Nonconventional Technologies Review

Romania, June 2013

2013 Romanian Association of Nonconventional Technologies

LAYERS AFFECTED BY THERMAL PROCESSES IN THE CASE OF SOME

NONCONVENTIONAL MACHINING METHODS
Sltineanu Laureniu 1, Cotea Margareta 2, Beliu Irina 3, Gherman Lorelei 4
1

Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romania, slati@tcm.tuiasi.ro

Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romania, mcoteata@tcm.tuiasi.ro
3
University tefan cel Mare of Suceava, Romania, irina.besliu@yahoo.com
4
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romania, lo_drey@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: In the larger group of nonconventional machining processes, there are some machining processes that use the thermal
effect in order to generate a material removal from the workpiece. The theoretical analysis of such processes showed that particles
are directed to the workpiece layer and there, a part of the particles kinetic energy is transformed in thermal energy, able to melt and
even to vaporize the workpiece material. The presence of the thermal effect could generate structural changes in the surface layer
and these structural changes could be highlighted by the variation of the microhardness in surface layer, along a direction
perpendicular to the machined surface. Some experimental researches developed in the case of the hybrid machining, by electrical
discharges and by electrochemical dissolution, on test samples made of medium and high carbon content, proved a high
microhardness immediately under the machined surface and a decrease of the microhardness as the distance from the machined
surface increases; this fact shows that in the considered case, a quenching process developed.
KEY WORDS: nonconventional machining processes, kinetic energy, thermal effects, surface layer microhardness.

Such machining methods are the electrical discharge

machining,
the
electrochemical
discharge
machining, the plasma beam machining, the laser
beam machining, the electron beam machining etc.;
these machining methods are based on thermal and
chemical effects generated at the contact of particles
(electrons, ions, photons) with the workpiece
material.

1. INTRODUCTION
The current necessities of the human society
development led to the use of various machining
methods in order to obtain products able to ensure a
high level of civilization. If the machining processes
applied in manufacturing technologies are analyzed,
one can take into consideration a classification
which includes classical or traditional machining
methods and, on the other hand, non-conventional or
non-traditional machining methods. Generally, the
nonconventional machining methods could be
defined as a group of machining methods based on a
supplementary energy directed to the machining
zone, so that either a classical machining process
develops in better conditions or the material removal
occurs on new principles, fundamentally distinct in
comparison with the principle of plastic
deformation, which is valid in case of the cutting
processes or of an extended set of machining
processes involving plastic deformation as a way to
change the dimensions or the shape of the
workpiece.

The objective of this paper is to establish if common

aspects could be identified in such machining
processes, essentially based on the material removal
from workpiece due to thermal effects.
Abdulkareem et al. considered [1] that in the plasma
column specific to the electrical discharge,
machining, temperatures of about 8000-12000oC
could be reached. Also, in the case of the electrical
discharge machining, Kumar et al. appreciated [3]
that some changes could be generated by the thermal
phenomena and if one exams the structure of the
surface layer, the following layers could be
highlighted: spattered layer, recast (white) layer,
heat affected layer.
2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

A modality to transfer the supplementary energy to

the machining zone could be based on the thermal
effects; indeed, there are some nonconventional
machining methods which uses the change of kinetic
energy of various particles in thermal energy able to
contribute to the increase of the temperature of the
surface layer of the workpiece up to values when the
workpiece material is melted or even vaporized.

Lets take into consideration a particles beam

directed from a specialized source to the workpiece
surface (fig. 1).
If one supposes that the particles beam has energy
E1, at the contact with the workpiece surface this
energy is divided in:
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beam energy could be reflected by the workpiece

surface, at least in case of certain materials, able to
reflect the laser radiation.
c) A third part E4 of energy which is send to the
environment as thermal energy developed as a
consequence of the particles beam penetration in the
workpiece surface layer. In fact, this energy has a
delay in comparison with the impact moment; only
after a certain dissipation of the thermal energy
generated in the surface layer as a consequence of
the beam particles impact, one may notice that a part
of the thermal energy is directed to the environment.
d) It is clear that from the thermal energy E2
generated as a consequence of the particles beam
impact with the workpiece surface layer, only a part
E5 is really absorbed by the workpiece material,
determining here certain changes. In such
conditions, the following relation could be written:

Figure 1. Energy distribution at the workpiece surface

a) A part E2 of energy which is absorbed by the

workpiece material, determining the increase of the
surface layer temperature. The quantity E2 of energy
is influenced by the workpiece material capacity of
absorbing the radiation having a certain wave
length;

E5=E2-E4

(1)

In the case of laser beam machining with material

removal from workpiece, in order to obtain a more
controlled material removal and a higher quality of
the machined surface, along the laser beam a jet of
compressed air is sent; in this way, a supplementary
removal of the heat developed in the machining zone
could be highlighted; it is expected that the
compressed air jet contributes to a more intense
cooling of the workpiece zone previously affected
by a temperature increase.

b) A second part E3 of energy that could be

transported to the environment by the particles of the
beam rejected by the workpiece surface layer. As in
the case of energy absorption, there are properties
which facilitate the radiation penetration in the
surface layer of the workpiece, in this case one may
highlight the capacity of the material to reflect the
radiation of a certain wave length. Such a situation

It is known that in the case of the above mentioned

Figure 2. Increase of the oscillations amplitude in case of atoms found in the nodes

could be specific, for example, to the case of laser

beam directed to the workpiece surface; by
considering the radiation wavelength, one may
notice that there is the possibility that a significant

nonconventional machining processes (electrical

discharge machining, laser beam machining,
electron beam machining, ion beam machining etc.),
the particles found in the beam could be photons,
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electrons, positive or negative ions. The kinetic

energy of these particles corresponds to the known
relation:

W=

m p v 2p

of the kinetic energy in the particles beam, the

distribution of the heat energy in the workpiece
surface layer could be also in accordance with the
normal distribution law. The changes in the
aggregation state of the workpiece material as a
result of the heat developed could occur also in
accordance with the normal distribution law. From
the point of view of the machining process, one may
notice a central zone where the temperature has high
values and the workpiece material is vaporized (fig.
3); round of this zone, another characterized by the
melting of the workpiece material could be met. A
third zone could be that where only structural
changes could be noticed; of course, finally,
inclusively the zone where the material was affected
by melting and vaporizing phenomena and where the
material was re-solidified could be included in the
heat affected zone [4].

(2)

where mp is the particle mass and vp is the particle

motion speed. The particles mass could have values
in an extended range, from the negligible mass of
photons to the mass of some gas ions. It is known
the electron mass me=9.106610-28 g.
Various values could be met in case of the motion
speeds; if in case of photons, one may consider the
light speed (v=300000 km/s), this speed could be
lower in the case of ions.
In case of a metallic workpiece, it is expected that it
has a crystalline structure, with the atoms / ions
placed in the nodes. One may accept that these
atomic structures could have an oscillation motion
round the equilibrium position (fig. 2). When
particles from the incident beam succeed to
penetrate the workpiece surface layer, the energy of
the incident particles could be absorbed and the
oscillation amplitude of the atomic structures found
in nodes increases. If the oscillation amplitude
exceeds a certain value, the atomic structure could
exit from the equilibrium position and the external
observer could notice, for example, a melting
phenomenon.

If the energy in the vicinity of the particles beam

axis is not high enough, the melting and vaporizing
phenomena may be missing; this is the case of the
thermal treatments applied to metallic materials by
means of particles beams.
In case of machining processes characterized by
material removal from the workpiece, various
solutions could be used in order to remove the
vaporized material and a part of the melted material,
before its solidification. Thus, in the case of the
electrical discharge machining, the vaporized and
melted material solidifies in the dielectric liquid and
it is removed from the machining zone just as result
of the dielectric liquid circulation. In case of the
laser beam machining, the jet of compressed air sent
along the laser beam axis contributes to the removal
of the material detached as vapours or liquid
material from the workpiece. In case of the plasma
beam machining, the plasma motion is the factor
able to determine the removal of the melted and
vaporized material from workpiece. Within the
electron beam machining, a part of the material
vaporized could be absorbed as a consequence of the
vacuum pumps functioning.

If the absorbed energy is even more intense, the

oscillation amplitude of the atomic structures could
increase up to such values that the atomic structures
could leave the surface layer, being directed to the
environment; this is the case of the material
vaporisation.
If one continues the analyse of the thermal
phenomena which occur in the workpiece surface
layer, the hypothesis of a normal distribution of the
energy in the beam could be taken into consideration
(fig. 3). In a spatial coordinate system xOyz, one can
consider such a distribution, when in an axial section
through the beam, the Gausss law is valid:

f ( x) =

In all this situations, a part of the workpiece material

found in liquid state, solidifies on the surface
generated as a consequence of the machining
process characterized by material removal from the
workpiece. This means that the surface layer could
include at least three zones (fig. 4):

(x )

z 2

(3)

where x is the distance, along the abscissa axis, from

the beam axis, standard deviation and - mean of
the distribution.
As above mentioned, as a consequence of the beam
particles penetration in the surface layer, the kinetic
energy of the particles found in motion is changed in
heat energy; due to the probable normal distribution
83

a zone including the re-solidified material;

a proper heat affected zone;

the zone which was not affected by the thermal

effects.

Figure 3. Beam energy distribution and effects in the workpiece material

Figure 4. Change of the microhardness in the surface layer as a consequence of the thermal effect

3. EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

positive pole of the direct current source, the

particles which penetrate the workpiece surface
layer are the electrons. The kinetic energy of the
electrons is changed in a thermal energy and finally,
melting and vaporizing phenomena develop. Small
quantities of the workpiece material are thus
detached and arrive in the work liquid, being
removed from the work zone as a consequence of
the liquid circulation.

Consequences of the thermal effects could be met in

the surface layers obtained by applying the above
mentioned non-traditional processes.
Thus, in case of electrochemical discharge
machining process, the surface layer is generated as
a consequence of developing of electrochemical
material removal, and of the thermal effects
generated by the electrical discharges. The
electrochemical process could not exert a thermal
effect on the surface layer, since the temperature of
the electrochemical process is too lower to generate
a heat affected zone. This means that only the
electrical discharges developed between the tool
electrode and the workpiece surface could be the
factors able to thermally affect the surface layer.
Due to the connection of the workpiece to the

In order to highlight the presence of the heat affected

zone, the microhardness measuring could be applied.
The changes of the microhardness could be easier
noticed if the distance between the indenter effects is
low enough; in our case, one adopted a distance of
0.02-0.03 mm. Since in such a case there was the
risk that the marks are too close, the microhardness
was measured along two lines perpendicular on the
machined surface and, evidently, after a careful
84

4. CONLUSIONS
There is a group of non-conventional technologies
based on thermal effects generated in the surface
layer of the workpiece. Usually, a beam of atomic or
subatomic particles (atoms, ions, electrons, photons)
are sent to the workpiece surface to be machined. In
the surface layer, the kinetic energy of the particles
is changed in thermal energy, which contributes to
the material removal from the workpiece, as a result
of developing melting and vaporizing phenomena.
The material detached from the workpiece is
removed by the circulation of a fluid. As an effect of
the thermal phenomena, the structure of the surface
layer could change and such changes could be
highlighted be means of the microhardness
variation; in this paper, some experimental results
were presented, in order to prove the presence of the
so-called heat affected zone.

preparing or the surface obtained by cutting the test

sample along an axial plane to the hole obtained by
electrochemical discharge machining. The results of
the measuring the microhardness of the surface layer
[2] were included in table 1.
The experimental results were processed by means
of software based on the least squares method and
the following empirical relation was established:

HV = 798.699 4698.27 d + 11408.84d 2

(4)

d being the distance from the machined surface

where the microhardness was measured.
Table 1. Results of microhardness measuring in case of a
surface layer obtained by electrochemical discharge drilling [2]
Number
of measuring
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Distance from the

machined surface, mm
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.29

Microhardness
699
724
397
379
355
340
321
357
353
364
332
355

5. REFERENCES
1. Abdulkareem, S., Khan, A.A., Konneh, M.
Cooling Effect on Electrode and Process
Parameters
in
EDM.
Materials
and
Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 25, pp. 462-466,
(2010).
2. Cotea, M., Contribution to the study of
complex electrochemical and electrical erosion
(in Romanian). Doctoral thesis, Gheorghe
Asachi Technical University of Iai, Romania
(2009).
3. Kumar, S., Singh, R., Sethi, B.L., Surface
modification by electrical discharge machining:
A review, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol. 209, pp. 3675-3687, (2009).
4. Sltineanu, L., Cotea, M., Beliu, I., Dodun, O.
Thermal Phenomena at the Laser Beam
Machining, International Journal of Material
Forming, Vol. 3, Suppl. 1, pp. 1103-1106,
(2010).

The value of the Gausss criterion was SG=2978.525;

this value is considered as an indicator able to offer
an image concerning the adequacy of the
mathematical empirical model to the experimental
results.A graphical representation corresponding to
the empirical mathematical model could be observed
in figure 4. On can notice that in the case of a steel
containing carbon enough, phenomena of quenching
(developed as a consequence of the fast cooling of
the material after the developing the electrical
discharge) contributes to an increase of the surface
layer microhardness.

85