound to be some confusion}
b) But the objective case form is the only form to be used in cases like this one:
Peter likes his books more than her. [here her could be a girl he knows]
Explanation:
Peter likes his books 80%
Peter likes her

20% only

This sentence, if written in full is: Peter likes his books better than he (Peter) likes
her.
Therefore, in this expression only the objective case her should be used.

Lets analyse another sentence:

James talked more about drinks than them. [here them could be his friends or
associates]
them is the objective case of pronoun they
James talked about drinks 80%
James talked about them 20% only
James talked about drinks more than they. [more than they talked about drinks]
they is the nominative case form
James talked about drinks 80%
They talked about drinks 20% only
{Therefore, it is to be understood that the case of the pronoun in Comparatives
changes the meaning of the sentence.}
c) When the former (the first of the two persons, animals or things) in Comparative
Degree is in the POSSESSIVE CASE,
the latter (the second of the two persons, animals or things) must be in the possessive
case:
For example,
1. Abes book is more expensive than Jessica.

[wrong]

[Abes is in the possessive case, but Jessica is not in possessive case]

Therefore, this sentence should be
Abes book is more expensive than Jessicas (book).
2. His car is bigger than them. [wrong]
[His car is in possessive case, but them is in objective case]
Therefore, this sentence should be
His car is bigger than their car. OR His car is bigger than theirs.
d) When comparisons of actions are made with GERUND or TO-INFINITIVE,
the NON-FINITE form must be used in both the clauses of the sentence:

For example:
1. Riding a horse is not so easy as a motor bike. [wrong]
(riding Gerundial form of the verb ride; in the second part no gerundial form
Therefore, this sentence should be
Riding a horse is not so easy as riding a motor bike.
2. It is nicer to go out with someone than alone. [wrong]
(to go to-infinitive form of the verb go ; in the second part no toinfinitive form
Therefore, this sentence should be
It is nicer to go out with someone than to go out alone.
e) Use of the definite article the + comparative form:
(apart from the PARALLEL COMPARISON)
When we want to know which one of the two persons, animals or things is more or
less in the quality talked about, we use the the with the comparative form of the
adjective or adverb:
For example,
Which one of these two girls is the stronger?
However, this use of the comparative form is considered rather literary or very formal.
And in informal or spoken English a superlative form is often used instead:the
strongest? Which of these two girls is
f) Certain comparatives taken from Latin language have no positive or superlative
degree.
They all end in or but not in er. They are twelve in all.
Five of them lost their comparative meaning, and are used as positive forms.
They are: exterior, interior, ulterior, major & minor
e.g. The exterior wall of the house is made of stone; the interior walls are of wood.
Her age is a matter of minor importance.
I have no ulterior motive in offering you my help.

The other seven are used as comparative forms but are followed by to instead of
than.
They are: Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior & junior
e.g. A horse is inferior to Lilly in intelligence.
Lillys intelligence is superior to a horses.
He is junior to all his colleagues.
All his colleagues are senior to him.
g) Adjective words such as square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, and unique
cannot be compared; but we often use them in comparatives, for example:
e.g. This is the most perfect specimen I have seen. [used to show excitement]
*********************************************
Interchange of Degree of Comparison sentences:
1. Lead is the heaviest of all metals. [superlative degree] {lead is pronounced as
led}
Lead is heavier than all other metals. [comparative degree]
No other metal is so heavy as lead. [positive degree degree of inequality]
2. New York is one of the biggest of American cities. [superlative degree]
New York is bigger than most other American cities. [comparative degree]
Very few American cities are so/as big as New York. [positive degree inequality]
________________________