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Advanced Aluminum and Aluminum-Lithium

Solutions for Derivative and Next Generation
Aerospace Structures

2012-01-1874
Published
09/10/2012

Brandon Bodily, Markus Heinimann, Gary Bray, Edward Colvin and Jeffrey Witters
Alcoa
Copyright 2012 SAE International
doi:10.4271/2012-01-1874

ABSTRACT
The challenging performance and affordability goals of next
generation aircraft have accelerated the demand for advanced
structural materials and concepts capable of achieving
significant weight and cost (acquisition and operational)
reduction. To meet these aggressive weight and structural
maintenance reduction targets, future aircraft will require
structural solutions that provide increased strength, damage
tolerance and corrosion resistance. Alcoa has developed
advanced aluminum alloys and third generation aluminumlithium (Al-Li) alloys with exceptional performance and
durability capability.
This presentation first introduces the basic properties of the
new 2xxx and 7xxx series aerospace aluminum and third
generation Al-Li alloys possessing improved strength, fatigue
life, crack propagation, fracture toughness, corrosion
resistance, and, in the case of Al-Li alloys, reduced density
and increased modulus. Secondly, the results of coupon and
structural detail tests combined with trade studies for typical
short range transport aircraft demonstrate how the improved
properties of the new alloys can be used to provide weight
savings and/or maintenance improvements in current,
derivative and new aircraft. Lastly, it discusses the feasibility
of using conventional aerospace manufacturing techniques
such as stretch forming, machining, hole drilling, and
fastening.

INTRODUCTION
Airline competitiveness and the demand for improved aircraft
performance and affordability (acquisition and operational)
are driving advancements in technologies that can enable
these improvements. Improvements in engine technology,

aerodynamics, systems and structural performance all have

the effect of improving aircraft efficiency and reducing fuel
costs. Extending inspection intervals and improving aircraft
durability lead to reduced maintenance costs. These
performance improvements also need to be delivered at a cost
that solves the airline business case. From the aircraft original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) perspective these
technologies need to be readily scalable to large scale
manufacturing and support the expected build rates.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) was chosen for the
primary wing and fuselage structures of the most recent all
new twin aisle aircraft, Boeing's 787 and Airbus's
A350XWB. Structural material choices are not so definitive
for new and derivative single aisle aircraft. Bombardier chose
an advanced aluminum fuselage combined with CFRP wings
for the CSeries. The original Mitsubishi design for the MRJ
included a CFRP wing. Mitsubishi has since redesigned the
MRJ to utilize an aluminum wing box. Airbus and Boeing
decided to keep an aluminum intensive airframe when they
made their decisions to develop the A320 NEO and 737
MAX, respectively.
This paper describes the ability of advanced aluminum and
aluminum-lithium (Al-Li) alloys to enable improvements in
structural performance while utilizing the current
manufacturing supply chain, reducing manufacturing risk and
supporting rate readiness. The focus is on the applicability of
these advanced aluminum alloy products for single aisle
aircraft like the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320.

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OVERVIEW OF ADVANCED
ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
The first aluminum intensive aircraft in the early twentieth
century utilized a single alloy. As aircraft design and alloy
development capabilities progressed, aluminum alloys,
products and tempers were optimized for specific
applications. The most weight efficient structures will utilize
materials with the best balance of properties to meet the
design drivers. Modern aircraft utilize a wide variety of
alloys, tempers and product forms optimized to the specific
design drivers for distinct applications. This progression of
alloy development is illustrated in Figure 1. Advanced
aluminum alloy development continues. Major aerospace
aluminum manufacturers continue to introduce new products
to address specific design requirements and improve the
performance of future aircraft structures.

has focused on lithium additions for strength and fatigue

crack growth improvements with more balanced alloy
performance. By reducing the lithium content and optimizing
thermomechanical processing many of the shortcomings with
the previous Al-Li alloys can be overcome.(1)
This section highlights some of the structural areas on the
aircraft and introduces advanced commercial and nearcommercial alloys that have been developed to improve on
the baseline alloys currently being used for the application.

Fuselage Skins
The fuselage skins support the structural loads from the
payload as well as maintain the cabin pressure. The key
material requirements for fuselage skins are toughness,
damage tolerance and static strength. In addition to the
structural requirements, corrosion can also be a concern in the
fuselage, especially the belly sections where moisture can
accumulate during service.

Figure 1. This chart shows the progression of aluminum

alloy and temper implementation for aerospace
applications. Over time alloy and product development
have become focused towards specific applications.
The advanced aluminum alloys presented here take advantage
of alloy composition and processing parameters to achieve
the combinations of strength, damage tolerance, and
corrosion resistance necessary to enable improved structural
performance. These advanced alloys represent conventional
2000 and 7000 alloys. Additionally, many of these advanced
alloys utilize lithium as an alloying element.
The use of Al-Li alloys is not new in aerospace. One of the
earliest Al-Li alloys, 2020 was developed and found
applications in the late 1950's. When alloyed with aluminum,
lithium reduces the density, increases the modulus, improves
fatigue crack growth performance and acts as a strengthening
agent. Early Al-Li alloys had high levels of lithium as alloy
designers sought to maximize density reductions. These high
levels of lithium also resulted in poor manufacturing
characteristics, corrosion and damage tolerance performance
for these alloys. Development of third generation Al-Li alloys

Figure 2. The material properties for advanced fuselage

sheet alloys are shown as a ratio of Alclad 2524-T3
material properties.
2024-T3 sheet is the baseline sheet alloy for single aisle
fuselage structures. It has a good combination of strength and
toughness. To protect against corrosion a thin layer of pure
aluminum, alclad, is added to the surface. 2524-T3 sheet is a
more recently developed incumbent alloy. 2524 has similar
strength to 2024 with improved damage tolerance. Alcoa has
developed advanced fuselage skin alloys with strength,
damage tolerance and corrosion improvements over the
incumbent 224 sheet products. The Alcoa designated sheet
product, C51R, is a conventional 2xxx series alloy with

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improved strength, toughness and corrosion performance.

2060 is an Al-Li alloy that has increased stiffness and
reduced density in addition to improvements in strength,
damage tolerance and corrosion performance. The
comparative properties of each of these alloys are shown in
Figure 2.

Wing Plate and Extrusion Products

The wings provide the lift for the aircraft and support the full
weight. The upper and lower covers, joined by spars and ribs,
form a beam that supports the aerodynamic loads, keeping the
aircraft in flight. The wing covers of the 737 and A320
aircraft consist of a plate skin with fastened, extruded
stringers. The bending loads on the wing cause the upper
cover to be loaded in compression and the lower cover to be
loaded in tension. The principal material requirements for
upper wing plate and extrusion products are compression
strength and modulus. The principal material requirements
for lower wing plates and extrusions are tensile strength and
damage tolerance, to withstand the fatigue loads. Advanced
upper wing products include conventional alloys, like 7255
plate with increased strength and fatigue properties. Al-Li
products, like 2055 plate and extrusions, enable comparable
strength with increased stiffness and reduced density.
Property comparisons for upper wing plate alloys are shown
in Figure 3.

over the existing structures. Non-lithium advanced material

options are 2624 plate and 2026 extrusions. Al-Li alloy
options are represented by 2060 and 2199 plate and 2099
extrusions. Figure 4 shows the relative improvements in
spectrum fatigue crack growth for the advanced plate alloys,
compared to the 2024-T351 plate baseline. Figure 5
illustrates the property comparisons of the advanced stringer
alloys compared to the 2024-T3511 extrusion baseline.

Figure 4. Plot showing the comparative fatigue crack

growth performance of incumbent lower wing plate
products (2024-T351 and 2324-T39) and advanced lower
wing plate products (2624-T39, 2624-T351, 2060-T8E86
and 2199-T86) tested under a commercial aircraft lower
wing spectrum. (Courtesy of Lynne Karabin)

Figure 3. Key material properties for advanced upper

wing plate products are shown as a ratio of 7055-T7751.
Improvements for lower wing alloys focus on increased static
strength and damage tolerance, including toughness and
spectrum fatigue crack growth. Improvements in fatigue
crack growth are important to enable increased inspection and
maintenance intervals. Both conventional and Al-Li alloys
have been developed that offer performance improvements

Figure 5. Comparison of key properties for advanced

lower wing extrusion products compared to 2024-T3511.

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Thick Products
Modern aircraft designers are taking advantage of
developments in high speed machining to reduce structural
weight and cost by implementing monolithic and integrally
machined structures. Monolithic designs are being used to
replace built-up structures. Example parts are fittings,
bulkheads, wing ribs, and beams. The variety of parts
corresponds to a variety of design drivers and material
requirements. Typically, the material requirements are
strength with an acceptable level of toughness and fatigue
performance.
7050-T7451 plate and 7050-T7452 forgings are the
predominant products for machined parts today. 7050 has
good strength and corrosion performance. The desire to
further optimize machined parts has lead to advanced plate
and forged products to replace 7050 in these applications.
The need for advanced alloys to address large monolithic
parts is being met with both conventional and aluminum
lithium materials.
The ability to produce thick material with acceptable
properties is an enabler for larger monolithic parts, allowing
more features to be integrated into the structure. The
development of 7085 forging and plate products has enabled
thick, monolithic parts with acceptable properties that were
previously not possible with 7050. 7085 hand and die
forgings for aerospace applications are being produced in
sizes as thick as 300 mm. This enables monolithic parts that
were previously not possible due to thickness limitations of
the materials. The chart in Figure 6 illustrates the thick
section property improvements enabled by 7085 in for both
plate and forging products.
For moderate section thickness (up to approximately 127mm)
both conventional and aluminum-lithium alloys have been
developed that improve on the performance of baseline 7075
and 7050 plate products. The property balance of the various
advanced products enables trade-offs to be made between
strength, toughness, density and corrosion performance,
improving the ability to optimize for the varied design drivers
of machined part applications. 7065 plate represents a nonlithium aluminum alloy. 2099 plate and 2060 plate and
forgings are Al-Li alloys that have been developed with
strength, modulus, density and corrosion performance
combinations to improve on the variety of design
requirements currently addressed with 7050-T74 and 7075T73 plate products. The comparative properties are outlined
in Figure 7

Figure 6. This chart shows the comparative specification

minimum longitudinal yield strength as a function of
thickness for 7085 forging and plate products compared
to 7050 forging and plate products. The 7085 alloy is
able to achieve higher strengths in thicker sections.

Figure 7. Plot comparing characteristics of advanced

plate products for machined parts. The variation in key
properties across the alloys enables optimization for a
variety of applications.

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Floor Structures
Seat tracks, floor beams and stanchions are strength and
stiffness driven components. High strength aluminum alloys
such as 7178-T6511 and 7150-T77511 have traditionally
been employed in these applications. The floor structure is
also exposed to moisture and liquid, presenting the need for
corrosion resistance. The combination of strength, density,
modulus and corrosion performance of third generation Al-Li
alloys makes them ideally suited for use in floor structure.
The spider plot in Figure 8 shows the relative property
comparisons for 2099 and 2055 alloys compared with the
current 7xxx alloy baselines. Airbus has implemented 2099T83 extrusions in the floor structure of the A380.

Table 1. Comparative corrosion performance of selected

aluminum alloys.

AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENTS

Figure 8. Plot comparing the relative performance of

advanced high strength extrusion alloys to 7150-T77511
for use in floor structures.

Corrosion Performance
It is not sufficient for new aluminum products to demonstrate
improvements in mechanical properties only. Good corrosion
performance is important if extended maintenance intervals
are to be achieved. With the advanced aluminum alloys
presented, chemical composition and thermal practices have
been optimized to achieve improvements in strength and
toughness while maintaining, and in many cases improving,
on the corrosion performance of the material. The corrosion
performance of the third generation Al-Li alloys presented is
excellent and significant improvements have been achieved
in the stress corrosion and exfoliation corrosion performance
of these alloys. Table 1 gives the comparative corrosion
performance of common aerospace aluminum products and
the advanced alloys presented here.

To understand the benefits associated with the advanced alloy

products presented here, aircraft structure designers at the
Alcoa Technical Center conducted a series of high level trade
studies. The trade studies use the key material properties and
principal structure design drivers to estimate performance
comparisons for various alloy and design combinations. They
are useful in assessing the value and opportunities of the
advanced aluminum products. Trade studies considered wing
and fuselage structures (designs and design drivers) for a
short range, single aisle type aircraft like the 737 or A320.
To ensure applicability to future aircraft designs, the trade
study analysis considered that future single aisle aircraft will
require longer inspection intervals. For these trade studies, a
doubling of the current damage tolerance inspection interval
was assumed.

Fuselage Trade Studies

The following structural configurations were assumed for the
fuselage trade study:
Baseline Alloys: Alc 2024-T3 Skins; 7075-T62 stringers and
frames
Advanced Alloys: 2060-T8E30 and C51R-T8 Skins; 2055T8E83 stringers; 2099-T83 frames
Fuselage trade study analysis shows that implementation of
advanced aluminum alloys can save significant weight over
the existing baseline structure. Results are shown in Table 2.
However, the improvements in damage tolerance enabled by

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the advanced alloys enable weight savings, even with the

more demanding inspection interval.

Table 4. Upper wing trade study results showing the

weight savings potential for upper wing cover
configurations using advanced aluminum alloys.

Table 2. Trade study results showing the weight savings

potential of an advanced aluminum fuselage
configuration.

MANUFACTURING
CONSIDERATIONS
Wing Trade Studies
The following structural configurations were assumed for the
wing trade study:
Baseline Alloys:
Upper Wing: 7055-T7751 skin; 7055-T77511 stringers
Lower Wing: 2024-T351 skin; 2024-T3511 stringers
Advanced Alloys:
Upper Wing: 2055-T8X skin; 2055-T8E83 stringers
Lower Wing: 2199-T86 and 2060-T8E86 skin; 2099-T81
stringers
The wing trade study analysis shows that implementation of
the advanced alloys can enable significant weight savings for
the upper and lower wing panels. The upper wing benefits
from the reduced density and higher modulus of the 2055
products. The lower wing benefits from reduced density and
improved fatigue crack growth performance. As can be seen
in the lower wing trade studies, product optimization can
have significant effects on performance, depending on the
design approach and corresponding drivers. The results are
shown in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Lower wing trade study results showing the
weight savings potential for lower wing cover
configurations using advanced aluminum alloys.

Over the next thirty years both Boeing and Airbus market
analyses project demand for approximately 19,000 - 23,000
single aisle aircraft like the 737 and A320. (2)(3) In addition
to being able to achieve performance improvements, any
structural technology and material used to build these future
aircraft must be capable of meeting the required build rates.
This section addresses manufacturing considerations for
implementation of advanced aluminum products and the
ability to work within the existing manufacturing base. This
is important for reducing manufacturing risk in achieving the
aircraft demand projections. Focus is given to Al-Li alloys
and how they can be implemented into the current
manufacturing process.

Manufacture of Aluminum Lithium

Products
The notable difference in production of Al-Li products
compared to conventional alloys is the ingot casting practice
and facilities. Because of chemical reaction of lithium with
oxygen it is necessary that Al-Li alloys are cast in an inert
atmosphere, using specialized equipment and corresponding
dedicated casting facilities. Conventional casting facilities
cannot be used for Al-Li alloys. Alcoa and other aluminum
manufacturers have recently announced development and
expansion of aluminum-lithium casting facilities. This
expansion will increase the availability of Al-Li ingot for
aerospace applications.
Once the raw ingot or billet is cast, the remainder of the Al-Li
plate, forging, sheet or extrusion production flow path is
similar to the conventional alloys of the same product form.
The processing of the Al-Li ingots takes place in the same
factories and on the same production equipment and tooling
as conventional, non-lithium alloys. Although the Al-Li
products run alongside the conventional products, the specific
thermal-mechanical processes required to achieve the desired
properties are optimized specifically for each alloy and
product. It is not expected that investments specific to Al-Li
alloys would be required at sheet, plate, forging or extrusions
mills to support future build rates.

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Health and Safety Considerations for

Aluminum-Lithium Alloys
Al-Li products should be handled in a manner similar to
conventional alloy products. The MSDS documents for
conventional 2xxx, 7xxx and Al-Li alloys have similar
material classifications, recommended handling procedures
and safety requirements (4)(5)(6). Al-Li alloys are not more
reactive than non-lithium alloys. The same safety precautions
used when handling conventional aluminum materials,
including fines and chips, should be followed when using
aluminum-lithium alloys.
When aluminum-lithium alloys are heated above 260C
lithium oxides and lithium hydroxides form on the surface of
the material. These lithium oxide and hydroxide products can
be an irritant to eyes and skin. The greatest risk of exposure
to these products occurs in the product fabrication mills (7).
The low Li content of the third generation Al-Li alloys has
reduced the risk of occurrence. Alcoa performed
measurement studies at various locations in their Davenport
plate rolling mill to assess the potential exposure to LiOH
from third generation Al-Li alloys. Studies included furnace
operations, scalping and machining. In all cases the measured
LiOH concentrations are well below recommended exposure
limits. (8)
It is not anticipated that special environmental or safety
precautions need to be taken for traditional component
manufacturing operations using Al-Li alloys that would not
be taken with conventional, non-lithium aluminum alloys.

Scrap Reclamation
Al-Li alloys can be reclaimed and recycled similar to
conventional aluminum alloys. The recommendation is that
Al-Li alloys be segregated from conventional alloys for scrap
reclamation. However, there are machine shops using Al-Li
alloys that have chosen not to segregate chips. Segregation
enables the Al-Li alloys to be recycled back into Al-Li master
alloy. For conventional alloys lithium is considered a
contaminant and would likely result in reduced value for
mixed scrap. When scrap is segregated, technologies are in
place today to economically reclaim and recycle Al-Li scrap,
both chips and solids. With the expanding usage of Al-Li in
the aerospace industry the market for Al-Li scrap is will
continue to develop.

Machining, Drilling and Cutting Operations

While early generations of Al-Li had poor machining
characteristics, the current, third generation alloys are
significantly improved over the previous generations. Alcoa
studies and customer experience have shown that these alloys
can be successfully machined using the same machines, tools,
and techniques as are used for traditional aluminum alloys.

It has been found that the same principles used for cutting
conventional aluminum can be applied to the third generation
Al-Li alloys. Machining trials at Alcoa and multiple end users
have demonstrated machining success of Al-Li products
using the same tools, machines, and techniques as are used
for conventional aluminum alloys.
For example, these Al-Li products can be machined using
both carbide and high speed steel tooling. It has been shown
to be capable of both conventional machining and high speed
machining. While specific parameters will need to be
optimized for the alloy, product forms and part geometry,
similar speeds, feeds and depths of cut can be used. Tooling
wear studies were done comparing 2099-T83 extrusion to
other commonly machined alloys. Testing followed ASTM
E618-81and results showed that the amount of tool wear
observed for the 2099-T83 extrusion was less than half that
for 2024-T351 plate. The surface finish on the 2099-T83
parts was excellent throughout (9).
Cooling and lubrication using both oil and water soluble
coolants have worked well, with both conventional and
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) techniques. Machinists
also report that the Al-Li alloys have good chipping
characteristics. One consideration, related to the LiOH
allergen issue is that dry machining is not recommended.
MQL should be utilized if dry parts are required (9).
Another consideration for producibility of machined parts is
machining distortion. Machining distortion is caused by
residual stresses and can be prevented by using stress relieved
material. 7050-T7451 plate is an example of a stress relieved
product that has gained widespread acceptance because of
good machining performance and low distortion. The 7085
and 7065 plate and forging products presented are stress
relieved. Advancements in forging analysis, tooling design
and press capability, including Alcoa's large, 50,000 MT
press, have enabled stress relief of large and complex
forgings, enabling repeatable machining of monolithic parts
with reduced distortion
The Al-Li products presented here are used in a -T8 temper.
The -T8 temper denotes that cold work is required to achieve
target mechanical properties. Much like -TX51 tempers in
2xxx and 7xxx alloys, the cold work imparted as part of the T8 temper and associated stress relief will contribute to
successful machining operations. This has been demonstrated
in practice by many customers who have successfully
machined Alcoa's 2099, 2055, and 2060 extrusion and plate
alloys.

Forming
Many applications, like fuselage and wing skins, require
forming to meet dimensional requirements. As mentioned
previously, the finished temper for the Al-Li alloys is a -T8
condition. Formability in the final -T8 temper may be limited.

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In most cases the material will be aged to the final -T8 temper
at the producing mill. However, for applications where the
desired contour cannot be achieved in the -T8 temper, the
product can be provided in an intermediate temper to
facilitate customer forming operations.
For applications with small amounts of contour, like wing
skins and stringers or constant section fuselage skins, the AlLi alloys have been successfully chip formed and brake
formed. Age-creep forming parameters have been developed
for the 7255 plate product.

the surface preparation when the mill finish oxide is intact.

Once this oxide layer is removed, conventional processes can
be applied. Figure 9 shows 2060 sheet specimens that
successfully passed the 336 hours salt spray corrosion testing
requirement of MIL-A-8625F for chromic acid anodize
coatings. Similar tests for chromate conversion coatings were
also successful.

For sections requiring more complex curvature than what can

be achieved in the finished temper, stretch forming in the -T3
temper and subsequent aging to the final -T8 temper is an
option. Stretch forming trials of 2060-T3 sheet and 2099-T3
extrusions have demonstrated capability to achieve the
desired contours. Forming limit diagrams for 2060-T3 sheet
indicate that the material should have improved stretch
forming capability to 2524-T3 sheet. However, because a
minimum amount of cold work is required to achieve target
properties, stretch forming and post forming aging parameters
need to be developed to ensure performance requirements are
met in the finished product.

Surface Finish Operations

Providing surface finishes to protect against corrosion is
common practice in the aerospace industry. Experience
shows that surface treatment and chemical operations can be
successfully conducted on Al-Li alloys. Alcoa has
demonstrated anodizing, conversion coating, priming and
finish top coat painting operations on third generation Al-Li
alloys using conventional processes.
Trials on 2099 plate and extrusions investigated pretreatment, deoxidization, and etching, followed by anodizing,
priming and painting operations. Throughout the trials, 2099
plate and extrusion specimens passed the same relevant
quality control tests as the baseline 7075 and 2024 alloys.
Throughout this testing the same process baths were used for
2099 as well as 7075 and 2024 alloys. There was no
degradation of the chemical baths observed due to the Al-Li
alloys. After processing, both the Al-Li and the non-lithium
products met the pertinent specification and quality assurance
requirements. Al-Li alloys can be processed in the same baths
as conventional alloys. This has been demonstrated for
chromic acid anodize (CAA), phosphoric acid anodize (PAA)
and boric sulfuric acid anodize (BSAA) processes.(10)
For 2060 sheet it has been observed that when processing
mill finish sheet (not machined, with the mill finish oxide
layer still on the surface) the pre-treatment and chemical
processes need to be optimized to remove the oxide layer.
Once the optimized process is incorporated the 2060 sheet
successfully passes anodize and conversion coating
specification requirements. This optimization is applicable to

Figure 9. This figure shows chromic acid anodized 2060T8E30 sheet specimens after 336 hours corrosion testing
exposure in ASTM B117 in accordance with MILA-8625F. All specimens passed.

Fastener Installation
Previous generations of Al-Li alloys were susceptible to
cracking and delamination during installation of interference
fit fasteners or as a result of hole cold working. The primary
cause of this was low elongation and work hardening
capability in the second generation Al-Li alloys.
Improvements in the third generation of aluminum lithium
alloys to improve elongations and cold working capability
have improved the ability of these alloys to tolerate
interference fit fasteners and cold working. (1)
To investigate the ability to cold work holes, split sleeve cold
expansion (SSCx) trials were conducted on 2099-T83 and
2099-T81 extrusions and 2099-T86 plate. Cold working of
the alloys was done in the L-LT and L-ST planes. In all cases
it was demonstrated that these products could successfully
receive a nominal amount of 4% cold work without cracking.
Subsequent open hole fatigue testing also demonstrated that
SSCx resulted in a greater relative fatigue improvement for
the Al-Li alloys than the baseline 2024-T351 product. (11)

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CONCLUSION
Advances in aluminum material technology for aerospace
continue. Aluminum alloys have been developed that
demonstrate improvements in key material properties such as
strength, toughness, damage tolerance and corrosion
performance over the baseline alloys that are used today in
aircraft structures. Aluminum alloys containing lithium have
additional property improvements in modulus and density.
Advanced alloys have been developed for all major
aluminum product forms - sheet, plate, extrusion and forging.
Trade studies show that these new aluminum products will
provide weight reductions and performance improvements for
future single aisle aircraft while achieving the expected
increased performance requirements to meet passenger
comfort and improved aerodynamics.
Manufacturing trials have demonstrated that these new
aluminum products can be implemented with the same
manufacturing flow paths and methods that are currently used
to build aircraft structures today. This has the advantage of
maintaining the current supply chain and reducing cost and
risk to program development, including the ability to meet
rate readiness requirements.

11. Giummarra, C., Split Sleeve Cold Hole Expansion of

New Aluminum-Lithium Alloys (07-041), Internal Research
Report, Alcoa Technical Center, Mar. 2007.

CONTACT INFORMATION
Brandon H. Bodily
brandon.bodily@alcoa.com

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the colleagues who have led
alloy development efforts and conducted the evaluations for
mechanical properties and manufacturing capability.

DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
Ec - compression modulus
Et - tensile modulus
FCG - fatigue crack growth
Ftu - ultimate tensile strength
Fty - tensile yield strength
K - stress intensity factor
Kapp - apparent plane stress fracture toughness

REFERENCES

KIC - plane strain fracture toughness

1. Liu, J and Rioja, R. J., The Evolution of Al-Li Base

Products for Aerospace and Space Applications,
Metalurgical and Material Transactions, published online
March 31, 2012, doi:10.1007/s11661-012-1155-z.

KR - crack resistance toughness

2. The Boeing Company, Boeing Commercail Market

Outlook 2011-2030, http://www.boeing.com/commercial/
cmo/, March 2012.
3. Airbus, Airbus Market Outlook 2011-2030, http://
www.airbus.com/company/market/forecast/passengeraircraft-market-forecast/, March 2012.
4. Alcoa Material Safety Data Sheet, Wrought Aluminum
Products, 2xxx Series Alloys, No. 664. Rev. Nov. 24, 2009.
5. Alcoa Material Safety Data Sheet, Wrought Aluminum
Products, 7xxx Series Alloys, No. 669, Rev. Jan. 14, 2010.
6. Alcoa Material Safety Data Sheet, Aluminum Lithium
Alloys, No. 337, Rev. July 31, 2009.
7. The Aluminum Association, Safety, Health and
Recycling Aspects of Aluminum-Lithium Alloys, The
Aluminum Association -T4.
8. Leuthauser, S., Alcoa Davenpot Works, Pesonal
Communication, June 2005.
9. Newborn, M., Alcoa Technical Center, Personal
Communication, Dec. 2007.
10. Marinelli, J., and Abbott, J., Alcoa Technical Center,
Personal Communication, Sept. 2006.

L - longitudinal orientation
LT - longitudinal-transverse
R-Curve - crack growth resistance curve
SCC - stress corrosion cracking
ST - short transverse orientation
TYS - tensile yield strength

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