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Chapter
Railway Development
1.1 Introduction
History
Ring Out, oh bells. Let cannons roar
In loudest tones of thunder
The iron bars from shore to shore
Are laid and Nations wonder
his quote from the May 11, 1869 The Chicago Tribune celebrated the
completion in Utah of the first transcontinental railway connection in North
America. By 1885 the Canadian Pacific completed the first single company
transcontinental line and the Atlantic and Pacific were also first linked in
Mexico in the 19th century. The exciting impact of a technology that reduced a sixmonth to a six-day trip can hardly be imagined today. In the lifetime of anyone reading
this, we have seen nothing with the impact on all aspects of life as the development of
the railway.
Only 44 years earlier on October 27, 1825 George Stephensons steam locomotive,
Locomotion Number 1 hauled a 90 ton load consisting of 36 cars carrying more
than 500 passengers and some freight at a sustained speed of 12 mph along the
Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England. This was the culmination of
decades of imagination, promotion, engineering and experimentation.
What is a railway? A railway can be defined as an engineered structure consisting of
two metal guiding rails on which cars are self-propelled or pulled by a locomotive. In
his book John Armstrong defines a railway as:
A railroad consists of two steel rails which are held a fixed distance apart on a
roadbed. Vehicles, guided and supported by flanged steel wheels and connected into
trains, are propelled as a means of transportation. Websters Dictionary (1986)
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defines a railroad as 1. A road laid with parallel steel rails, along which cars carrying
passengers or freight are drawn by locomotives, 2. A complete system of such roads,
including land, rolling stock, stations, etc. 3. The persons or corporation owning and
managing such a system.
The terms railway and railroad are sometimes used interchangeably. However, for
this book, railway will generally refer to the track and other closely associated
items, i.e., signals, crossings, bridges, etc. Railroad will be used where the usage
connotes the bigger system.
In commencing a railway engineering career, you are joining many fellow workers
in a complex and increasingly coordinated activity that is an integral part of any
civilized society. About one-seventh of the workers in advanced economies are
involved in some phase of transportation. Transportation, the movement of
persons and goods, of which railroading is a large and vital part, is tied in with the
location and magnitude of all kinds of human activity which depend on the timely
availability of quality goods and services. This ranges from the necessities of food
and fuel and work to leisure pursuits.
Many of you will be considered as transportation engineers specializing in railway
engineering (not operating trains). We can define railway engineering as that branch of
civil engineering involved in the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of railway land facilities used for the movement of people and goods
serving the social and economic needs of contemporary society and its successors. The
complete railway engineer is active in all aspects of civil engineering practice, surveying,
geotechnics, hydrology, hydraulics, environmental and sanitary and structural design as
well as construction technology.
You will frequently encounter the word mode in your railway practice. A mode of
transportation is no more than a particular type of transportation defined in enough
detail for the purpose at hand. It can be as general as the medium through or on which
transportation takes place; for example, air, sea and land modes. The walking or
pedestrian mode involves the moving human. The public transportation mode
includes those systems such as rail commuter lines and public bus and taxi service.
Often, far more detailed descriptions are needed for effective analysis, communication
and understanding. The railway mode is a type of a land transportation mode as
defined above. The light rail transit mode is a further more specifically defined type of
rail service, typically today an urban, electrically powered system operating on its own
right of way with intersections with intersecting public streets. Other terms used in
railway engineering are listed and defined in the Glossary found at the end of this
Manual.
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1.2 Determinants of
Transportation Development
Transportation is rarely an end in itself except for those modes designed for the
enjoyment of passengers such as roller coasters. With these exceptions, transportation
serves only to provide a linkage between separated locations. Its usefulness can be
measured by the way in which this service impacts the:
Transportation of some sort beyond the human leg has always been needed since only
in the tropical paradise of a small Pacific Island could food, lodging, individual and
social needs be met. Society places a value, a willingness to pay, on the availability of
something at a location at a particular time. If that good can be purchased at another
location and if the total of that cost and the transportation cost is less than what the
buyers will pay, then there is an advantage to be gained from providing the
transportation service. Goods in Baltimore have no value to residents of Philadelphia.
Making them available in Philadelphia gives these goods a value. For example, an 1854
analysis of moving corn from an agricultural area in the USA to a potentially expanding
market place by horse and wagon equaled the cost of the corn after a distance of only
165 miles. The same analysis showed that the railway technology of that time could
extend this distance by a factor of ten to more that 1,600 miles.
An ideal transportation system would have no costs, take no time, be available at all
times, be capable of moving as little or as much demand as exists, do no damage to the
item being moved, meet comfort needs, be safe and be completely reliable. It is clear
that no mode can meet these ideals and that the components which contribute to the
potential of a mode depend on technology, human performance, capital availability,
organization, governmental support, regulation and interference, competing entities in
the same and other modes of travel and undoubtedly other factors.
Providing modern forms of transportation requires large initial investments and
continuing operating costs. All successful improvements in transportation are based
on demonstrating that the benefits or utility, results of improvements in service, exceed
the costs. These benefits can come from technological improvements, from
institutional opportunities flowing from relaxed constraints and from the availability of
capital investment. We will now consider some examples of the development of
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Technology
Drag
Horse
The first technological change was the 16th century introduction of the horse by the
Spanish settlers of Florida and the Southwest. Some of these horses escaped and were
quickly recognized by the natives as increasing their choices in all aspects of living,
hunting, moving, warfare and the demands and pleasures of daily life. (The impact of
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the horse in these primitive economies was probably as great as that of the railway in
the 19th century.) The natives needed no assistance in mastering control of this mode
of transportation and soon became expert in the care and use of horses as person
carriers as well as goods movers. Eastern Native American tribes did not have the
advantage of ready access to horses and their civilizations, which were close to the
immigrant European settlers, did not have time to benefit from this mode before they
were overwhelmed by westward expansion.
European immigrants introduced the use of the wheeled cart to North America. While
dry natural earth surfaces used by foot and horse traffic are satisfactory in dry weather
they quickly deteriorate into bumps and ruts from rain and frequent wheeled vehicle
traffic. The effective use of the horse-drawn wheeled vehicle for many uses depended
on the development of spring systems and a suitable surface. Consequently, the first
function is to pave the surface to provide a continuous smooth, load-bearing and
weatherproof surface. Of course, Europe was laced with the still suitable 1,500 year
old, immensely costly to build, often 40 feet wide stone surfaced Roman road network.
However, these massive (often 5-foot deep) structures were not economically feasible
in a young society unable to allocate capital for material and labor (free or slave) to
such an activity.
It was in the late 18th century that modern concepts of road building began to emerge
in Europe. It was realized that a proper surface rests on a base of rock aggregates,
which distribute the loads from the wheels to the subgrade below as well as draining
water away from the subgrade. Since massive quantities of such materials are needed in
a meaningfully extensive road system, such a road structure system must be economical
of materials and construction and maintenance effort if they are to consistently meet
the needs of traffic. Where built with these principles in mind, it became possible to
move persons and goods on land with horse drawn wheeled vehicles supplanting the
pack horse or human. In the United States, there was an extensive development of toll
roads and bridges and Federal support for a road-building program was initiated before
1800.
The generally dominant mode of transportation before and even after the emergence
of the science and engineering of improved road surfaces remained of course, the
water mode. Cities of any size were ports on oceans or navigable rivers. DaVinci
engineered a successful lock system in the 16th century and by the 18th century the
European development of an extensive canal system was followed by a similar
movement in North America. Investments in canals in the Eastern United States were
extensive and there was much governmental as well as private support for this early in
the 19th century. Interestingly, these investments peaked just as the railway explosion
decade of the 1830s began. Although slow, the quantities movable by barge were
relatively large and operating costs were low.
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60 mph
Railway
0.001 g
0.024 g
Truck
0.009 g
0.090 g
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There are several forms of motive power, which are used to overcome resistances to
motion along a railway route. The primary source of energy for movement comes
from converting fuel to heat and then to propulsive force in the locomotive. However,
there are also the accelerative force of gravity on downgrades, the stored energy
manifested in the speed of movement of the large mass of a train and energy in its
many rotating parts. When one considers the available designed horsepower of the
railway locomotive, the barge power plant, or the engine of a truck as well as the weight
of the vehicle needed to handle cargo, one finds that the slow moving barge requires
only 0.2 hp/net ton carried, the railway and pipeline 2.5 and the truck 10. However, at
higher speeds, the railroad becomes, by far, the most economical mode of
transportation.
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Type of Surface
Ton miles
Net ton miles
Moved/day Moved/day
Cost/net
Ton-mile
Gravel Road
147
.063
21.4
16.1
5.23 c
46
.020
68.5
51.4
1.64 c
33
.014
95.4
71.6
1.17 c
Tramway
24
.010
133.9
100.5
0.84 c
Railroad
9.8
.004
321.4
241.1
0.35 c
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Side Paddle
Paddle
1807
African Queen
Screw
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Flange Out
Grooved
Haunch
Ringwalt
Figure 1-5 English Railways and Freight Cars, as Illustrated in Stricklands Report, 1826
Railways quickly became a major factor in accelerating the great westward expansion,
as well as tying the older eastern population and industrial centers together, by
providing a reliable, economic and rapid means of transportation. As additional lines
were built, they facilitated the establishment and growth of towns in the West. Except
for the trip from farm to railhead in town, the poor roads and limited canals became
irrelevant. The Federal government and states encouraged and provided financial
support through land grants and loans, which were paid back with reduced rates for
half a century.
Since the first railways, there have been many improvements in all aspects of
railroading. For example, the development of the iron flanged T rail was achieved by
1840. (See Figure 1-8 for an early track section) Until mass steel making was
developed, there was a continuing controversy between the use of malleable iron vs.
cast iron for rail. By 1840 wooden ties kept in place by ballast stone had replaced
simple stone surface support.
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Continuously Welded Rail (CWR) 1/4 mile long on large parts of the rail
network.
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Better scheduling of operations to satisfy the need for more reliable time
sensitive transportation to support just-in-time inventory control.
Downsizing employment in the industry and the greater use of contractors and
consultants.
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The first Canadian built locomotive was manufactured in Toronto in 1853. Canadians
invested in making almost everything used by the railways. In many smaller
communities, the railway was the largest and dominant employer and its facilities
became the focus for the development of the communitys commercial, industrial and
residential properties. The first successful rail car braking system and the rotary
snowplow were developed by Canadians. Fleming devised the time zone system as a
response to difficulties in coping with innumerable local times along the rail lines.
Formation of the Canadian nation in 1867 emphasized the need for railway
transportation ties. Authorization of the construction of the Intercolonial Railway was
written into that years Constitution Act. This railway was owned and operated
federally being financed primarily by British loans backed by imperial guarantees. It
was completed in 1876 and linked the Maritimes with the main population centers.
In 1871 British Columbia joined the nation with the promise of a rail connection to
eastern Canada. President Lincoln had signed the American Transcontinental Railroad
Authorization Act in 1862 and transcontinental service in the United States was
completed in 1869. The Canadian government, wishing to connect western Canada
with the east, signed a contract with the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) in 1880. The
CPR received cash, land, tax concessions, and 20 years of protection from competition
on the prairies. The CPR was built through the Rockies, in a still admired engineering
and construction feat led by William Van Horne, and was completed to Vancouver in
1885. A passenger train moved from Montreal to the Pacific in the summer of 1886.
Population growth in the prairie west after 1900 strained the CPR capacity and another
phase of expansion began. The Canadian Northern Railway added links to Regina,
Saskatoon and Edmonton. There were other notable efforts including the Grand
Trunk Pacific, constructed between 1906 and 1914 using the Yellowhead Pass to
Prince Rupert, BC.
Overbuilding and World War I caused a crisis. Immigration ended and capital became
harder to secure. In May 1917, nationalization of all but the CPR and American lines
was recommended by a royal commission. The Canadian National Railways, CN, was
the name authorized and its organization was completed in 1923.
Several lines were extended northerly in the following decades. For example, in 1954
the Quebec, North Shore and Labrador Railway accessed the gigantic iron-ore deposits
in that region. The Great Slave Railway opened in 1965 between northern Alberta and
the Northwest Territory at Hay River.
Other important milestones included the introduction of the diesel-electric locomotive
by the CN in 1928. Full dieselization was reached on the CN and CPR in 1960. Long
distance passenger service was provided by VIA Rail in 1978.
In 1984 the CPR pioneered North American use of AC traction for locomotives. The
CN was privatized in 1994.
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James Marsh, writing in the Canadian Cyclopedia (this text adapted in part from his
Railway History article), stated the building of the Transcontinentals, perhaps
provided for Canada the closest approximation of a heroic age.
Readers are encouraged to turn to Appendix A to read the excellent article prepared
by Robert Morrish, retired Chief Engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway entitled
Applied Science for Railway Tracks 1946 to 2002 to gain, not only an
understanding of the development of maintenance processes in Canada, but in all of
North America as well.
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The largest and most heavily used (46% of tonnage) system is the Northeast Railroad
or TFM, connecting Mexico City with Laredo, Texas (> 50% of US trade crosses
here). It has branches to Brownsville, Texas and the Gulf and Pacific coast ports,
operates on 2,600+ miles of track and began operations in 1997. Forty-nine percent
ownership is held by KCSI. The second largest system, partially owned by the UP,
Ferrocarril Mexicano, operates about 5,000 miles of track in northwestern Mexico with
connections to the southwest United States.
Mexican rail transportation is highly competitive with trucks as shipments are generally
much shorter than in the United States. The absence of intermodal facilities and
customs clearance problems is a current challenge.
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had occasionally been found below the bridge. The failure was traced to the fracture of
two hangers suspending the track structure from the top chord. They were poorly
designed and of inadequate strength and the fracture had existed for a considerable
time. Theodore Cooper, father of the bridge loading analytic system still in use,
characterized this as
"An abortion in design and construction in which no engineer had any part."
Perhaps the most unusual American railway bridge of that century was the Niagara
Gorge suspension bridge designed and built in the 1860's by John Roebling, designer
of the Brooklyn Bridge. The only feasible construction technique available was the
suspension type, which with stiffening could accommodate the light railway fleet of the
day. Rail traffic used the upper deck and vehicular movements were on the lower level.
Despite limiting rail traffic to 5 mph the deck truss flexed somewhat. In 1869, Mark
Twain observed that when crossing it you:
"Divide your misery between the chances of smashing down 200 feet into the river
below and the chance of having the railroad train overhead smashing down on you.
Either possibility is discomforting taken by itself, but mixed together they amount to
positive unhappiness."
One of the most significant steps taken in bridge construction after the Civil War was
the application of the ancient method of cantilever construction.
During the 1870-90 period, steel manufacturing developments created a market for this
material and the steady supply of reasonably priced products in many shapes permitted
construction of all-steel bridges. As bridges became stronger, more powerful and
heavier, locomotives required even stronger bridges. For example, on the B&O RR,
the heaviest engine in 1865 weighed 91,000 pounds, while in 1890 it had increased to
133,00 pounds and another 25 years later in 1915, it reached 463,000 pounds
To accommodate these increased weights, speeds on older bridges had to be limited to
an unacceptable 15 mph and bridge replacements were necessary. The first all-steel
bridge in Glasgow, MO was replaced in 1901 after only 22 years of service.
Twentieth century bridge design exhibited a sturdy sameness. Smaller bridges were
likely assembled of Pratt or Warren designs. Some longer and higher bridges were
built, culminating in the high Huey P. Long Bridge over the Mississippi River at New
Orleans.
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existing steel railway bridges. Railway bridge engineers have also been leaders in the use
of linear elastic fracture mechanics in conjunction with acoustic emission monitoring
and other non-destructive techniques for fatigue life assessments.
Modern computer programs have brought a host of analytical tools, such as threedimensional structural analysis, to the engineers desktop. Modern non-destructive
testing techniques, such as strain measurement and ultrasonic testing, can be used with
advanced structural analysis to gain a better understanding of structural behavior of
components and details. Furthermore, recent developments in railway bridge strength
rating methods have allowed for strength rating calculations based on load regimes on
bridges over an indefinite period of time and at infrequent intervals.
Innovative techniques and materials strengthened with fiber reinforced composite
materials and cable post tensioning have been used to strengthen railway bridges.
Bridge engineers have been able to develop bridge replacements and/or rehabilitations
on a project and program basis through the use of computer based bridge management
inventory and condition rating systems. These developments have enabled railway
bridge engineers to propose appropriate and cost-effective rehabilitation and
strengthening of existing structures to maximize the life of the structure.
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under heavy axle load regimes has been facilitated by recent railway bridge engineering
research efforts.
Design methods such as limit states methods for concrete structures have improved
the reliability of concrete bridges. Modern seismic deign methods based on
performance limit states have been developed in recent years. Composite steel-concrete
structure design has been developed for railway bridges to produce economical, easily
constructed and maintainable ballasted deck structures.
Material improvements have been considerable over the past two decades. Alloyed
weathering steels that are resistant to atmospheric corrosion with good fracture
toughness and high strength (yield strength up to 70 ksi and 100 ksi) have been used in
the design and construction of new railway bridges. High strength concrete has made
possible the efficient design of heavily loaded railway bridges with improved durability.
Prestressed concrete has also been utilized for short span construction. Economical
concrete box girder and slab bridges using precast prestressed and cast-in-place posttensioned technology have been used for ballasted railway bridge construction. Precast
segmental construction has provided for cost effective substructure and superstructure
replacement with minimum interruption to traffic. Technology development for the
economic replacement of existing railway timber bridges has involved developments
such as prestressed concrete rehabilitation and replacement components.
Welding technology improvements have enabled the economical construction of steel
bridges with improved fatigue characteristics. Computerized shop fabrication has
improved fabrication accuracy and efficiency.
In recent years, CWR has been installed on both open and ballasted deck bridges due
to recent work on the understanding of effects of bridge movements due to thermal
expansion, particularly on open deck type bridges.
Protective coatings and paint materials and methods improved considerably over the
past 20 years. Zinc rich paints, epoxy and polyurethane paint systems for shop
painting and overcoating have been developed.
It is expected that technology improvement in the area of railway bridge engineering
will develop at an increased pace due to the need to maintain, rehabilitate and
reconstruct an aging railway bridge infrastructure.
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