Managing Diversity in Education: The Malaysian

Experience
Professor Datin Dr. Amla Salleh
Faculty of Education
UKM
Plenary Paper 1

Abstract
In a country such as Malaysia, with its uniquely diverse population,
national unity is essential to harmonious living among its citizens. To
achieve this, Malaysia has demonstrated serious efforts to its economic
and social programs. The meaning of national unity has evolved. The
aspiration to promote unity began as an effort to seek and develop
commonness and shared values among Malaysian. Over the years, the
concept has changed to learning to accept and respect one anothers
differences while holding shared visions of a developed nation. This paper
reports a fragment of Malaysias experience in its course to realize one of
its national agendasaspiring for a harmonious societyvia the
educational route. Since the educational curriculum determines academic
activities, the discussion will focus on Malaysian national school
curriculum from the viewpoint of the multicultural analysis
Keywords: national unity, multiculturalism, inclusiveness, national school
curriculum
*Amla Salleh, Professor of Guidance and Counselling, Department of Education and
Community Wellbeing
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 43600 Selangor, Malaysia
Email: amla@ukm.edu.my

Introduction
To begin my discussion, let me pose a question first asked in the UNESCO Delores
Commissions 1996 report, which is related to the theme of the conference todayeducation
and learner diversity.
The commission asked, Is it possible to devise a form of education which might make it
possible to avoid conflicts or resolve them peacefully by developing respect for other people,
their cultures and their spiritual values? (UNESCO, 1996).
What was the context of this question?
It was a global scenario of rising tensions and conflictsespecially in countries whose
citizens came from different cultural backgrounds. This pushed the issue of multiculturalism
onto the center stage of the debate on conflict resolution and avoidance. This discussion has
created awareness of the importance of equipping citizens, especially young people, with the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to cultivate a culture of peace and tolerance.
I find this question highly relevant to Malaysia because of the countrys need to effectively
manage its diverse, multicultural population.
Malaysia is characterized as having a plural society because its citizens are multicultural,
multi-religious, and multilingual. As of 2010, Malaysia had a total population of 28.3 million,
including 8% who were non-citizens. The population consisted of the following ethnic
groups: Bumiputera (67.4%), Chinese (24.6%), Indians (7.3%), and others (0.7%).
Since gaining independence in 1957, Malaysia has been known as a model of multicultural
society because of its serious, deliberate efforts and success in maintaining peace and
harmony among diverse people. Malaysias Federal Constitution, economic programs, and
education sectors are all intended to promote multicultural-related values and competencies.
The goal to promote unity based on citizens similarities and shared values have expanded to
encouraging acceptance and respect of differences within a shared vision for developing the
nation. The recently introduced concept of 1Malaysia values unity as equal to diversity,
which means acknowledging the presence of multiracial, multicultural, multi-religious, and
multilingual others, and as equal to inclusiveness, which means embracing and celebrating
diversity.
Although Malaysia has been regarded as a model for multicultural society, no comprehensive
study has addressed how and why Malaysia had acquired such a reputation. Research to
understand fully what elements contribute to Malaysias success in managing its multicultural
population is needed.
Multiculturalism
The term multiculturalism carries a wide variety of meanings, from positive attitudes toward
other cultures, to advocacy of equal rights for all minority groups, to policies regarding these
groups and the maintenance of cultural diversity. Caleb (1997:6) reports that multiculturalism
has been described as a salad bowl, cultural mosaic, or stew pot in contrast to a melting pot.
Modood and Ahmad (2007) define multiculturalism from a Muslim perspective and stress
two characteristics: i) mutual acceptance and ii) the celebration of commonality. Mutual
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acceptance entails interactions which generate understanding, acceptance, and respect of the
rights of others and the willingness to share public space with them. Mutual acceptance goes
beyond tolerating other religious communities, which is considered the lowest level of
acceptance (2005:198). Celebrating commonality is preferred over celebrating diversity
because the respondents believe that most cultural and religious beliefs are common to
everyone; when focusing on similarities, differences become insignificant and more
acceptable. The authors emphasize that multiculturalism is acceptable to Muslims because
Islam is naturally multicultural.
In Malaysia, the term most commonly used to describe peoples from different cultures is
multiethnic, while the mechanism to achieve harmony and peace among multiethnic people is
the promotion of unity or a united people. National unity has been set as the top priority in
the official national agenda expressed in the past 10 five-year National Economic Plans
(NEP).
For the purposes of this study, multiculturalism is defined as educational efforts to support
and develop attitudes which create and sustain unity, harmony, and peace among the
multiethnic people of Malaysia. This definition includes mutual acceptance as described by
Modood and Ahmad.
The Present Study
In this presentation, I discuss part of a large research project on National Social Cohesion in
Malaysia led by Distinguished Professor Dr. Shamsul Amri Baharudin. Specifically, I present
the findings from a subproject which I lead examining elements of multiculturalism in the
Malaysian national education curriculum.

Research Methodology
Let me briefly describe how we conducted our study. We undertook qualitative research with
an exploratory design. Using samples of documents and respondents, we performed
document content analysis and face-to-face (group and individual) interviews guided by a
protocol.
Our sample documents included the national curriculum, subject curricula for history and
Islamic education in forms 15, and teaching materials (current textbooks).The respondents
consisted of three groups of education stakeholders: those involved in curriculum
development (24 policy makers), those involved in implementing the curriculum (22
teachers), and those who benefit from the curriculum (88 students). There were a total of 134
respondents, and data were analyzed using thematic approach.

3. Multiculturalism NEPNEP 10: Definition of Unity

2. Curriculum content

4. Policy Framework
education laws and reports

Subjects (case study of history subjects)

Pedagogyteaching and learning activities
(case study of moral education)
Materialstextbooks (case study of History
and Islamic Education)
Assessmentexaminations
Co-curriculum and extra-curricular activities
Teachers multicultural competences

1.Multicultural
Elements in the
National Education
Curriculum

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study

As shown in the conceptual framework, this study encompasses four domains.

Domain 1: We examine the extent of multicultural elements in the national education
curriculum.
Domain 2: The concept of multiculturalism used in the study is derived from the
concept of national unity described by the Malaysia (NEP).
Domain 3: Multicultural elements in the curriculum are examined, particularly in the
curriculum content, syllabi for sample subjects, pedagogy (classroom teaching
and learning), teaching and learning materials (textbook content), and
teachers multicultural competences. We also look at co-curriculum and extracurricular activities.
Domain 4: These elements in the curriculum within the framework of national
education policies and.

Now let us look at the definition of curriculum given by Malaysia Education Act 1996:
An educational program that includes curricular and co-curricular
activities which encompasses all the knowledge, skills, norms, values,
cultural elements and beliefs to help develop a pupil fully in the physical,
spiritual, mental and emotional aspects as well as to inculcate and develop
desirable moral values and to transmit knowledge.
What do our education policies and frameworks say about multiculturalism?
Two major reports which stand as landmarks in Malaysian educational policy and practices
regarding unity are Razaks Report (1956) and Rahman Talibs Report (1960). These two
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reports became the main source for the 1961 Education Act, which incorporated elements of
multiculturalism into the Malayan (now Malaysian) educational system. The three major
goals of public education stated in the 1961 law are i) to promote national unity ii) to produce
the human resources required for national development, and iii) to develop a progressive,
disciplined Malaysian society. These goals were translated into the National Philosophy of
Education (NPE), which stipulates that all students should receive an integrated education
which develops their full intellectual, spiritual, emotional, and physical potentials.

The 1966 Education Act, which repealed the 1961 Education Act, initiated the
democratization of education and strengthened policies related to national unity, thereby
reinforcing diversity in education. The act stipulates that there shall be no discrimination
against any citizen in the education system and that
i) every religious group has the right to establish and maintain institutions for education
in its own religion
ii) The Malay language will be the medium of instruction in all types of national schools,
with the aim to promote national unity by developing skills to communicate within
and among various communities
iii) students mother tongue, including Chinese and Tamil (for Indian communities), will
be used as the medium of instruction at the primary level in and students will be
allowed to continue learning their mother tongue at the secondary level
Malaysias national educational policy focuses on supporting equal education rights and
giving equal educational opportunities for all school-age children (Ministry of Education
[MOE], 2005).
Among the national education policys philosophy-related goals are to develop a national
consciousness, to inculcate students with desirable moral values, such as belief in God, and
putting emphasis on universal values, high moral standards, and healthy attitudes, and to
nurture the desire for national integrity and unity
The Education Development Plan 20012010, called the blueprint, focuses on integrating
information and communication technology into the teaching and learning process. Another
emphasis is on improving the teaching and learning of the national language, which is also
the medium of instruction in schools, as well as the English language. The plan also provides
strategies for developing well-rounded students with solid communication and critical
thinking skills, adequate knowledge, and good moral values.
The following blueprint, The Malaysia Education Development Plan 20132025 (MOE,
2012) provides a clear framework for promoting elements of multicultural values. The
framework requires that all students in Malaysia develop competent critical thinking skills,
broaden their knowledge, acquire effective leadership skills, be able to converse in two
languages, possess good ethical and spiritual values, and appreciate the national identity.
Three departments under the MOE are responsible for the implementation of this plan: the
Curriculum Development, Islamic Education, and School Management divisions.

These clear policies and frameworks with elements of multiculturalism provide guidelines for
curriculum development.
National Education Curriculum
The analysis of materials related to national curriculum produced the following findings.
All schools in the national educational system use a common, locally oriented curriculum,
medium of instruction (Bahasa Melayu), and examination system. The national educational
curriculum consists of core, compulsory, and elective subjects.
The Education Act provides for a free basic education consisting of six years of primary and
five years of secondary education. Primary education is compulsory. Eleven years of
compulsory education (six years at the primary level and five at the secondary level) will be
introduced in 2015.
As stipulated in education policies and framework the role of the school curriculum is to
work towards the holistic development of the individual mentally, physically, spiritually, and
emotionally through imparting general knowledge and skills, cultivating, instilling and
fostering healthy attitudes and accepted moral values. As the curriculum is to bring forth the
Malaysian citizen who is balanced and well-rounded individual, trained, skilful, and cherishes
the national aspiration for unity, therefore elements of multicultural competency are inherent
in learning objectives.
Looking at the learning objectives 1 (socialization process) and 2 (development of personality
and attitudes) of preschool; learning objectives 2 (acquisition of complex skills and
knowledge), 3 (development of personality, attitudes and values), and 4 (leadership qualities
and self-confidence development) of primary school and learning objectives 1 (to increase
language proficiency and communication skills), 3 (acquisition of knowledge and mastery
skills and to use them in daily living), 4 (development of abilities and faculties for the
betterment of self and society) and 5 (development self-confidence and resilience to face
challenges in life) of secondary school, it is clear that these learning objectives are related to
multiculturalism.
The National Curriculum has been formulated on a number of curriculum principles to ensure
the continuity of education from preschool to primary and secondary levels; general
education for all; Integration of the intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical aspects;
Mastery of Malay Language and English Language; Emphasis on values and attitudes
development and; Life-long learning
The curriculum is content and skill-based and the integrated approach is the main focus in the
design of the curriculum. In the lists the subjects for primary and secondary schools, there are
subjects who reflect the contents of multicultural competencies such as Citizenship and Civic
Education, Moral Education and Islamic Education. The multicultural elements are also
taught in other subjects. Each subject must incorporate the inculcation of moral values and
positive attitudes. The elements of knowledge, skills and values are incorporated in order to
bring about the integrated development of the intellectual, spiritual, emotional, social and
physical aspects of the individual.

The national curriculum at both primary and secondary school levels ensures that students
develop desirable attitudes and behavior based on human, religious, and spiritual values. The
inculcation of the multicultural approach is made possible through stand alone- subjects,
carrier subjects and infusion through non-academic subjects and students activities:
Stand alone subject
( Moral Education, Islamic Education;

Civics and Citizenship Education

Academic carrier subjects

(Local Studies; History,
Geography, Languages)

Infusion/permeation through nonacademic 'carrier'

subjects/activities
Co-curricular Activities, Sports&

Games

Figure 2: Multicultural approach in School Curriculum

a) Stand-alone Subjects
There are three subjects identified as standalone subjects are Moral Education, Civics and
Citizenship Education, and Islamic Study. They are all compulsory subjects for all levels,
primary and secondary.
b) Carrier Subjects
There are seven carrier subjects. With the exception of local Language, most of these are
compulsory subjects.
Table 1: Carrier Subjects in Malaysian National Curriculum
Lower
Secondary

Upper
Secondary

History

Compulsory

Compulsory

Geography

Compulsory

Elective

Subject

Primary

Local Studies

Compulsory

Bahasa Malaysia

Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

English Language

Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

Elective

Elective

Local Language Compulsory (Mandarin in Chinese

(Mandarin, Tamil, Primary School; Tamil in Tamil Primary
Iban)

School)
Elective (National Primary School)

c) Infusion through Non Academic Subjects/Activities

The third method of inculcating multicultural elements lies within non-academic subjects,
such as Life Skills, Visual Arts, and Music, and through weekly school assemblies, cocurricular activities, and a new unity program called the Student Integration Plan for Unity.
Most of these activities are compulsory, except for Visual Arts and music which are not
compulsory for all level.
As mentioned earlier Moral Education is one of the stand alone subjects which dedicated for
the inculcation of multicultural value: The goal of Moral Education curriculum is to develop
individuals who are responsible and able to contribute towards the prosperity and stability of
the nation and the global community. The content of Moral Education is classified into seven
learning areas consisting of 40 values (Table 2).
Table 2: Learning areas in Moral Education
No.

Learning Area

Values

Self-Development

believe in God, trustworthiness, self-esteem, responsibility, humility,

tolerance, self-reliance, diligence, creativity, love, justice, rationality,
moderation

Family

love and care for parents, respect for family, family norms and ethics,
duty and obligations

Environment

love and care for the environment, harmony between people and
environment, sustainability of environment, sensitivity to
environmental issues

Patriotism

love for the nation, loyalty and devotion, willingness to sacrifice,

importance of national interest

Human Rights

protection of rights of children, women, labor, the unfortunates,

consumers

Democracy

respects for rules and regulations, freedom of speech and expression,

religious freedom, participation, openness

Peace and Harmony

living together in harmony, non-violent approach to resolve conflicts,

mutual help and cooperation, mutual respects among nations

The second stand alone subject is Civics and Citizenship Education:

Civics and citizenship education aims to inculcate awareness in pupils of their roles and
responsibilities towards society and their country, to create united members of society and
patriotic citizens, and to contribute towards the welfare of the country and the world. Civics
and citizenship education has three major components, namely knowledge, skills, and values.
8

The knowledge component is the acquisition of basic knowledge and information to become
responsible and effective citizens. Among the topics discussed are
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Identify behavior which can contribute towards development of character and conduct.
Explain role and responsibility towards family member to create a happy family.
Explain importance of living in harmony.
Understand diverse religions, tradition and culture of Malaysian society
Explain system of Malaysian government and contribution of countrys leader.
Identify challenges and threats in society.

The skills component emphasizes the process of developing skills for civic participation in
the following areas:
i. Manage self and responsibility.
ii. Practice moderation in behavior.
iii. Interact by graceful with family member, partner, and society
iv. Learn to live together for personal well-being and society.
v. Join community activity for common good.
vi. Handle self conflict, family and peer
vii. Making wise decision by considering self and other people interest.
The value component focuses on the acquisition of dispositions that provide the foundation
for civic attitudes and beliefs in the following areas:
i. Have confidence on self ability.
ii. Appreciate contribution parents and family member.
iii. Respect race and other cultures.
iv. Care for the environment.
v. Show we-spirit.
vi. Respect leader and appreciate their contribution.
vii. Show pride and love for the country.
Islamic Education
Islamic education aimed to provide basic skills of reading the al-Quran, consolidating the
faith, understanding Islamic characteristics and way of life, and the nurturing of a noble and
courteous personality. Among subjects taught in Islamic Education, History of Prophet
Muhammad (peace upon Him) and Moral Character are regarded as having elements
multicultural competencies.
In history of Prophet Muhammad there are a number of knowledge component from which
students could learn aspects of multicultural values and competencies. The topics include
Prophet Muhammad strategies and approaches in conflict resolution; his communication in
preaching of Islam (dakwah)1; his management style in family affairs and community
matters, and; his characters and values
Moral character has two major components which are knowledge component and value
component. The knowledge components covers topics such as code of conduct or etiquette
related food consuming (table manners); Relation with parents and elders; Friendship; Social
1

relation; Responsibility toward public facilities; Responsibility towards natural environment,

and ; Patriotism and nationalism. While in values component of Moral Character stresses on
the values such as harmony, love, respect, cooperate, honour and tolerance.
Teacher Competencies
On Teachers competencies, it is well established that teachers competences have direct
impacts on students learning. The rule also applies to integrating elements of
multiculturalism into the classroom. Following the four major constructs suggested by the
literature, teachers multicultural knowledge, awareness, attitudes, and skills were assessed
during classroom observations and interviews of teachers and students.
We found the following elements within each of these constructs.
The knowledge construct included students background, knowledge of the nation and other
cultures and religions, level of national language proficiency, and grasp of the subject matter.
The awareness constructs concerned national educational policies, teachers roles, cultural
differences, and the multicultural aspects of students backgrounds, including their behaviors.
In the attitude construct, teachers demonstrated good values, such as being caring, helpful,
tolerant, appreciative, respectful, good listeners, willing to share with students, professional,
and patriotic.
In the skills construct, teachers showed the ability to develop knowledge by integrating
multicultural issues into subject content, using multicultural examples, and fostering highlevel thinking. Teachers also worked to reduce prejudice towards and among students and to
strengthen their ability to discuss certain issues. Teachers treated students from different
cultural backgrounds fairly and demonstrated effective interpersonal communication by being
good listeners and helping students resolve conflicts peacefully. The theme of good classroom
management also emerged when teachers took into consideration the wellbeing of students
with diverse backgrounds when deciding the classroom sitting arrangement, decoration,
distribution of assignment and tasks, rules, and regulations.
The content of these subjects and the co-curricular activities, therefore, are designed to
cultivate values and skills of a multicultural society. Examining materials in the three stand
alone subjects and observing the classroom activities in History class provide insight on how
multicultural element is integrated into classroom practice.
Co curriculum
The second part of the curriculum being examined is the Co-curriculum which is an extension
of the classroom teaching and learning process. The activities in the co-curricular programs
are structured to provide opportunities for students to increase reinforce and put into practice
the knowledge, skills and values acquired in the classroom. Participation in co-curricular
activities is compulsory for all students. Participation in co-curricular activities begins at Year
3 in primary school. Each pupil is expected to become member at least one club/society,
uniform group and take part in one sports/game. Co-curricular activities are part of the
school hours. There are four categories of co curriculum activities:

10

Societies and clubs ; An assembly of special interest groups, some of which support
the academic subjects in the curriculum, such as English language society, drama club
and religious societies. committees to organize activities for the members

Uniform Groups: The groups require members to wear uniform. Their activities
which usually include drill, emphasis discipline, team work and leadership training.
Some of them also have community services. Examples of uniform groups are scouts,
red crescent society, police cadet and brigades

Sports and Games: Students are involved in athletes or games of their choices. This
group of co-curricular activities focuses on students physical development and motor
skills as well in the development of sportsmanship, team work, team spirit and cooperation. Most students involve in the activities at the recreational level, while others
who show potentials are encouraged to participate at competitive level.

Others: Others consist of activities with emphasis on the pursuit of certain hobbies or
providing community services such as gotong-royong in cleanliness campaign, visits
to old folks home, charity drives, etc. A student advisor is appointed to oversee
students activities.
Co curriculum provides opportunity for students to interact and to foster relationship.

Our observation of the related documents and teaching and learning materials and activities
used in and outside the classroom suggests three major themes of multicultural values:
instilling the relationship or bond between/among students, Instilling a feeling of unity and
sense of belonging and, Instilling the ability to work together

Discussion and Conclusions

Our observation of the related documents and teaching and learning materials and activities
used in and outside the classroom suggests three major themes of multicultural values:
instilling the relationship or bond between/among students, Instilling a feeling of unity and
sense of belonging and, Instilling the ability to work together
Defining curriculum as the design of the teaching and learning processes, this investigation
has found that Malaysian national curriculum has been designed to incorporate elements of
multiculturalism into the teaching and learning processes both in formal classroom learning
and in informal learning setting such as activities in co curricular, in content based subjects
like history and civic education and in process based approach across the curriculum.
The incorporation of multicultural content in the national curriculum has been guided
continuously by education policies and Malaysia five-year Economic Pelan (MEP) since
independence to the present time. This implies the genuine intention of the past and the
present government to promote a way to live together peacefully among its multi ethnics
people through education. Evidence from all the circulars (1957- present) that were studied
suggests that the implementation of multicultural policies is monitored closely. To borrow
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Nye (2007)s expression with regard to multicultural process, the approach taken by Malaysia
indicate that there is an active management and governance of managing multiculturalism in
Malaysian national curriculum.
We summarize our finding as follows:
The Malaysian national education curriculum has three major multicultural elements:
i) A multicultural approach to education; the multicultural approach includes a clear
multicultural framework and policies and active management and governance of them
ii) A multicultural process in education; the multicultural process centers on having a
common national language, syllabus, and examination system. Both English and
mother tongues are taught as second languages. Teachers possess multicultural
competencies; students continue to learn about others, having a vision of a developed
nation, become knowledgeable, skilled, and ethical citizens.
iii) Multicultural content in education; The multicultural value content includes knowing
and appreciating others cultures, languages, and religions; respecting others different
way of life; being tolerant; loving the country, or being patriotic; understanding the
constitution. These values are taught as subject content.

In conclusion, Malaysia has developed several strategies for the dynamic governance of
multicultural issues in education. Although we did not examine the impact of the curriculum,
we aware that not every step to unite the people has been realized, nor is Malaysia completely
free from racial challenges. However, the country generally enjoys more times of peace than
conflict. Such a state of affairs implies that these multicultural strategies, including those in
educational, are achieving positive impacts, while the need periodical reviews to identify
areas requiring improvement remains. Having said that, looking at the time of Dolor
Commission raised its concern on the role of education in promoting peace in 1996 and
Malaysia has designed a school curriculum with a goal to promote unity among its
multicultural people five decades before that, could Malaysia National Curriculum become
one of the models that answer such concern?

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