SALES

United States
Tel
+ 1 281 933 3339
Fax
+ 1 281 552 3150
Canada
Tel
+ 1 403 213 8769
Fax
+ 1 403 620 6333
Latin America
Tel
+ 57 310 576 2579
Europe and Africa
Tel
+ 44 1 483 277 644
Fax
+ 44 1 483 277 655

FRACTURED RESERVOIR
IMAGING SOLUTIONS

Middle East
Egypt
Tel

+ 20 127 303 224

Bahrain
Tel
+ 973 17 581 376
Fax
+ 973 17 581 375
China and Pacific Rim
+ 86 10 8453 4350
Tel
Fax
+ 86 10 8453 4351
Russia and CIS
Tel
+ 7 095 937 7741
Fax
+ 7 095 937 6782

12300 Parc Crest Drive

Tel + 1 281 933 3339
www.i-o.com/fullwave

Stafford, TX 77477 USA

Fax + 1 281 879 3626

AXIS Imaging Division

225 East 16th Avenue

Denver, CO 80203

Tel + 1 303 318 7780

Fax + 1 303 444 8632

10/2005

FRACTURED RESERVOIR IMAGING SOLUTIONS

Overview
While naturally-fractured reservoirs are becoming increasingly important contributors to the
worldwide hydrocarbon reserve and production base, they are notoriously difficult to image.
New seismic imaging technologies have been developed and are now available to help
geoscientists map fracture patterns and associated reservoir permeability changes. As a result,
E&P operators are now better able to target highly productive zones within these
heterogeneous reservoirs.

About I/O
I/O is a leading, technology-focused seismic
solutions company. The company provides

As a leading technology-focused seismic solutions company, I/O possesses the technology

toolkit and application expertise to make the most challenging fractured reservoir imaging
projects successful.

cutting-edge seismic acquisition equipment,

software, and planning and seismic processing
services to the global oil and gas industry. I/Os
technologies are applied in both land and
marine environments, in traditional 2D and
3D surveys, and in rapidly growing areas like
time-lapse (4D) reservoir monitoring and
full-wave imaging.
I/Os award-winning imaging technologies
fully integrate seismic acquisition equipment,
software and related survey design, data
management and seismic processing services.
They have been used successfully worldwide
in the hunt for oil and gas reserves. From
vibrators, energy source controllers
and sensors to acquisition recording
systems and software, our technologies
enable oil & gas companies to efficiently
acquire the highest quality seismic images

I/Os end-to-end suite of products and services enables geoscientists to:

Design surveys customized for fractured reservoir imaging, where long offsets, wide
azimuth geometries and high sensor densities are often needed to detect and resolve
fracture patterns and connectivity
Measure seismic response with high fidelity and accuracy using VectorSeis full-wave, 3C
sensors, especially to assess attributes unique to fractured reservoirs such as fast and slow
interval velocities, azimuthally-varying velocities and AVO, and shear wave splitting
intensity and orientation
Improve image quality and resolution by accounting for azimuthal velocity variations with
AZIM, I/Os suite of anisotropic velocity imaging applications
Use seismically-derived fractured reservoir parameters and subsurface information to
calibrate and generate Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) reservoir models that guide
drilling decisions and field development planning
As a proven leader in developing cutting-edge acquisition hardware and software, as well as
in offering services for seismic survey design and advanced imaging, I/O is becoming a clear
first-choice provider for E&P operators whose asset portfolios include fractured reservoirs.

and help acquisition contractors achieve

significant productivity benefits.

Fractured Reservoir Imaging Challenges

Naturally-fractured reservoirs are an important component of the global hydrocarbon reserve
and production base. In many parts of the world, including the Middle East and Mexico,
fractured reservoirs account for the bulk of production. In other areas, such as the Rockies of
North America, low permeability formations that were once considered unconventional
hydrocarbon resources are now quickly becoming mainstream.
A key part of fractured reservoir characterization is making high-quality measurements of
anisotropy, which indirectly indicates fracture orientation and intensity. In a vertically
fractured zone, AVO response will vary with azimuth. The largest variation will occur
between AVO responses parallel and perpendicular to the dominant fracturing direction.
In order to measure this anisotropy and properly characterize fractured reservoirs, geophysicists
must ensure the following:
Surveys are designed with long offsets, wide azimuths, and high station density to ensure
the subsurface is adequately sampled in all directions
Seismic data is recorded using high-fidelity, 3C sensors that capture broadband P-wave
and S-wave data (especially at lower frequencies)
Processing workflows account for P-wave Vfast and Vslow magnitudes and directions,
shear wave splitting, and azimuthally-varying AVO
All available seismic, engineering, and geologic data is integrated to relate seismic
attributes to reservoir fracturing, and to tie reservoir fracture models to actual production

I/O full-wave imaging applications throughout the world

Full-Wave Imaging
Fractured reservoirs are becoming one of the key proving grounds for the emerging
technologies of the Digital, Full-wave seismic era. Unlike conventional seismic in which only
the vertical component of particle motion is measured, full-wave acquisition involves:
Faithfully recording complete ground motion in three dimensions by recording the
full seismic wavefield, including source-generated noise
Recording the broadest bandwidth of frequencies that the Earth will return
Accurately measuring anisotropy (including amplitude and velocity variations) for both
P-waves and S-waves
Obtaining an unaliased spatial sampling of the imaging target(s) for a given dip,
frequency and velocity
VectorSeis 3C, single-point receivers are unsurpassed in their ability to measure ground
motion in 3D and record the full seismic wavefield with the highest vector fidelity in the
market. Unlike receiver arrays, VectorSeis sensors more accurately sample and measure the
full seismic response. As a single-point receiver, VectorSeis does not suffer from intra-array
statics. With only one sensor at each receiver station, VectorSeis delivers a superior response
to seismic signals compared to geophone arrays and records the broadest frequency
bandwidth that the Earth will return. When deployed in wide-azimuth, long-offset
configurations, VectorSeis acquires data with improved utility, including better characterized
seismic attributes for anisotropy and AVO analyses.
Full-wave imaging is about more than just the sensor. It is also about how surveys
are designed and how the data is processed. Measuring the full seismic wavefield
and deriving those seismic properties indicative of fracturing requires innovative
processing techniques.
GX Technology, an I/O subsidiary, provides advanced processing for full-wave data, including
anisotropy attribute volumes. I/O's award-winning AZIM suite of velocity processing
techniques generates higher-order velocity analyses quickly and with high degrees of
accuracy. AZIM rigorously identifies and corrects for azimuthally-varying velocities, delivering
broadband, high resolution seismic images and anisotropy attributes required for
characterizing reservoir fracture density and orientation.

VectorSeis

accelerometers

and

circuit

boards, showing two of three orthogonallymounted MEMS accelerometers, located at

the receiver base for noise isolation

I/Os Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) modeling service builds off the foundations of AZIM,
enabling geoscientists to seamlessly integrate seismic, engineering, and geologic data to
model the connectivity of naturally-fractured reservoirs, match seismic responses to actual
well production profiles and optimize future drilling and field development programs.

Solutions Overview
Combinations of innovative field acquisition technologies and processing techniques are
necessary to solve fractured reservoir imaging challenges. I/O offers the broadest range of
technologies and services for the most complex imaging requirements:
Advanced survey design and planning services for wide-azimuth, 3C (multicomponent)
acquisition
Award-winning, full-wave VectorSeis sensors
Industry-recognized data processing techniques (like AZIM) that address complex imaging
challenges unique to fractured reservoirs
Services and software for reconciling seismic data and attributes with reservoir,
production, and geological information to generate fracture properties for
reservoir models

VectorSeis single-point receiver, ideal for

accurate anisotropy measurements

Core, Log, Image Log and Production Data Evaluation Services

I/O experts routinely assist geoscientists in evaluating log, core and production information to
optimize seismic surveys for fractured reservoir imaging. Existing subsurface data is often
critical for designing seismic surveys and developing fractured reservoir models that link
acquired seismic data to reservoir production patterns.

Complex azimuthally-dependent frequency

attenuation patterns from a six-geophone
array

Statistics on open or conductive fracture orientations and intensities are used to characterize
the type of fracture system and the physical processes that generated the fractures. Image
logs and cores provide the initial data, and an iterative combination of local Discrete Fracture
Network (DFN) modeling and statistics are used to quantify the change in fracturing from one
well to the next. Deviations in well orientation can be corrected for, while calibration
between fracturing and production can be assessed. Interpretation of production logs
specific to fractured reservoir performance is used to develop a conceptual and quantitative
model of the reservoir plumbing. The relative influence of the matrix is also examined.
Finally, controls on reservoir performance can be calibrated to seismic attributes to predict
well performance ahead of the drill bit.

Survey Design and Planning Services

I/O can help design your fractured reservoir surveys to take advantage of the latest advances
in full-wave acquisition and processing technology. Our design experts, using GMGs MESA
survey design and modeling software, can help design tailored seismic surveys that
improve the accuracy of anisotropy measurements and improve fractured reservoir
characterization.
Full-wave imaging techniques allow surveys to be designed for image quality and accurate
anisotropy measurements rather than noise suppression. Receiver arrays that suffer from
directional bias are no longer required to mechanically filter ground roll and side-scattered
noise in the field. Rather, coherent noise filtering can now be done in processing.

Simple isotropic response of singlepoint receiver

The deployment of full-wave, single-point receivers ensures that directional bias does not
affect the recorded seismic signal. Depending on your imaging objectives, significant
reductions in the number of source and receiver points are possible when designing a survey
for image quality rather than noise suppression.
High-quality, full-wave imaging for fractured reservoirs requires full azimuthal
coverage and long offsets to capture anisotropy, as well as AVO data (particularly azimuthallyvarying AVO), azimuthally varying attenuation, and sufficient receiver density to avoid
spatial aliasing imaging objectives. I/Os survey design and planning experts are prepared to
assist in designing P-wave, C-wave and S-wave surveys that cost-effectively fulfill these goals.

Sensors
Fractured reservoir imaging requires that acquired data be of the highest bandwidth and
vector fidelity, attributes not easily addressed with geophone arrays. High-fidelity VectorSeis
sensors record the broadest bandwidth data of any seismic receiver on the market and are
unsurpassed in their ability to capture seismic measurements that provide clues to fracturing.
Because they acquire seismic data without any directional bias, they are particularly useful for
high-quality anisotropy measurements. VectorSeis sensors more accurately sample all seismic
energy, including azimuthal velocity and AVO variations. Since VectorSeis is a single-point
receiver, it does not suffer from intra-array statics problems and delivers the broadest
bandwidth data, from 1 - 2 Hz to the highest frequencies the Earth will return.
In every VectorSeis sensor, three MEMS accelerometers are mounted on a precision-machined
aluminum cube for the highest vector fidelity acquisition. VectorSeis is designed to capture
the full richness of both P-wave and S-wave motions along with their anisotropy characteristics.
VectorSeis accelerometers are located at the base of the receiver for isolation from wind and
other sources of surface noise that can contaminate seismic signals.

Seismic Data Processing Techniques

Wide-azimuth, long-offset surveys acquired with VectorSeis 3C sensors paint a more holistic,
accurate and higher utility picture of the subsurface. Because VectorSeis records the complete
seismic wavefield, high-quality AVO measurements are preserved (even for long offsets).
Taking full advantage of the acquired seismic data for fractured reservoir imaging requires a
series of special processing techniques and considerations:
Applying vector filtering techniques to attenuate ground roll and side-scattered noise and
enhance the bandwidth of the recorded P-wave energy
Isolating and removing S-wave and C-wave energy from P-wave energy to mitigate mode
contamination issues common in hard-surface areas
Rigorously handling velocity and AVO anisotropy effects, while taking advantage of
recorded P-wave energy from the horizontal components of long-offset VectorSeis sensors
Generating attribute volumes and measurements such as azimuthal AVO and velocities,
fast and slow directions for both P-waves and S-waves, and shear wave splitting
characteristics for fractured reservoir intervals
Separating overburden anisotropy effects from reservoir anisotropy effects
The conventional assumption of vertically emergent P-wave and S-wave rays has proven to be
incorrect, especially in areas where shallow, high velocity zones can significantly refract
seismic energy. Resulting problems include contamination of recorded P-wave energy with
S-wave energy, and vice versa. Additionally, amplitude measurements and AVO analyses using
long offsets are less accurate because the emergent P-waves are not vertical. If conventional
geophone arrays are used, the non-vertical component of P-wave energy will not be recorded.
Full-wave acquisition techniques record the full seismic wavefield, allowing non-vertically
emergent P-wave and S-wave energy to be isolated and characterized. Mode contamination
can also be addressed with single-point, 3C sensors, while AVO measurements should improve
if proper vector processing techniques are applied.
Wide-azimuth survey designs and VectorSeis single-point receivers enable more accurate
measurement and processing for anisotropy. Velocities must be analyzed in offset and
azimuth, but with a spatial density on scale with the sampled bin grid size. This can be
achieved in a timely manner only by using sophisticated techniques that account for
azimuthally-varying velocities.
The AZIM processing technique was designed with this consideration in mind. AZIM yields
extremely dense, azimuthal velocity volumes that can be used to correct for azimuthal
velocity variations in seismic data. In addition to clearer seismic images, these analyses
produce densely-sampled velocity volumes that can be treated as data attributes. From these
volumes, users can extract directional information, interval velocities, gradients and more,
all providing clues to the subsurface. These new insights have proven extremely helpful in
understanding the subsurface in a variety of areas, including the U.S. mid-continent and
onshore North Africa.

Reconciling Seismic Data and Attributes with Subsurface Fractured Reservoir Information
Open fractures change the response of rock in the subsurface as a function of the azimuth of
the ray path between source and receiver. These effects are seen as changes in the azimuthal
velocity (interval NMO) and amplitude (azimuthal AVO). Depending upon the reservoir
architecture and the acquisition geometry, both fracture orientation and intensity may be
calibrated to the anisotropic attributes. Quantitative calibration of the seismic anisotropy to
other sources of fracture information, such as core, image log and well production data, is
then possible.

Subsurface data coverage for conventional

shoebox

(top)

and

wide

azimuth (bottom) survey designs

Seismically-Guided Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) Modeling

Seismic Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) models can be constructed to integrate geologic,
geophysical and production attributes related to fracturing. These models can then be used
to populate a reservoir simulation model with fracture properties; in essence, extending the
hard fracture information at the well locations using soft fracture information derived from
seismic attributes between the wells.
The DFN model allows the interpreter to validate both the conceptual model of how and
where the fracturing occurs, as well as the consequences of fracturing on the reservoir
architecture. DFN will predict both volumes and rates and allow one to qualitatively calibrate
seismic anisotropy to image logs, core and production data. Models can then be used in a
go-forward mode to quantify risk and estimate success rates for multiple drilling scenarios.

Conclusions

Measured seismic anisotropy

Fractured reservoirs are a key component of most oil & gas companies upstream asset
portfolios. However, naturally-fractured reservoirs are challenging to image. Fortunately,
advanced seismic technologies and techniques are emerging that will afford asset owners
with higher quality, higher utility measurements of fractured reservoirs. When these
technologies are accompanied by innovative approaches to seismic survey design, data
processing, and reservoir modeling, E&P firms are better able to characterize these
heterogeneous reservoirs.
With better characterization comes reduced drilling risk and more finely tuned field
development and investment programs. When the imaging challenges are at their most
extreme, as they are in fractured reservoir imaging, I/O is the technology-focused seismic
solutions company that you can count on.

DFN model

Fractured reservoirs form DFN model

FRACTURED RESERVOIR IMAGING SOLUTIONS

Overview
While naturally-fractured reservoirs are becoming increasingly important contributors to the
worldwide hydrocarbon reserve and production base, they are notoriously difficult to image.
New seismic imaging technologies have been developed and are now available to help
geoscientists map fracture patterns and associated reservoir permeability changes. As a result,
E&P operators are now better able to target highly productive zones within these
heterogeneous reservoirs.

About I/O
I/O is a leading, technology-focused seismic
solutions company. The company provides

As a leading technology-focused seismic solutions company, I/O possesses the technology

toolkit and application expertise to make the most challenging fractured reservoir imaging
projects successful.

cutting-edge seismic acquisition equipment,

software, and planning and seismic processing
services to the global oil and gas industry. I/Os
technologies are applied in both land and
marine environments, in traditional 2D and
3D surveys, and in rapidly growing areas like
time-lapse (4D) reservoir monitoring and
full-wave imaging.
I/Os award-winning imaging technologies
fully integrate seismic acquisition equipment,
software and related survey design, data
management and seismic processing services.
They have been used successfully worldwide
in the hunt for oil and gas reserves. From
vibrators, energy source controllers
and sensors to acquisition recording
systems and software, our technologies
enable oil & gas companies to efficiently
acquire the highest quality seismic images

I/Os end-to-end suite of products and services enables geoscientists to:

Design surveys customized for fractured reservoir imaging, where long offsets, wide
azimuth geometries and high sensor densities are often needed to detect and resolve
fracture patterns and connectivity
Measure seismic response with high fidelity and accuracy using VectorSeis full-wave, 3C
sensors, especially to assess attributes unique to fractured reservoirs such as fast and slow
interval velocities, azimuthally-varying velocities and AVO, and shear wave splitting
intensity and orientation
Improve image quality and resolution by accounting for azimuthal velocity variations with
AZIM, I/Os suite of anisotropic velocity imaging applications
Use seismically-derived fractured reservoir parameters and subsurface information to
calibrate and generate Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) reservoir models that guide
drilling decisions and field development planning
As a proven leader in developing cutting-edge acquisition hardware and software, as well as
in offering services for seismic survey design and advanced imaging, I/O is becoming a clear
first-choice provider for E&P operators whose asset portfolios include fractured reservoirs.

and help acquisition contractors achieve

significant productivity benefits.

Fractured Reservoir Imaging Challenges

Naturally-fractured reservoirs are an important component of the global hydrocarbon reserve
and production base. In many parts of the world, including the Middle East and Mexico,
fractured reservoirs account for the bulk of production. In other areas, such as the Rockies of
North America, low permeability formations that were once considered unconventional
hydrocarbon resources are now quickly becoming mainstream.
A key part of fractured reservoir characterization is making high-quality measurements of
anisotropy, which indirectly indicates fracture orientation and intensity. In a vertically
fractured zone, AVO response will vary with azimuth. The largest variation will occur
between AVO responses parallel and perpendicular to the dominant fracturing direction.
In order to measure this anisotropy and properly characterize fractured reservoirs, geophysicists
must ensure the following:
Surveys are designed with long offsets, wide azimuths, and high station density to ensure
the subsurface is adequately sampled in all directions
Seismic data is recorded using high-fidelity, 3C sensors that capture broadband P-wave
and S-wave data (especially at lower frequencies)
Processing workflows account for P-wave Vfast and Vslow magnitudes and directions,
shear wave splitting, and azimuthally-varying AVO
All available seismic, engineering, and geologic data is integrated to relate seismic
attributes to reservoir fracturing, and to tie reservoir fracture models to actual production

I/O full-wave imaging applications throughout the world

SALES
United States
Tel
+ 1 281 933 3339
Fax
+ 1 281 552 3150
Canada
Tel
+ 1 403 213 8769
Fax
+ 1 403 620 6333
Latin America
Tel
+ 57 310 576 2579
Europe and Africa
Tel
+ 44 1 483 277 644
Fax
+ 44 1 483 277 655

FRACTURED RESERVOIR
IMAGING SOLUTIONS

Middle East
Egypt
Tel

+ 20 127 303 224

Bahrain
Tel
+ 973 17 581 376
Fax
+ 973 17 581 375
China and Pacific Rim
+ 86 10 8453 4350
Tel
Fax
+ 86 10 8453 4351
Russia and CIS
Tel
+ 7 095 937 7741
Fax
+ 7 095 937 6782

12300 Parc Crest Drive

Tel + 1 281 933 3339
www.i-o.com/fullwave

Stafford, TX 77477 USA

Fax + 1 281 879 3626

AXIS Imaging Division

225 East 16th Avenue

Denver, CO 80203

Tel + 1 303 318 7780

Fax + 1 303 444 8632

10/2005