.

THE IMPACT OF PHOENICIAN AND GREEK EXPANSION

ON THE EARLY IRON AGE SOCIETIES
AND SOUTHWESTERNGERMANY

OF SOUTHERN IBERIA

Thesis

presented

Doctor

of

for

the

Philosophy

1977

ViI
Susan Margaret

Institute
University

of
of

Frankenstein

Archaeology
London

"t

t{

'n''"

I
1",
,{
'

degree

of

BEST COPY
AVAILABLE
Variable print quality

c
ABSTRACT

This
and Greek
impact

the

spheres

in

of

sphere,
trading

network

Central

Europe

north

is

system,
states

in

expanded

and Central
The nature
system
relations
through

varied
of

in

creation

the

be

BC.

into

drawn

this

trading

6th

Asiatic

to

particular

of
both

the

the

here

Central

Mediterranean
corresponding

Mediterranean
areas

Iron

Age societies

the

internal

economic
in

organisation
connections
with

regional

a single

with

into

established

of

emphasised.

peripheral

before

the

to'.

Alpine

the

Central

and

them

the

society

- were

Germany

the

access

incorporation

and Eastern

into

emergent

across

of

dealing

Atlantic

independent

the

is

Phoenician

the

and the

established

sphere

we are

link

to

century,

of

situation

a Western

of

served

Southwestern

incorporating
new role

intermediaries

of

millenia

'colonial'

the

and

periphery

Phoenician

according
the

system
Ist

will

its
and

and Phoenician

cities

Mediterranean,

geographically

the

context

increasingly

were

which

the

Western

the

Europe,
of

into

Alps

therefore,

which

and early

The effect

Rhone.

examined

Essentially,

second

was firmly

Europe

of the Western

the

By the

cities.

the

of

regional

stragegies

the

with

the

the

within

It

and Western Mediterranean.

Iberia,

and along

Europe.

Asiatic

Greek

of

on Southern

routes

states

of

Europe

in

Central

of

resources

late

initially

and Greek

Etruscan

be viewed

the

Phoenician

resulted
based

decline

parts

in the Central

Iberia

core

in

establishment

The nature

of

and their

Mediterranean

'Prehistoric'

Western

the

of

nature

Phoenician

of

and processes

and Central

Western

must

processes

century,

with

with

the

extensions

8th

the

the

societies

configuration

Mediterranean

system

into

indigenous

these

that

changing

From

concerned

expansion.

on the

shown

is

thesis

the

core

core

of Mediterranean
regional
the

system.

regional

and external
direct'or
centres.

CONTENTS
page
Abstract

Contents

2
Figures

Acknowledgements

Introduction

List

of

PART I
PHOENICIAN AND GREEK EXPANSION AND COLONISATION:
A-

City-States

13
13

The Expansion

of

Age background

15

the

21

The Bronze

The Late

The evolution
Western Asiatic

the

Age:

Bronze

to external

the

of

Mediterranean

Phoenician

regional

system,

relations

the
city-states
within
with
special
reference

relations

The structural

Phoenician
B-

Phoenician

AN OVERVIEW

36

preconditions

and

the

process

of

62

expansion

83

and Colonisation

Gr eek Expansion

Eastern

The Aegean-Near.

The Western

foundations

The Euboean
colonisation

the

case:

network:

83

a new configuration

91
processes

of

100

Greek

PART II
117

THE IMPACT OF PHOENICIAN EXPANSION ON SOUTHERN IBERIA

A-

The External

Industries
1

The role
and its

Relations

in the later
of El Argar
relations

The incorporation

L. B. A. regional
B-

of

The Phoenicians

Iberian

Metalworking

118

Bronze"Age
in

within
of

the

the L. B. A. Mediterranean

network

Iberia
Iberia

western

into

the

120

Atlantic

154

system
in Iberia

195

Phoenician

195

The Western

Archaeological
evidence
summary
a brief

The nature and function

establishof the Phoenician
populations
ments and relations
with the indigenous

sphere
for

Phoenicians

in

Iberia:

223
240

3
/:.
i
/

page
PART III
OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF IRON AGE SOCIETY
,
IN SOUTHWESTERNGERMANY IN THE CONTEXT OF ITS EXTERNAL RELATIONS

A RE-ANALYSIS

The Heuneburg
complex
a brief
summary

The formulation

The archaeological

The application
German Hallstatt

of

and current

a model

283

interpretations:

283
of

a prestige-good

310
320

indicators
of the model
D case

economy

to

the

Southwestern

324

Conclusion

362

Bibliography

367

Appendix

1, with

plates

1-48

403

Appendix

2, with

plates

49-62

463

LIST OF FIGURES

,1

Map of

the major

sites

and regions

Model

Distribution

Euboeans
(initial

Model of Greek expansion

The distribution
and

Phoenician

of

commercial

the Eastern
expansion)

'Bronce

The distribution

SEGOVIA,

10

Distribution

11

RIO TINTO MUSEUM: Late

12

Distribution

13

Double-looped

14

Swords from

15

Distribution

16

Examples of Almagro's

17

Distribution

19

'Southwestern'

(Alto

Bronze

Age material

147

149

wares

Age and Early

Iron

by Siret

analysed

of decorated

of

Age material

swords,

169
172

and Eiroa

type

of the

swords,

of

'Southwes. tern'
from

slab

and new

Bronze Age

184

CABEZA DE BUEY
190

swords and daggers

in Southern

of Phoenician
and Algarrobo

24

Map of major sites

and regions
Development of red-slip
plates,
Distribution
of bronze flagons

25

The HOHI1ICHELE graves

26

Scalogram

of grave

and

contents

Heuneburg

sites

of paramount,

centuries

vassal'and

sub-

Map of Heuneburg

30

Hohenasperg

31

Scalogram of grave contents

of first
Hohenasperg domain (Ha D 2)

in

the Upper Rhine valley

329

346
350

(Ha D 2)

(Ha D2

233

332

(Ha D 1)

graves

228

290

Ha D1'

29

domain

II

contents

Distribution

domain

to in Part

227

262

28

of Frsten

between

on the coast

8th to 6th/5th

Map of

domain

215
225

referred

their

domain,

from Southern

Iberia

27

Heuneburg

183

slabs

representations

of short

The distribution
the rivers
Vdlez

181

slabs

engraved

151

180

Alemtejano

in Phase II

the

Bronze

128

'Southwest'

sequences

in

Late

C'

Bronze Age bronzework

palstaves,

types

A and B, and 'Bronce

Alentejo):

of main Late

21

chief

Bronze Age, El Argar

123

burnished

of pattern

Regional

23

93

Mediterranean

122

Campo Maior

the

86

116

of El Argar

20

22

the Near East

of Iberia

resources

'Extremadura'
type
(Prov.
Badajoz)

Atlantic
Iberia

in

Valenciano'

Some metal

18

82

Pottery

and Central

of the

cemeteries

IA

expansion

of Greek Geometric
in

to in Part

referred

.page.
14

354

and Ha D 3)
four

ranks

in

the

356

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This

thesis

Cultural

Anglo-Spanish

final

the

graduate

year

studies,

I am indebted

to

the

initial

surveys,

for

this

of

my BA degree

to

produce

like

should

10 to
In

thesis.

to

record

has

15 years,

me to

period
StudentFoundation

Wenner-Gren

to

prior

on Iberian

support

post-

archaeology.

me to

enabled

and library

thank

examine,

and

J.

Alarco

(Institute

A.

Alarco

(Conimbriga

and personal

out

carry

necessary

studies

Dr.

in

Antonio

Museum);
F.

M. Almagro

to

Rocha,

Vitor

Studies,
J.

Dr,

(Museu

their-kind

Coimbra

this

assistance
from

material
and Francisco

da Foz);

Professor
Dr.

University);
(Moura

de Lima

Fragoso

in

analysis

Guerra

G6mez and C. Klauss

Gorbea

the

record,

Figueira

during

and published

for

some cases

Classical

of

excavated
much of

Portuguese

Spanish,

those

following

the

Santos

collection);

collections);

material,

excavations:

(Museu Dr.

Guerra

to

facilitated

and old

recent

Rosado

the

I was able,

my gratitude

whose

particular,

allowing

both

by the

dissertation

fieldwork

specific

for

by a Postgraduate

(1970-71),

whose

Junior

Blanch

work.

last

in

1973-74

a brief

Cafiada

was renewed

Funded

bodies

three

and German. archaeologists

the

in

London.

of

all

it

1971-72;

of the

assistance

Vicente

whose

assisted

University

the

of

in

in

I was further

1972-73.
ship

Foundation,

I was awarded

Fellowship

by the financial

was made possible

(Huelva,

Museum

various

Arqueol6gico

Nacional,

Madrid).

For

the facilities

the Deutsches
Professor
library

always

Archologisches

W. Grnhagen

and Dr.

was made particularly

so generously-made
Institut,
H.

Madrid,

Schubart.

pleasant

available
I would

like

in

the

Working

by Margit

Heiber

to me at
to thank
D. A. I.

and her

assistant.

I much appreciated
of

the Institute

and patience

the expertise

of Archaeology,
sustained

and assistance

University

me especially

during

of the librarians

of London their
the final

stages

encouragement
of preparation.

My thanks
David

and Howard

Fleming

Eastern

who helped

help

for

Barratt,

the
in

important

a draft

read

Archaeology,

of

me to

referring

kindly

her

Near

Part

of

painstaking

for

and made

of

final

this

- my gratitude:
drawings
for

Dangoor

and Eddie
for

Jo Foster

their
typing

expertly

manuscript.

I benefitted

thesis

Professor

with

work

my original

of

Dawson

the

and writing

from. discussions

inestimably

preparation

proof-reading

planning

this

of

and proof-reading

and plates;

preparing

the

checking

figures

maps,

During

production

Linda

plates'in

Rowlands

the

Appendices;

the

and Naldwyn

me during

and figures,

drawings

Belinda

for

Hawkes

Institute

the

at

comments.

To those
preparing

students

Bob Miller

publications;

some valuable

for

fellow

go to

J. D. Evans,

Schubart

H.

Dr.

and Dr. M. J. Rowlands.

A study

of

of

I also

work.

Dr.

developed

Rowlands

for

is

for

joint
as a

his

like

should

to

in

enthusiasm

to

paper

the
that

acknowledge
in

and elaborated

in

Iberian

to

contribution

self-evident

his

in

undertaken

this

this-present'
and

project,

realization.

Schubart's

15 years

in
and

study

has been

Mike

Europe,

was presented

September'1974.

thank

its

in

support

him

former

the

Rowlands,

Central

in

Society

Prehistoric

Age in

Iron

Mike

with

collaboration

part

Early

the

in

of my travels

the preparation

during

assistance

and generous

unfailing

and bibliography.

text

the

during

archaeology

past

am indebted
in

my stay

Spain

southern

the

to

Madrid

and Portugal

during

By means of correspondence
and an unabated flow of publications,
His
he has helped me to keep in touch with more recent work in Iberia.
1972-74.

understanding

special
great

source

Finally,

of

am particularly

my greatest

debt

Professor

knowledge

and his

is

associated

grateful

manuscript.
of

encouragement

have been a

strength.

who has been closely

I

of

and his

the subject

for

Evans
interest

to my supervisor,
this

with
his

close

in

the

from its

project

broader

the

to

attention

has made available

Professor

to me the

inception.
progress
wealth

of'Iberian

context
/

Evans,

of
of

the

his

prehistory.

INTRODUCTION

This
of
the

is

thesis
Europe

Western
Western

concerned

within

the

Mediterranean

in

of the study

is

states,

particular

with

In Part
Phoenician

are

Phoenician
trading

in

then
to

order

It

BC. *

expansion

Asia

and the

compared

with

the

conditions

led

to

beginning

the

Late

the

Greek

Age
Phoenician
in

colonisation

these

two major

the

in

and differences

similarities

the

of

Bronze

Mediterranean.
of

of

city

in the 8th and 7th

in

Eastern

and functioning

focus

The main

which

that

processes

certain

into

expansion

the Phoenician

of

Mediterranean

Western

two areas

Iberia.

can be recognised

demonstrate

and Greek

be suggested

will

in

societies

millenium

to Southern

the western

organisation

motivation,

1st

early

commercial

process

of

network

West,

into

local

Phoenician

and economic

summarised.

is

of

the political

expansion

expansion

context

reference

expansion

centuries

changes

the

the westward

I,

with

in

the

regional

developments.

basis,

On this
the

of

role

in

of

dominant

Spain

Iberia

be the

to

Atlantic

network

Phoenicians

the

be examined within

a new Atlantic-Mediterranean
will

be shown

discrete

local

and political

into

dense

differential

production

dates

routes

in
to

access

larger

and

Southern

and contact

certain
Iberia
with

Age metalworking

centres,

the

of

the Phoenician

Western

of

Phoenician
to

connect

if

not

otherwise

sphere.

It

up previously

in

natural

potential

for

the

in

local

can be shown

specified,

of

advantages

ecological

Phoenician

creation

and exchange

specialisation

shifts

of

populations

to

trading

centres.

cited,

involvement,
the

on differing
the

south

analysing

served

systems

populations,

development

political

involvement

Depending

communication

maintenance'of

the

Spain

After

metals.

indigenous

and the

the context

Phoenician

regions

Bronze

network,

complexity.

resources,

* All

that

later

of

relations

in

trade

of

the

on the

Phoenician

the

of

II,

Southern

'factories'

Phoenician

culmination

seen

Part

in

particularly

is

between

will

West',

the-'Far
of

external

relations

in

in

demonstrate,

to

proceeds

The establishment

formerly

the

study

Phoenicians

and Portugal.
coast

the

are BC.

economic

and

be related

to

entrepts

and

Part

In

III,

Germany,

in

cities.

The Early

is
the

the

to

seen

context
Iron

Central

Mediterranean.

their

tions

their

of

motivations
internal

ordering

early

principal

whilst

necessarily

relations

favour

Steward's

disputed

original

specification

without
(Steward

is

useful

on the

value

of

the

a sense

it
the

of

observation

mechanism

of a local
occupies

of

rate

and

to.

factors

affect

the

impact

positions
of

concern

internal
in

external

that

contact

seen

concepts,

such

danger

of

Near

East

and
dein

be reminded

to
concept

here

diffusion

of

in

contact

or

been

structure

represented

a larger

but

reality,

an explanation
involved

exchange

regional
trading

external

regional

therefore

ordering

account

'influences'

the

of

will

its
and

society

within

Our general

exposed

motivations

the

have

the

and

of

Eastern

of

the

the

terms

the

embody

It

an empirical

in

internal

Mediterranean

is needed therefore

structure

position

different

in

1965,208-9).

A framework
internal

Mediterranean

the

some evidence

distinct

Age.

development.

to

of

also

the

in

vagueness

to

due

different

Iron

which

and

civilisa-

affected

and Greeks,

back

society,

Eastern

resulted

on the

attacks

stricture

such

Phoenicians

attention

the

but

in

of

Eastern

the

only

Early

within

literate

the

interpreted

borrowings,

as the

autonomous

whether

been

lying

'prehistoric'

as

not

the

and Western

traditionally

he recognised-referred

which

in

Eastern

during

Germany

activities

the

be shown,

societies,

the

European

with

local,

of

partners

diverting

in

into

trading

Recent

in

economic

represented

as will

two areas

such

by the

However,

and Etruscan

Greek

similarities

can be classified

the

Southwestern

Southwestern

of

incorporatin

and cultural

local

or

indigenous

agents.

of

organisation
valuing

of

have

peoples,

as the

the

in

diffusion

Mediterranean

of

of

millenium

influence,

degree

the

between

Relations
1st

both

external

developments

social

located

Mediterranean.

the

certain
dominated

system

Hence,

Western

the

of

D) society

Iberia

state

low

relatively

of

Southern

city

a major

expansion

in

developments

made with

(Hallstatt

Age

a regional

of

commercial

to

the

of

with

share

periphery

is

a comparison

of

trading
partners

is
local

for

relations,
which

determines

system

involved,

it

might

and the

be

how external

understand

societies

networks

the
ie.

that
to

both

given

their

different

is

It
into

closed

a relatively
in

terms

or

state/non-state

flux

the

out

to

were

of

the

degree

the

of

as the

commodities

and as outlets
been

therefore

their

stress

a process

'expansion',

However,
in

'world
based

in

century

AD, Wallerstein

to

a self-contained,

in
one

the

refer

but

also

is

be able

We are

thus

linked.

to

to

are

to

distributed

within

the

extract

presented
each other

a larger
with
through

share

a regional
material

varying

the

in

particular

the

uses

methodological

European

the

Such

are

concept

By this

the

linked

labour

economic

configuration
and economic

in

the

is

larger

surplus
of

local

exchange

not

system

dominant

each

as

the

that
the

wholes

and social

which

he means

occupy

to

(1974,347ff)

throughout

come to

of

contain

systems

role

a system
of

world

entity

nonetheless
economic

division

of

to

than

of

of

labour.

such

of

of

at

a specialised

equally

system

stress

juxtaposition

analysis

origins

which

define

geographical.

not

the

self-contained

an extensive

It

'domination'.

(1974)

of

cultures

products.

economic-material

division

occupying

He proceeds
is

societies

none

through

there

tasks

economic

that

sense

system.
which

of

on the

work

regional

survive

occupational,

to

to

them a multiplicity

regional

his

16th

the

on an extensive

in

for

luxury

levels

systems

reinforcement

concepts

peripheral
of

organisation

and

In

and can only

certain

the

provide

to

under-

to make

served

supplies

and fortuitous

requires

to

tends

on their

for

social

Mediterranean

that

study

and political

'colonisation'

perspective

a view

and surplus

this

between

situations.

system'

within
other

to

order

historical
economy

this

in

incompatibility

such

former

resources

valuable

economic

potential

of

be on the

local

Western

as dependent

of

as part

the

some

between

contact

integration

c.olonists

and dependence

and internal

complexity

that

In

societies.

milieux

of

economic

for
more

on local

cultural

can be argued

came to

found

integration

regional

level

latter

civilised/uncivilised

civilisations

and Greek

hinterlands

has

it

penetrating

interpretations

to

specifying

and varying

underlying

traders

in

a value

major

However,

Phoenician

the

which

emerge.

estimate

has

complexity

lead

to

impact

their

comparing

of

tends

expansion

farce

an external,

of

view

and Greek

as literate/non-literate,

contrast

levels

different

Phoenician

of
terms

This

such

for

implicit

the

in

system.

categories,

of

impact

the

Mediterranean

Western

the

ways,

to view

usual

merely

range

of

and

that

positions
available.
societies
and within

and

10

a hierarchy

which

areas.

Hence,

economy

as part

of

its

particularly

Wallerstein
states

state

strong

and maintain
areas
of
for

products

coupled

disparities

that

pp. 301-2).

previous

to peripheral'or

revert

specialist

more

advanced

core

is

states

core

to be expansionist

in

the

sense

independent

previously
regional
economy

At

economy.
are

for

this
in

some of

understanding

thesis.
the early

interdependence
Carthaginian
degrees

regional

is

lst'millenium
core

and Roman)

and effects

economies

for

expand

and hence

enlarge

to

area

at

its

that

and their

Greek,
external

be incorporated

in

space

develop
area

and

type
it

into

boundaries

of

the

the

boundaries

of

a world

the

next

phase

tend

seems

the

in

the

areas

this

peripheral

may be

area.

work

is

of

in

the

of

Phoenician,
areas

as peripheral

by such states.

example

dominance

of

that

value

significant
area

under

the Western

by the interplay

dominated
(eg.

to

for

exotic

peripheral

systems
state

return

to more

nor

and former

the prehistory

of

states

dominated

of

approach

processes

in

(see

position

therefore,

suppliers

states

time

a core

to

Our understanding

of

their

Peripheral

system.

areas

neither

of

to protect

serves

in

as a peripheral

the

process

the creation

core

Regional

Wallerstein's

model,

expand

can be divided

and access

status

by an external

and incorporated

As a general

it

to

peripheral

lose

that

any one time,

surrounded

into

expanded

areas

to

are primarily

technologies

states.

for

necessary

ranking

very

the world

products

semi-peripheral
into

be structurally

the

culture,

societies

stable

can

time

to

'tends

states,

within

within

with

can develop

regional

economies

a national

local

or

Such a configuration

that

sense

the

in

areas

world

have arisen

be available

would

higher

economy

In core

with

in which

requiring
than

materials

that

areas.

mechanisms,

labour

a world

for

1974,350).

and peripheral

raw materials,

in

emerge

tasks

since

reserved

varying

therefore,

to situations

refer

areas

among its

gaps

suggests,

are

by which

process

(Wallerstein

development'

core

example,

advantaged

the

of

can be detected

roles

for

skills,

and social

economic

into

occupational

specialist

requiring

the

of

study

Mediterranean

and emerging
later
were

areas

Etruscan,
to
into

in

different
the

11

Our emphasis here

incorporated

into

the

by different

core

states.

represent

the

they

will

historic

Whilst

the focus

on Southern

are clearly

colonisation

Southern

independent

Etruscan

different

Europe

sphere

core

basis

states

European
in

these
but

other,

in

the powerful

during

Iberia.

this

this
to

through

city-state
of

the

for

also

economic

Southwestern

exchanges,

present

this

of
at

data
system

is

not

in

its

to

compare
both

for

areas

later

developments
purposes,

isolated

from

be referred
part

that
possible

developed
for

is

of

a larger

of

and Central
facilitates

each

it

to,

and directed

controlled

also

had on

analytical

were

the

of

processes

understanding

of the Eastern

German
social

these

As will

both

that

the

opportunity

as relatively

so.

interest

and colonisation,

appear,

treated

economies

structure
period;

areas

with

and functioning

structure
impact

was not

recognise

expansion

the

might

being

are

reality

linked

the

critical
It

areas

network

internal

two

prehistory.
two

economic

by examining

in

importance

the

of

contact

the

and

implies

trade

for

have

We therefore

time.

on the
(ie. North

Greeks

of

Phoenician

with

of

Western

the

European

and motivations

we know of

and also

crucial

The nature

this

what

of

society

European

that

at

Central

when compared

two processes

and contrast
on the

Alps

the

of

of

the 8th and

process

involvement

the

in

incentives

of

in

Mediterranean

islands

the

However,

city-states

set

north

Western

Italy,

and Iberia).

between

The contacts

impact
had such critical
Western
Mediterranean
and

that

and Central

German material

to the same general

in the Central

areas

Mediterranean

and Central

the

more towards

Southwestern

the

involve-

of

economy.

regional

purposes.

related

and expansion,

peripheral

very

comparative

degree

by the

directed

Iberia,

categories

and non-literate,

determined

is

dominated

systems

archaeological

literate

the larger

the thesis

of

Europe and the Western

7th centuries

Africa,

between

in

regional

traditional

of

as a feature

areas

of two cases of societies

large,

such

terms

juncture

has been drawn upon for

Central

of

In

peripheral

impact

Phoenician

the comparison

periphery

and prehistoric

went of-such

in

lies

by

Mediterranean.
a study
in

the

Southern

of
area

12

On the

of

the

direct

contact

direct

and

- hence

Southwestern

Germany

on the

of

study

coast

it

will

logical

recovery,

processes

allows

its

more
via

Southern

be attempted

mode of contact

Spain,

of contact

literate

the

France

to

to show that

the

Etruscan

the difference

fortuitous

development

immediate

the

and a prehistoric
between

Southern

passes

early

of

recent

the

Iberia,

to

the

cities.

situation

and the
linked

that

- connections

and Alpine

and

into

in

monopolised

Rhone

the

comphrison

forms

transitional

of

society

an advantageous

easily

and excavations

insight

us greater

may not be purely

but

surveys

a consequence

an urban,

we have

Hence,

population.

more

Southern

between

situation

fieldwork,

the

coast,

southern

contact

of

in

Age sites

Iron

hand,

other

Greek
In

colonies

this

in the nature

or an accident

and

of archaeo-

a significant
consequence of the different
that took place in these two areas.
and development
represent

13

PART I.

PHOENICIAN AND GREEK EXPANSION AND COLONISATION:

This

section

led

which

Mediterranean

Phoenician

beyond

elucidate

here

the

of

this

will

be presented,
in

the

of

states

c. 200 miles

long,

up to

Phoenician

beside

due to faulting,

North-South
Map 14).
to in this

were

headlands
mountains

communication

Bronze

cities

coastal

the forested

the

inland
See Figure

of

current

structures

impact

in

of

the

the

Western

City-States

a n:.: row

occupied
30 miles

Age this

area

situated

of Lebanon.
in

routes
1 for

was part

small

Tartus

the coastal

streams,

area,

the location

of

or

in

enclaves

down from
coast,

made r. "ritime
with

the main

1971, Map 3, Map XI,

the important

section.

The

of the Levant

contrasting

and Tushingham

and Dor,

flowing

streams

The fragmentation

Levant

Canaan.

of
islands

on off-shore

and perennial
(see Ealy

strip

between

wide,

at the mouths of

dry valleys
dominant

their

workings

overview

and economic

then

to

necessary

internal

the

a general

political
and

is

it

within

Hence,

a major

represent

Instead,

expansion

Phoenician

city

During

of the primary

would

thesis.

be made

will

some detail.

The Phoenician

Jaffa.

main

of

the

and Phoenician

The Expansion

coast,
or

of

this

economies.

examined

this

of the

and Western

No attempt

structure

since

Greek

period

Mediterranean

A-

dynamics

city-state

understanding
within

states,

limits

the
the

primary

city

the structure

of

the Central

BC.

the internal

with

and Greek

into

expansion

outline

and the dynamics

economies

the 1st millenium

in detail

excursion

of

in

to draw a general

state

to their

early

to deal

here

an attempt

and Greek city

of Phoenician
processes

is

AN'OVEP.VIEW

sites

referred

14

CO

: 31
n

d
H

41
ro
a

0
41
b
ai
ai
w
a)
I-+'
v

Ld
a_

Qz

"'

0
0)
14

Jv

I",

iV.

+
.

SNi

`t

0K

nd

ILI
t.

u,

Is
c

d
w
w

4J

G
O
N
ur
a

dz
gQWWm

H
0

"n

zmXNyxr

Cie
UQw

'n
cY

W
O

Co
W,

"'H

15

of distant

Theories
Sea' (Herodotus.

89). (ie.

VII,

indigenous
an
abandoned and
is now generally
Phoenicia
discuss

these

During

the Late

the

word

word

for

the

Just
their

as the
cities

collectively
in

are', found
Byblos,

'the

Homer)
In

etc.

'Amurru'

the

- the

Neo-Assyrian

The processes
states

in

entire

2nd millenium,

development

associated

'the

- or

land

1965;

Muhly

themselves

Age the

Iron

or

(both

to

be the

people

of

cities

were

beyond

Euphrates'

the

known

people

'Phoenicians'

the. Phoenician

texts,

Hebrew

names

Tyre,

Sidon,
of

part

or

simply

1955,1969).

Age background

The Bronze

Egyptians,

had

the

the

Similarly,

populations

the

led

which

early

1st

by tracing
Mycenaeans,
and define

to

the=expansion
be seen

millenium"can

beginning
the

relations

Israelites
its

even

the

to

develop

This

earlier.
of

the

can best
cities

in

to

settings.

order
Since

city-

during

Phoenician

and Assyrians

institutional

Phoenician

of

the

be
with
locate

the

early

the
this
1st

Bass and others use the term Phoenician

Katzenstein,
* Barnett,
Albright,
defined
Age periods
too; Albright
the terms in 1942
for the pre-Iron
to avoid confusion:
is historically,
'...
and
the word "Canaanite"
geographically
"Phoenician",..
For
convenience we
with
synonymous
culturally
Semitic
"Canaanite"
below
designate
Northwest
to
the
shall employ
12th
before
the
Western
Syria
Palestine
and
of
people and culture
"Phoenician"
indicate
the same people
BC
term
to
the
and
century
this
'
date.
after
and culture
(1961,328)

and

of Canaan,

the country
(Astour

so in

coast

from Egypt

too

themselves

considered

Westland

for

'Sidonians'

as

(Pritchard

seacoast'

demonstrated

Greeks

inscriptions

'merchant'

'Canaan',

bibliography.

the Syro-Palestinian

was derived.

Levantine

and not

to

'kinahhi'

came to mean
B. A.

of

15th-century

'kinahhu'

dye

red

'Canaanite'
a

1970).
with

in
eg..
word

the early

summarises

Bronze Age the inhabitants

From the Hurrian

for

'Red

such as the

been
, ulf )., and the Negev,
-have
origin
of the Iron Age inhabitants
of
(Albright
1961 and Muhly 1970
accepted.

the former

theories;

the Phoenicians*,

the Persian

'Canaanites',
known
as
were
Alalakh.

for

origins

16

levels

millenium

unknown,

- are virtually
heavily
relied

for

is not

likely

exchange
dynasties.

Finds

of

Egyptian
(in

Egypt

were

one of

with

copper,

the

gold

and spices,

Nubia.

The Egyptians

Byblos,

which
with

(p. 55).

During

indirect

port

that

the

Syrian

coast'
But

enterprise'.
when relations
and Cyprus

(See

also

emphasises

Byblos

connections
(Ward

1961).

during

the

Egypt

until

have

to

Albright
the
the

At
First

their

1961,332;

Kitchen
of

period
Western
ties

(1961).

with

1973;

Egyptian

contact
But

commodities

from

(1963,54)

from

a commercial

the

'

buildings...

center

other

Egyptian

other

together

Egyptian

of

this

was through

with

Intermediate

strengthened

dynasty

It

stage,

weakened,

continuity

19th

this

'the

this

vessels

Egypt,

public

that

maintained

were

were

and other

Byblos.

was-at

into

growing

Ward notes

in the north

with
appear

temples

dynasty,

12th

the

'was

Kingdom

houses,

private

interest

commercial

Old

the

confirm
stone

from

gums and oils'

2nd dynasty

the

dynasty,

luxury

and other

'wood,

obtained

during
large

ebony

(from

Byblos

reaching

and 6th

5th

contexts)

3rd

the

to

an extensive

the

Canaan

and later

from

items

in

during

in

go back

coast

was involved

especially

dynasty
that

Levant

the

and

material

1st

trade

major

Egypt

timber

Ward suggests

relationship.

over

the

of

1975,3).

Pritchard

when Byblos

supplying

and in

onwards)

between

(2700-2200)

network,

(cf.

radically

connections

Kingdom

Old

Albright

understanding

by Saidah (1966,
some recent publications
(1975) and others,
Chapman (1972), Pritchard
are

to improve

Trading

1971).

their

the present situation

of a sparse archaeological
in the Phoenician
homeland, the situation
the L. B. A. iIron"Age

record

center

for

ameliorating

gradually

the

historians

and ancient

evidence

of Lyblos
have
alike

the exception

- with

Although

(1973b),

Culican

cities

archaeologists

on documentary

homeland.

Phoenician
1969),

of the Phoenician

vital

beyond

areas
commerce

was a 'royal

(c. 2160-2000),
Asiatic
Byblos

Chehab

centres
(Negbi

1968. )

and even
considerable

authority
demands
0

Harden suggests that the 'narrow"ness of the coastal

of cultivable
strip
imports
by
land made it necessary to supplement native
such
resources
its
for
known
but
Palestine
livestock
then
that
adds
and corn'
as
(1971,127).
There is no simple
fine arable - also 'needed imports'
Phoenician,
Canaanite,
specialisation
of
or
envirotmental''explanation'
in trading
activities.

17

by Egypt

during

and constraints

exerted

coast

the words of Culican:

were --in
development of national
(1966,38).
trade'

Following
pharaoh-of

the 18th dynasty

the Levant

which

continue.

Revolts

his

were thereby

Levantine

cities

for

annual

tribute

horses

and chariots,

North

Syrian

form

the

But

of

shipbuilding

which

the

cities

the

reign

Phoenician

of

Amenophis

In the contents
of Canaanite
inscribed
items

with

of

cities

Semitic

these

clad
light

in purple
sailing

Egyptians

robes
vessels.

in

This

would

Phoenician

other

the

of

army

Levant

always

during

successors.

in Egypt

operating

steward,
wine,

Individual
whilst

' indications

tomb (1440-1415),

II's

in Egyptian

on the quay-side,

knowledge

Egyptian

when campaigning

cities

in

paid

'

pharaoh'.

the

paintings.

have
the

the

Culican

bringing

III,

some tribute

wall

and probably

names and by the

tomb of Kenamun, the King's

in

that

traders

traders

or
of

fact

the

of Amenophis

1966,40-7).

in

in

control

coastal

- paid

would

ships,

Tyre

of

and his

II

in

disposal

the

from

Tyre

that

or

position

and Syrian

(Culican,

presence

wood)

can be assumed

1960,16)

as depicted

slaves,

royal

the

and

The

there.

Tuthmosis

of

be

the

raided

included

was broken

Warmington

was-put-at

the

the-reign

suggests

could,

and under

coast

at first,

posts

military

prized

produce,

copper,

privileged

which

bypassed

(eg.

Egypt

which

conquerors

Mittani,

under

of the Levant

the Egyptians

highly

During

(1973,25)
(eg.

Later,

were

agricultural

'merchandise

in

campaigns

military

cities

domination

and. established

which

of

the first

of the Hyksos,

competitive,

by the Egyptian

coalition,

Katzenstein

explain

booty

1970,60-3).

'vassals'
now
in

often

payments.

expected

(Drower

Egypt.

of

Tuthmosis III - were to

- especially
intervention
frequently
necessitating
military

to Egyptian

tribute

with

that

except

initiated
Ahmosis
-

the

successors

subjected.

satisfied

on the Levant

to foster

unlikely

and expulsion

occurred
The independent,

by Egypt.

'...

in any direction

enterprise

the overthrow

the 18th dynasty

'non-Egyptian'

also
ports

cites

cloth,
merchants

nature

the evidence

from wall

at Thebes,

certain

are given

oil

of some
for

depict

and cattle

the

Canaanites*

to Egypt-in

to be dealing

commodities

the
in

paintings

which

appear

by sherds

with

- such as slaves

1 C:

--

by the Pharaoh's

were received
no longer

a royal

of Egyptian

by Chehab (1968,6-8);

alabaster

scarabs,

Warmington

(1960,16ff),

involved

during

Palestine;

wine,

oil,

position

Cyprus,

Syria

in

vassalage

but

alliance,

in

of

navigation

partners

became

Canaanite

the

cities

competed
This

pharaohs.

From letters
Canaan to Pharaohs
significant

of

on complex

the early

14th

sent

ties
for

linking

of

is

luxury

and

containing

internal
and
a

occupied

had

commodity
It

is

Egypt

was not

tribute,

mutual

best

lead

S. Anatolia,

cities

political

and

luxury

with

'Canaan'

dependent.
to

Syria

structure

century

and

cities

situation

also

from

producers
that

clear

simply

one of

dependence

and military
known

alrady

support
the

El

and
from

Amarna

century.

by the rulers

Amenhotep III

information

16th

exact

'Phoenician'

was based
which

the

the

roles

of

detail

economy

which

and

prevailing

copper,

together

- which

regional

in

Crete

Egypt,

with

to the timber,

a complex

powerful

relationship

period

in Cyprus,

refer

to
were propitious
'manufacturers
and merchants'

by the

and Egypt

more

to

campaigns

and others

conditions

centuries

refers

able

see

specialist

Egyptian

15th

of Anatolia*

amount

Mediterranean

that

we can

pivotal

the

and late

being

without

organisation,

on which

(1973,26ff)

(often
such as silver,
gold and bronze vessels
incense etc. ) were reaching
Egypt at this time.

Hence,

developed

architectural

to Cypriot

(1970,62)

and Drower

commodities

the

the 16th

from
the mines
-

silver

the Eastern

III's

was

at Tyre and
elements in Byblos.

stelae

the secure

since

(1966,. 54) refers

Catling

trade.

Tuthmosis

beyond the Empire

period,

hegemony in

Egyptian

under

this

trade

The increased

includes

Katzenstein

of contacts

during

Mesopotamia

it

and Egyptian

vessels

to the establishment

1970,62).

Drower

in Canaan following

found

material

is described

(cf,

monopoly

foreign

Thus,

representative.

and Akhenaten,

on the internal

of Egyptian-dominated

of the cities

found

and external

at El Amarna,
relations

of

some

in
Cilicia
* Rostovetzeff
the exploitation
relates
and
silver
of. copper
by
distribution
Phoenicia,
Cappadocia
to
to
traders
caravan
and
(1932,10)
Byblos,
Egypt.
thence
to
and
especially

19

Phoenician

cities

1963,42-3;
between
form
to

1967).

In

the

Hittite

empire,

either

each

with
the

of

king

the

the

and

alliances

begs

(eg.

Oppenheim
Egypt

EA 35,

can be gleaned

two major

the usual

prevented

He pleads
One learns

something

when exchanges
send the

not

I on my part

what ever presents

and

famine

since

had

a bull,

of silver'.

the king

of Hatti.

of Egyptian domination
'My brother,
He writes:
please

nature

have always

to you

two-fold

returned
me. '

have brought

your messengers

Egypt,

and 'lots

with

in

eg.

He then asks for

himself

to ally

too:
of

usual,

by Egyptians,

taken

are involved:

of material

silver...

than

'reciprocal'

the

king

the

to

to

seen

allegiance

Cyprus

to

applies

allegiance

are

their

as reinforce

Aldred
hostility

Canaan

of

to take place.

timber

of

increasing

cities

This

exploitation

the pharaoh

with

1973,27-44;

of

less-copper

sending

payment for

oil,

scented

the

as well

pledges

for

context

powers.

Alasia

of

be pardoned

to

other

Katzenstein

(Oppenheim 1967,

122-3).

Sidon's
with

alliance

forceful

and eventually
is

Byblos

indicated
to

the

threat

refer

(eg.

EA 125 and 137 in

Egypt,

to

from

king

of

to

the

the

appealing
- possibly

it

is

it'

pharaoh

to

of Tyre:

(EA 89 in Katzenstein

political

decisions.

referred

Amorite

to

gifts

Their

'there

is

Byblos,

of

to meet

in

as 'they'

or

his

tribute

In

marriage.
in

Ribaadi

is

which

he had received

a usurper

which

was allied,

it;

house like

no governor's
great

with

Abdi-Asratu

under

Tyre

which

the wealth

within

to the men of the city

'the city'
could make

are known in other

the city'

of

in

conflict

alliance

sister

and refers

counterparts
lords

copper

his

with

exceedingly
insofar

king

a revolt
line

the

Tyre's

peoples,

of

into

her

When unable

1973,27-44);

equals

as 'the

to there

the

investigate

the house of Ugarit,

who act

Ribaadi

1967).

refers

- deposed

as the king's

Tyre.

to whom he had given

Tyre,

of the wealth

like

to

by the

Oppenheim

brings

Amurru

of

from

posed

Ribaadi

pro-Amurru

he boasts

King

opposition

by letters

also

payments

the

with

in Byblos,

cities

or simply

too,
as

the men of Arvad'.

The letters
are concerned
island
the
of
leaving

sent

by a later

king

with

the conflict

city

when the mainland

the Tyrians

without

fresh

with

of Tyre,

Abimilki,

Sidon and emphasise

territory

water,

to Akhenaten
the. vulnerability

was controlled

burial
a
and
wood

by Sidon,
ground.

20

'Now I am guarding
for Your Majesty
Tyre,
the great
the mighty
city,
waiting
until
arm of the kin., extendsto drink
water
over me to give me (from the mainland)
and wood to warm me. '

(EA 147, Oppenheim 1967,125)*

He also

makes an explicit

the son of Abdi-Asratu,

Azira,

'special

The
Canaan
in

aid

military

and thereby

to

willingness

trading

by the

to

Tyre

within

with

the

pharaoh

be in

which

Hittites

to

resulted

Tyre

defend

to
to

continue

1973,70ff),

Egyptian

support

Egyptian-dominated

enabled

a position

(Katzenstein

Canaan

continue

of

Egypt.

against

support

thereby

domination

the

of

showing
regional

network.
(1969,1970)

Drower
dependence

the

of

Syrian

She therefore

routes.

important

to the activities

are obviously

Maisler
'Canaan'

the term

(1946)
in

Syria,
'Kun'

late

the

16th

about

notes

than

constant

powers
the

along,

15th

commanding
trade

major

centuries

as an

There

are references
(sometimes
and even residing

through

the maintenance

their

own, and their

these

of

the 15th-century

that

reference

to each

rights

II

use of

referred

and only

in

to a special

the late

to the Egyptian

the term

'Kyn'nw',
class

14th century

province

of
was

of the

Levant.

* Not until
the*13th
century
(Katzenstein
1973,75).

rulers

1969,25-39).

the traders,

used with

them
and

other

the time of Amenophis

ie.

main

of navigation.

passing

and cities

(Drower

territories

the

to

and access

of merchants

concerned

the more or less

on one of

the development

in countries

seasonally,

in

cities

sees

for

period

others'

has emphasised

raw materials

of

sources

people

sent

in

city

collusion

indirectly

presumably

domination

Egyptian

ie.

alliance

being

the

of Sidon with

the alliance

about

and their

of

status'

Sidon's

and

herself

the

statement

was Ushu part

Tyre
kingdom
the
of
of

21.

In summary, one can say that

their

involvement

(most

of

the

(a)

time)

their

organise

the

their"support

and

following

the

to

encouraged

were

along

increasingly

lines:

of certain
for

exchange

bulk

It

is

own Aegean

skills
industries

Age:

clear,

and Central

payment
of

spheres

the

the

of
in

Eastern

the

far-reaching

of bulk

providing

network

was organised

could

access

to

of their
tin,

copper,

too.

In

extending

Cyprus

commodities

inland

and Egypt,

already

partner,

- most conspicuously,

the

into
such

Near

that

the

without
East,

n'ajor

there

was

to Mesopotamia,

the organisation
Therefore,

existed.

but not

Eastern

the

Also,

tapping

their

extended

be accomplished

either.

network

Mycenaeans became one more trading

Mycenaeans

trading

of

- by sea - Cilicia,

the provision

the

network

functioning

carrying

relations

when

two networks

ivory,

products

Mediterranean

that

both

independent

of

include

would

Mediterranean

Near

the

an established,

goods.

probably

and the maintenance

and agricultural

`therefore,

interpenetration

network,

both

for

and ships

and to be ensured

production

wool,

Bronze

Mediterranean,

and reaching

in

be used

to

These raw materials

linen,

interruptions

but

dyes,
as
cloth,
such
scale-to'be,
used in tribute

raw materials

of navigation
for

workforce.

Late

13th

the

cosmodities
large

commodities

raw materials

The

for

production;

the development

probably

(attested

centuries;

- on sufficiently

commodity

these

ivory

of

earlier

the production
and in

for

network,

pre-eminence,

activities

possession
to

garments

trade

regional

Egyptian

of

economic

applicable

(c)

the

of Canaan, by

cities

the production
of luxury
commodities for royal consumption,
viz.
(1956a) significant
demonstration
Barnett's
of the royal monopoly
over

(b)

in

the coastal

into

the

an established

exclusively

- manufactured

Ad40

Mycenaean

A1

Mycenaean

II

and'III

those

of

Mycenaean

are

bibliography).

Saidah
are

wares

indigenous

as indicating

accepted
Sanders.
type

in

found

if

notes

names would

However,

the

for

evidence

for

Mycenaean

II-ILIA/B,

Hankey

The establishment
lead
is

to

local

the

no evidence

believes

on the

Amuq plain

'...

at

from
in

least

the

the

the

16th,

now shown

they

have

like

TEKEE, ENKOMI,

(eg.
for

presence

great

of

the

in

of

eastern

copper

appear

to

be Cypriot

KITION'and
at

these

ATHIENOU,
centres

for

of

of wealth,

the

logically

would
for

there

trade:

Riis
in

as-is

from

Syro-

from

material

Cyprus

TELL ATSANA

(1970,130).

according

Mycenaean

trade

in

a flood

which

was maintained

the

(1966,56).

century,
Cyprus.

Wheeler

al

in

At

copper.
is

there

in

that

Cypriot
for

evidence

There

involved
(1975)

palaces

L. B. A.

extraction

copper

et

Minoan

the

late

Possibly
were

'consumed'

the

of

most

where,

activity,

1973, Dothan and Ben Tor 1974).

accumulation

A..
10 N,

at

Mycenaeans

found

ingots

(1971,141).

found

B wares

century'

14th

Aegean

1970,131).

Riis

14th,

13th

by the

copper

III

items

of

(cf.

the

but

coast,

inland

East

Near

analysed

the

that

analysed

Karageorghis

half

of

have

the

a trickle

generally

settlements.

Mycenaean

of

is

corroborate

to be Peleponnesian,

during

certainly

exploitation

Mycenaean

area

does

analysis

has been

a flood

first

but

it

had been

became

century

but

proved
that

what

in

Mycenaean

was a crucial

Catling

for

has

coastal

development

products;

material

contemporary

the

and'Egyptian

archives
eg.

(1974)),

SIDON,

of

UGARIT then

at

commercial

by Mycenaeans

this

Cypriot

are

15th

for

on the

BYBLOS,

one robbed

The evidence

sanctuaries,

Mycenaeans

'stylistically'

Palestine

to

of

manufacture

yet

that

Cyprus

in

Cypriot

had existed

among the

from

and south

occupation

be expected

presence

(1958))

with

UGARIT,

finds

with

wares

1967,

sites,
the

beginning

distributed

also

coastal

(1969).

graves

enclave

their

1971),

of Mycenaean,

a Mycenaean

(Mycenaean

Jordan

finds

some Mycenaean

evidence

1974,

Baremke

vases:

important

the

and inland

on'coastal

widely

SARAFEND (where

at

claims

most

Harkey

comes from

34 Mycenaean

East

GAZA (Kenyon
the

(cf.

A2

III

cemeteries

included

where

Near

the

but

types,

Evidence

TARSUS and the

tomb

in

found

as HAZOR, GEZER, LACHISH,

such

sites,

is

pottery

sites

increasing

and export

is

also

evidence

the form of Syro-Palestinian

22-

in

luxuries

and Egyptian

at ATHENIOU by the

of

highly

Egyptian

(and of course

Aegean).

directly

associated

century

and attributed

the inhabitants

However,

Karageorghis

1973),

by increasing

the

were

involved

'The

thirteenth

hand,

scale

in

as it

Cyprus

of

precedes

the

stresses

over
extent

Mycenaeans
the

of

with

the

this

view.

evidence

and trade
the Cypriot
preceding
testify

is

there

distribution

The evidence

etc,

Cypriot

centres
period

the

age of

Cypriot

in

the

in

Cyprus

copper

Mycenaean-control

over

the correspondence

and ti ARZT:
on the

industry.

'

the

Cypriot

dominance

density

Near

East,

do not

support

copper production

the great

wealth
in

not

such as juglets,

base-ring

vessels,

the Near East.

it

and
together

of Mycenaean imports,

the period

other

with

Cypriot

greater

Cyprus,

of

on the

connection

the
in

(p, 196)

Riis,

- and proposes

in

its

smelting

Mycenaean

But,

industry

Mycenaeans

the

Cyprus.

settlement'of

for

with

1 pottery,

cf.

copper

that

metal

for

to relations

these

workshops

controlling

activities

and others

when Cypriot

in

wares,
the

believes

wares

with

Style'

and probably

(1970,130-2).

in

coast,

at KITION to the 12th

controlling

of Mycenaean
Mycenaean
activities

to be found

of Kition

wealth

large

of

the two waves of Achaean

'Granary

were

great

element

by Schaeffer

UGARIT - as noted
the

Mycenaean

actual

Mediterranean

of Mycenaeans using HIC

and

commercial

was for

for

'The contents

are dated

even before

C1

was the

century

the Eastern

end in 1200, but

extraction

intensive

clearly

were obtaining.

Mycenaean involvement

(1973,195-8)

Muhly

mass

are now Achaeans.

III

of

quite

that

Mycenaeans

the

by sea.

transport

This

Mycenaean

associated

indicate

the fabulous

to the presence
of the site

commodities

and the

(1973,10):

activities

can be seen that

(using

colonists

island

it

cult

luxury

the Syro"Palestinian

does not

with

of

and represented

Egypt,

significant

centres

production

array

into

Karageorghis

with

KITION,

industry

of copper

trade

of
is

at

vessels,

in the copper

cf.

tombs

network

Mycenaean

involved

which was the result

'
It
Aegean.
the
and

ie.

trading

tomb are enough to illustrate

one simple

copper

Eastern

in the. distribution

role

This

rhyton.

special

ornamented

what the Cypriots

their

Near

the

within

produced

13th-century

the

can therefore

of
the
wares,

be

that

suggested
luxury
from
of

in

has

period:

the

Amarna

of

the

transport

ornamented

pottery

containers,

the

is

It

even

distribution

production

back

carried
believes.
such

to

quite

as the

been

own ships

for

advantage

in

sources

the

interior.

- that

The example of

the

alabaster

from

14th

f
^,
.

in

wares
for

the

Mycenaean
century.

by the

network

the

of

supply

the

Near

the

contents
the

of

in

Near

(for

East

fact

which
been

have

(1974)

Hap-key

of

the

exchanges

for

used

were

containers.

object

over

copper

to a larger

distribution

could

their

Eastern

closed

vessels,

between

suppliers

the flows

are archaeologically
the III A 2/B 1 closed

sector

be controlled

demand for

containers
of

which

the population

by the Levantine

of

and by using

had

of

only

could

as suppliers

copper
have

would

partner,

network

capacity

Cypriot

of

Mycenaeans

and ivory

distribution

the
in

to an increased

the Mycenaean response

much prized

that

as a trading

Mycenaean commodities
initiated.

the
of

Once established

by Muhly

argument

and may in

Mycenaean

the

production

supply

in

known)

Mycenaeans

the

transport,
the

in

foothold

By increasing

copper.

(cited

of

traders.

by the

achieved

centres

containers

in

produced

are

were

initial

the

L. B. A..

coastal

trade

basis

Mycenaean

the

ie.

jars,

Near-Eastern

products

counterparts
of which had probably
.
from
by imports
possibly
supplemented

coast

contrary,

stirrup

However,

copper

the

the

the

Cypriot

Cypriot

copper

on the

solely

the

of

support

Cypriot

the

that

Aegean

the

and Levantine

Mycenaeans

have

on the

centres

in

and balms

oils

absence

of

of

to

commodities

the

possible

of

control

by Catling

noted

would

of

locally,

produced

taken

own

luxury

as the

routes

on the

and trade

be envisaged

Cyprus.

been

this

cannot

hitherto

on the

their

with

The concentration

or

penetration

had

they

remarked

Mycenaeans

been

as well

has

(1974)

The successful

burials,

areas,

from

control

the

industry.

and distribution,

Cypriots

supplied

so. doing

copper

Hankey

Egypt

in

copper-working

production
1973).

for

but

East,

Near

intensified

the

finds

kraters

eg.

wares,
the

Mycenaeans

the

their

a competitive

the

distant

more

of manufactured

documented - could
shapes could
the contents

bei

represent
of the

would have facilitated

in exotic
trading

pots,
partners.

whose

Ad0

for

The reason
and the

centres
Aegean

are

Semitic

items

these
through

possibility

ivory,

for
are

trade

argument, on the basis

that 'Syro-Palestinians'
Creek mainland

generally

B tablets
(eg.

in exchange for

words

Barnett

1956b);

(1967)

the Mycenaean products

conclusion

the

include

as commodities
Bass

addition,

trading

penetrating

of

obtained
makes

for

shipwreck*
of the Cape Gelidcnya
or 'Phoenicians'
were carrying

He comes to the unlikely

Levant.

traders

accepted

In

Levantine

the

and condiments

Levant.

the

with

Linear

gold

therefore

in

'Phoenician'

of
issues.

much disputed

origin

involvement

Mycenaean

a strong

suggesting
to the

metal
which

the

reached

that:

Mycenaean shipping
has been
extent
of
...
because her chief
highly
overrated
simply
export
in pottery,
pottery
and goods shipped
commodities,
left
Although
the goods
remains.
such durable
in exchange by the Mycenaeans
received
are no
longer
they were certainly
so immediately
apparent,
'
to the people
traded
them.
of equal value
who
the

(Bass 1967,166)

(Bass also

Stubbings

supports

of Phoenician
)
B.
A.
L.
the
of

traders

contemporaneity
heroes

The expansion
as Italy,

Sicily,

finds

from

are

Latium

(eg.

of
the

LUNI

Vagnetti

Mycenaean
Aeolian

in their

and others

trade
Islands

in

Mycenaean

as far

can be traced

westwards
and Ischia:

wares

the

the Homeric

the Aegean with

SUL MIGNONE,, an important

1970).

in

belief

the

Apennine
are

not

most
site
found

northerly
in

Northern

further

west,

determinations
of
types,
and
some
of pottery
amulets
be
Syro-Palestinian
believes
Bass
and
to
the
ship
matter
organic
in
involved
be
the
by
Levantine
working
as
would
a
crew
who
manned
The
found
the
cargo
the
the
ship.
on
metals
carrying
of
as
well
handles
ingots
included
Cypriot
scrap,
with
- tools,
copper ox-hide
bronze
lead
significantly
and most
weights,
equipment,
metalworking
date
dates
14
C
ingot
to
Finds
give
a
of
tin.
concur
and
of
and an
is
Even if his identification
1200 50 BC.
origin
of the ship's
Phoenician
it
is
hardly
to
extend
either
evidence
sufficient
correct,
(into
Aegean)
the
or chronologically
geographically
enterprise
shipping
(into
the 14th century).

* On the

basis.

26

is generally

it

but

Mediterranean-would
in raw materials
for

Lipari,
(1964,228)

(cf.

regards

the

from

in Apulia,

sites

'Late

The possible

the

in

relations
'the

some cases

a Mycenaean

Apulian/Aegean

the

support

in

the

of

the

although

SCOGLIO DEL TONNO, Apulia,

in

these

Aegean/Northern

of

Mycenaean

Vagnetti

traders

Aeolian
(Brea

complex
They

with

the Aegean

with

is

(Popham

Euboea

less

and

(1971,324ff)

notes
in

Aegean:

than

certain',
intermediary

as a possible

The

by Vagnetti

cited

and the

regarded

as well

Daniel

rectangular

TH.4PSOS, ie.

and Evans

likelihood

an enclave

of

by

discussed

date

buildings
from

contemporary

the
with

of

'palatial'

phase

of

relations

culture

in-Nadur
Bord
the
-

recent

Thapsos

of the Sicilian.

the Milazzese

1967,23ff).

Sicily,

of'Eastern

peninsula

to

with

connections

and the M. B. A. of Malta

Islands

appear

elements

Mycenaean III

SCOGLIO DEL TONNO is

'Mycenaean'

the

as its

1966,116ff;

Magnisi

is

on

and bibliography.

are

Italy

relations.

established

but most imports

in some quantity

Snodgrass

transmission

at

connections

(1970).

Brea deals
culture,

Italian

finds

C context

Northern

of

is

and Proto-Geometric

LEFKANDI,

connection.

metalwork

direction

III

the

with

metal.

where connections

from

Mycenaean

relations

and Sicily;

locations,

wares'

the

century

in Apulia,

Sub-Mycenaean

of

1970 for

Apennine

found

1968)

Sackett

finds

(See Vagnetti

too.

wares

to

by later

represented

are

and

sees

to obtain

finds

in

Vermeule
copper-,

- Aegean

Islands

and Apulia,

of

of

They are found

the Aeolian

in Lipari

wares are found

trade

ports

Mediterranean

cf.

A and B wares.

or

and 15th

in order

period,

Mediterranean,

(1973,277ff)

16th

the

of

the Central

source

as he believes

Helladic

are of Mycenaean III

several

basis

particularly

1973,280).

- Muhly

the Aegean/Central

of

to the Middle

Muhly

established

west were not originally

dated

1970;

as a secondary

if-

even

ports'

trade,

of
in

'free

century.

in the Central

activities

to centres
of

west

as the

The beginning

their

Vagnetti

15th

the

industries,

bronze

to the orientation

example

connections

western

have led

development

the

tin,

possibly

that

such as metals,

in

culminating

believed

At

of

the

culture

THAPSOS, on the

excavations
dimensions

greatest

commercial

with

Mycenaeans

have

revealed

and structure.
activity
(as

is

at
known

27.

from

tomb contents,

1972,1973).

houses,

are

which

as indicated
large

scale

contrast

with

These

components,

rectangular

single

finds

large,

of

(Complexes

indigenous

locally

the

settlement

A and B) with

rounded/rectangular
former

the

with

from

the

within

buildings
the

known

are

by finds

Associated

units.

The presence

enchytrismoi.

few Mycenaean

very

Malta,

and with

settlement)
(Voza

since

there
in

made pithoi

are
'c'

Area

building
for
B
Complex
that
the
suggests
part
was
used
of
storage
of
to collection
and its construction
was possibly
related
and storage
functions,

possibly

collection

by Mycenaean traders;

brought

also

from the East for

(eg.

Mediterranean

oil,

The stimulation
in

metals

preliminary

the

Suffice

it

(1973)

have

to

eastern

Spain

copper,

tin,

collection

Mediterranean

say,

this

points

(1970)

Muhly

in

participants

by the

visited

the

shows
trade

occurrence

of

Near

Eastern

a few jars

of

wine

or

than

rather
Aegean.
the

Age Greece'

15th

of
the

sulphide

since
ores

L. B. A.

and

using

the-Aegean

is

presence

et
analysis

was applied
their

to

have

been
-

-57)
(Wheeler
et

L. B. A.

own term

for

the

the

of
to

the

the

in
are

harbour'of
in

port

argument

indicates

1975)

the

of

Mycenaean
Muhly's

support

by Mycenaeans

the world

outside

date

in

Phoenicians

a major

al

merchants,

operating

merchants

found

(and

merchants

of Homer is

ingots

'active'

by Mycenaean

'Homer's

that

1966,

a late

therefore

South-

of

'bric-a-brac'

back

Phoenician

of

copper

al

Muhly

occasional

Levantine

of

'The world

thought

1.

A,

supplied

be the

as

brought

and asserts

The

(Sackett
their

in

possibility

(p. 63).

name 'Phoenician'

Syro-Palestine,

the

II

Mediterranean

the

and regards

perfume)

own day'...

= which

century

especially

the

of his

KYME, Euboea
the

the

during

the product
Iron

for

as evidence

He rejects

Aegean

perhaps

nor

probably

to

merchants

Levant

items

(1967)
culture

Central

the

Part

Mycenaeans.

Mycenaean
the

with

Argar

below,

to

gold

El

the

of

precious

of
in

with

Bass

neither

be discussed

and possibly

exploitation

be dealt

will

account

as will

silver

the Central

wares within

and the

that

point,

sufficient

which,

commodities

etc. ).

Western

taken

down of bulk

in local

bronze-working

of

for

of raw materials

or the breaking

distribution
wine,

at

working

the

ingots.

But

dye-workers

dye manufactured

use

in

of
the

9p
fwdU

'phoinix'

Aegean, viz.

contact

to merely

there

(1970,36,

Muhly

Eastern

the

in

population

density

The clinching

point

far

the

exceeding

Eastern

its

her

and foodstuffs,
'It

is

quite

of

to

quantity

imports

are

that

it

the

likely

that
'

of

major

Mycenaean presence
for

of

Mycenaean

bases her
and commercial

the considerable

from the 15th

onwards.

century

found

products

abroad,

at

ivory,
faience,
spices,
seals,
entirely
were almost
- [which]
treasures,
and temple
and for
theirthe wealthy
upper classes,
the number of
not have supported
(p. 66)
abroad'

perishable
objects

southern

(p. 66).

Greece

Vermeule

some Mycenaean

commercial

was the disruption

caused the migration

that

suggest

were

occupation,

indications

for

been

have

would

(1960)

Vermeule

penetration

known

be self-supporting.
phases

they

agricultural

and the

sphere

and on the evidence

textiles
perhaps
destined
for royal
tomb-gifts
among
procurement
could
wealthy
prospectors

leads

but

that

economies

trading

supply.

evidence

the

"luxury"

which

palace

in Mycenaean lands
is

1960)-proposes

Vermeule

to procure

the Near East;

have had

dyes or cloth.

Mediterranean/Near

activities

The Mycenaeans

industries,

and cloth-dyeing

Mycenaean

the

on: the extensive

argument

certainly

obtain.

by

in order

undertaken

the Near East would

following

was required

produce

1965).

the dye-producing

with

were not

1946; Astour

Maisler.

in

and established

visiting

of

(cf.

relations

of this

trade

materials:
Mycenaean

of

could
also

not

points

centres,
beyond

in

trade
grow
out

eg.
the

the late

metals

essentially
abroad.
enough
in

that

food

to

the

final

at MYCENAE, there

Mycenaean

13th

world

century

and

that

from many Mycenaean centres*.

it is clearly
not the Mycenaeans
* 'From all these traces of dispersion
'
(Vermeule
1960,74)
but
disappeared,
Mycenaean
civilisation.
who
Classical
Archaic
that
colonisaShe compares this situation
and
of
with
'two
importation'
'emigration
ie.
the
classic
principles
are
tion,
and
is
(p.
67).
This
useful
not particularly
comparison
of-Greek survival'
its
Mycenaean
'survival'
society,
with
of
or reproduction
since the
be
bureaucratic
compared with that of the
cannot
palace structure,
Polls.
emergent or even-developed

29

Muhly also

would have been dependent

a Near Eastern

on either

important
an

We know that

supply.

would have been a vital

and
the Mycenaean bronze industry
tin

that

in the L. B. A. and that

resource

scarce

(1973)

recognises

bronze-working
(Drower

UGARIT in the 14th and 13th centuries

and tin.
Gelidonya

they were allowed

that

cargo

area of'S. E. Anatolia,

the Ergani

are known to occur.

1966,58-63)

Cobalt

have come from

might

in known Cypriot

to be present

appear

contents

cobalt

ores with

copper may have reached the coast together

(1973,348-9)
from
had
Aegean
to
the
proposes
come
the 16th

of international

re-establishment
eastern

where copper

does not

which Muhly
in the West during

sources

to analyse

The Anatolian

ores.

tin

with

1968; Culican

bronze
the cargo of the wrecked ship off Cape Gelidonya included
Wheeler et al (1975) note that the piece of an ingot from the

and that

copper

or a Western European
industry
functioned
at

supply

of

tin

and 15th

Only with

centuries.

in. the Amarna period

trade

the

was an

tapped:

'Thus,
during
1400-1200
BC, tin
the period
cane to
by way of the
the Aegean from an eastern
source,
Euphrates
from an ultimately
Iranian
river
source
located
somewhere in the general
area from
Hamadan-Ecbatana
Sea. '
to the Caspian

(Muhly

Supplying
L. B. A.

is

(D.

copper

likely

during
Oates

the

by Wheeler

et al

hydroxide

Old Assyrian

it

of

been

economies.

contained

the beginning

implying

to have

1968,32-4;

exploitation,

of copper

industries

bronze

cities'

coastal

Anatolia

oxide,

the

therefore

Levantine
in

for

tin

1973,349)

Larsen

is

Aegean

the

the

one of

(The value
empire

was c.

1967).

With

that

Iranian

seven
regard

of the use of sulphide

and carbonate

tin

to

ores

traded
that

times

the Gelidonya

significant
'massive copper-iron-sulphide

the

of

mainstays

of

Eastern

and Near

the

of

extent

ingot

analysed

particles',

once the weathered

depleted
had
been
ores

(Wheeler

et al

1975,38).

-Thus,
spices,
trading

tin,.

agricultural

produce

and to a lesser

degree

cloth,

into
Near
Eastern
the
Mycenaean
the
expansion
object
of
were
etc.
be
It
resources
emphasised that these are critical
must
network.

30

for

the Mycenaean palace

of the palace
in

commodities

in

the

Near

commodities

in

the

Aegean

in

Cyprus,

where

resulted

in

the

Egyptian

luxury

is

found

elite

copper,

found

in

the

by

previously.

There

Mycenaeans

important

is

point

in

the

or

regained

its

the

according

of

Ramases

II

to
for

and Anatolia,
conclusion

'Canaan'

Drower

peace

and Hattusilis)

and
ingot

the

to

under.
the
should

for

the 14th century

extend

half

of

the

interior,

its

control

trade

to

the

century,

Assyria
territory

over

was developinto

routes

(1274-1245).

and Hittite

with

14th

the

and Urartu

Hittites

be related

when,

by some cities

command over

Egyptian

material

dominance began to be

In

Shalnareser

the
the

of

Bass

were.

second

declined.

hence

sterile:

criticality

by the

growth

versa,

found

than

system

vice

of alliances
In

expansion

interpenetration

for

is

carriers

with--the

(1968),

between

than

territorial

and began

example

dependence

began in

Egyptian

the

regional

transporter

who the

confrontation

where

west,

when
of

on an oxhide

and their

complex

and economic

network

independence

KITION

of

century

networks

connections

the formation

of

13th

the

a more

dependents.

their

domination

ing,

quality

as seen in

Hittites

by

dominant

the

the Amarna period,

Egyptian

to

Eastern

of this

for

wealth

and temple

standing

be a greater

regardless

The expansion

undermined,

of

Near

trade,

the

of

and

and distribution

production

and Aegean

to

the

Mycenaeans

Levantine

of

occupations

workshops

and especially

over

situation

1973).

appears

argument

Eastern

by the

accumulation

a deity

produced

A different

production

Achaean
the

Near

consumption

of

not

manufactured

of

view.

copper

the

of

formation

the

this

type

over

survival

not

Mycenaean

absence

intercommunicating

the

on their

and Muhly's

during

in

found

Mediterranean
in

virtual

latter,

the

of

over

This

to the very

of

and conspicuous

not

14th

had resulted

flows

control

representation

the

case

support

was exercised
in

Eastern

the

would

ENKOMI (Karageorghis

at

Thus
of

is

as seen

symbolised

and the

commodities.

control

religious

East

acquisition

consumption

the

for

commodities

the case of the former,

The distribution

quantities.

sufficient

in

and in

Aegean,

the

represent

were vital

they were,

economies:

within

available

and foodstuffs

Tin

consumption.

elite

and do not

economies

empires
attempts

Thus,

Syria
the

(ruled
by

the

by

31

Assyrians

to control

which had become part

as tin,

This

for

diplomacy

political
and tribute

relationship

Egypt

continued

which

in

increase
between

partners

trade

freedom

This
also

to

establish

king

from
below).

to

penetration

with
of

With

the

competition
ties

their

and expand
cities

Mycenaean

trade

increased

finds

individual

the

of

facilitated

comes from

'the

first

new

establish
the

of

operated

within

to

Cilicia,

southwards
A letter

king'of

king

had
the

origin,

from

Ugarit

regional

via

illustrates,

firstly,

as a gift

of

with

the
gifts;

cf.

Oppenheim

the

king

of

if

lapis

243)

1969b,
Ugarit.

lazuli

(1966,46)

14th

to

in
way
and,

the

Hittite

to

complexity

Afghanistan
the

to

Hittite

the
of

Mycenaean
court

the

secondly,

was offered

centuries

and the

which

(probably

as

as northwards

Cyprus
to

13th

and

as well

Ugorit

of

suitable

system

inland

far

and westwards

ambassador

trading

Iran,

Egypt,

the

a Levantine

of

by Culican

During

extending

the

to be appeased

regional

to

described

port'.

a network

and flourishing

expansion

international

it

the

the

(Ras Shamra),

UGARIT

great

centres.

for

evidence

city

king

free

interrupt

(see

to

allegiance

letter

Ugarit

in

manipulate

not
cf.

one

since

network.

The best

of

from

Egypt

each

did

century,

new alliances,

cities,

and alliances.
trading

for

establishing

Levantine

13th

the

network

UGARIT's

eg.

Hittites

such

Empire.

could

advantage,

the

with

cities

which

economic

heading

a ship

about

in

into

trading

the Old Assyrian

a situation

created

of commodities,

of the Near Eastern

of the decline-of

the beginning

Tyre

to and the supply

routes

Hittite

the ambassador,
sent with
* Due to the poor quality
of the lapi. z lazuli
'Now
his
king:
king
try
Hittite
to
is
the
he
and writes
ridiculed-by
it
king
lazuli
the
to
lapis
so that
find
and
send
somewhere
to
good
(MRS
'
17,383,
221
9
RS
be
he will
p.
more.
any
you
angry with
not
in Oppenheim 1967,136).

32

From documents

we learn

found

the Petit.

involvement

UGARIT's

of

in

in

Palais

and other
transactions

complex

of- the site

areas

its

with

coastal

but most autonomous competitors.

A complex
- some subordinate
in
indicating
kept
four
languages,
the presence of
set of records were

neighbours

from

traders

found.

also

grain,

of

known

fish,
142).

dependent

cities

is

ports,

such

by

alabaster
have

of

Byblos,

Tyre

frem
in

and Ashkelon,

to

appear

have

recorded

'Sukunu'

of
1962,

surrounding
in

Ugarit

coastal

other
together
king

the

which

'droits

had

is

traders

people

from

cloth

eg.

UGARIT from

Ugaritic

names of

cities

(Schaeffer

resale

to

of

coastal

grossiste')

for

brought

There

transaction

('le

Ashdod,

were

by a list

as Arvad,

to

addition

the

have

been

palace

and dyers*,
of

Containers
ivory
and

been made in

into
gold

wealthy
for

with
of

extra-territiaux'

eg.

21 acres)

over
ivory

industrial

quarters:

have

merchants

models,

(Drower

and balms

oils

and their

metal

the

contents

produced
too

the

near

recognised
were

city

workers,

sealcutters;
been

its

with
the

workshops,

and silversmiths,

scented

on Egyptian
UGARIT

(extending

quarters,

organised

and warehouses
port.

vast

and production

producers

city's

from

UGARIT,

another

wholesaler

etc.

oils,
other

of

export

1962,140ff).

to

houses

1973,47);

clothes

scented

from

exported

to

refers

UGARIT from

The establishment

towns.

administrative
appears

into

been

the

representatives

In

woods,

(silver,

metals

(1968)

Drower

as salt,

wood and copper

indicated

(Schaeffer

to

and

wool

Grain,

Ugarit's

import

the

milk,

have

(Katzenstein

and Tyre

concerning

to

1962);

in

transactions

record

and clothes,

cloth

imports

to

references

commodities

Byblos

such

commodities,

several

cloth

(Schaeffer

Palais

UGARIT is

to

particular

script

Petit

the
fish,

milk,

oil,

and copper)

additional
are

in

The archives

livestock,
bronze

An alphabetic

many places.

are

in
thought

1968).

of seasonal occupation
of murex
See Jensen (1963) for the suggestion
(1934)
for
Thureau-Dangin
accounts of-the
organisation
and
extraction,
of production.

33,

(1956a)

Barnett

Phoenicians

Egyptian

governor's

he regards
royal

The king
form

the

have

on the

monopoly

of

cloth
its

maintained

by acting

45 kg of
Amurru

by

silver

would

Egyptian,

metal

Ugarit

Assyrian

as a medium

of

her

and Ugaritic

are best

paralleled

silver

in

city

for

ruler

appears

to

was given

the

which

people

(1971)

testify

to

the

based

also

are
Aziru

Balmuth

network

and Hittite

Egyptian

whereby

return

Hittite

trading

Mycenaeans

the

all

the

regional

the

enemies.

texts

the

the

a'treaty
in

Ugarit,

against

exchange,

ivory

to

but

between

cites

of

tribute

within

(1956,282)
king

in which

Egypt.

1968),

and possibly

the

assist

position

in

paid

Amurru

with

Nougayrol

have

intermediary

as a commercial

on silver.

that

prominent

Relations

powers.

ivory

of

(Drower

and silver

and which

the

beds at UGARIT. Significantly,

pieces in MEGIDDO as evidence for the

to

said

and

style

possession

UGARIT is

of

quantities

of these

the collection

eg.

the example of the room in

at MEGIDDO, c. 13th century,

in Egyptian

items,

luxury

of wooden furniture

He cites

in considerable

as inlay

by those-used

and artistic

needs for

pharaohs'

inlay.

palace

were found

pieces

in

ivory

with

to craft

in the manufacture

specialised

items

toilet

by the Egyptian

given

production

the stimulus

emphasises

of

notes
use

of

particular:

'The

in the Ugaritic
flows
of tears
epics
of Aght
1/4 shekels
and Kit are described
as resembling
or pieces-of-four
and 1/5 shekels
or pieces-of-five.
in
The fact
that
two denominations
are mentioned
these picturesque
gives
similes
us a hint
of prehave been excavated
Scales
and weights
money.
weighed

"silversmith's"
but
hoard of silver,
the
the
site,
at
it,
has
the
consists
of random
named
excavator
as
bits of metal. '
(pp. 2-3)

The supply
in

used in this

the silver

of all

the hands of Mycenaean traders,

for

Western Mediterranean
If-inland

Asian

reached

the Hittite

(But,

as in

Asian

hinterland

sources

metals,

source,

and A.murru without

lazuli,

the trade

may have been quite

complex. )

the case of

lapis

city

have been

may well

been
known
have
tapping the
to
are
who
included
certainly
silver.
which almost

had been the only

centre

coastal

could

supplies

the interception
in

silver

within

have

of Ugarit.
the

ei

The dependence on trade

and transport

of commodities

produced

froth others by resident

their
own city and obtained
within
merchants is
illustrated
by another document from UGARIT. It records the direct
intervention by the king of Tyre to ensure that a ship wrecked near Tyre, and
its contents destined
for Egypt, were safely
to the king of
returned
UGARIT (Katzenstein
for

reoccupied

its

after

to the king

ruler

fleet

the Ugaritic

met since

At the end of the 13th

from the Hittite

foodstuffs

never

1973,57).

not be

of UGARIT could

had been destroyed.

fall

an appeal

century,

In fact,

UGARIT was
of its

at the end of the period

greatest

prosperity.
'boom'

is probably

- representing
connected with inland

a pattern

Ugarit's
degrees

production

represented

by the

and the

rich

there

eg.

foreign

Resident

(eg.

dependent

within

operation

is

was greatly
both

maritime

of the

is

of

the

internal

the

of

(as would

be

(Drower

palace
by what

paralleled

system,

regional

of commodity

known

Ugarit'

1968))

we know of

system,
by

inland
and

kings.

they

and between

growth

networks.

city
are

based
during

to

exchanges

and
their

on the
the

in

Amarna

letters.

each

to
basis

others'

through

exchange.
and between

within

was therefore
seen

mutual

merchants

the

obtained

and the

by contracts

although
the

in

network

safeguarded

in

access

goods

participate

trading

wider

the

as to

Thus,

of

mentioned

each

for

arrangements

to maintain

of

be competitive,

to

seen

establishment

alliances

network
1946).

Maisler

expanded

to

able

commercial

the

the

as well

is

cities

contractual

concerned

were

between
trading

of

production,

clearly

intermarriage
regional

growth

the scale

about

Levantine

and the

obviously

merchants

others

rich

incident,

shipwreck
cities,

are

and the

cities
all

the

the

indications

also

commodity

ports,

'men

arranged
is
and artisans

between

coastal.

The rulers

cities

cities.

are

benefit,

the

differing
to
-

coastal

What

period..

residences

The relations
but

king,

merchants

Levantine

other

of internal

by this

the

viz.

to all

and demonstrating

trade

and exchange

organisation,

true

extended

have

been

inter-

of

their

co-

and even

agreements

The

representatives.
same principles

14th

over

and 13th

as before,
centuries

of

"+

35

The collapse
to various

natural

in
the 12th century,
of the regional
system
(including
disasters
droughts,
earthquakes

movements of people

1969, Vermeule

Barnett

to

beginning

the

involved

have
the

of

fact,

the

or

available

iron

by Chalcolithic
(1972,232).

(1975).
from

Greece,
they

to

appears

Weisgerber
coppers'

copper

scale

of

to be drawn

conclusions

the

Phoenicia,

(Albright'1961),

since

Phoenician

cities

are

and ALALAKH, and their

their

1973,

fleets,

later

with

of

to

eg.

the

have

refounding

been

iron

of

technology
to

according
'high

Nichoria

in
Kea
and

to

by

noted

recorded

date,

of

the

of

been

smelting

centuries

from

be too

iron-

Sardinia:
for

limited

(1975).

Canaan was the

original

area
in

settled

(Hebrews

inhabitants

in

breakdown

use

has

conviction

had

new populations

thought

have

part

1/10

and inland

would

factor

The use

simple,

to

independent
about

and Tjeker)

Philistines

in

only

**

Age copper

and 6th

research,

the

Israel,

centres,

13th

their

points

which

the

with

metals,

Timna,

and Aschenbrenner

the

strip:

in

smelters

the

is

was stimulated.

relatively

- of

From now on,

ores

component

remained

finds

any general

its

Mediterranean

several

time,

as an important

that

possible,

Bronze

Cooke

this

at

concerned

The Late

and two

regard

coastal

have

iron

of

of metals,

network.

bronze

reverse

use

value

of

ores

Rothenberg

the

also

generally

Timna

in

is

more

at

generalised

and

example

in all publications
the Near East. ) Barnett. (1956a)

in

trade

the

distribution

the

the

a change

disruption

In
in

of

(See for

here.

etc)

1964; and discussions

1st millenium

the early

with

not be discussed

will

attributed

the

of

Canaan
(the

south

and Aramaeans).
destroyed,

central

as were

The
UGARIT

to have survived
by taking
to the sea
from Sidon (eg. Katzenstein
their
cities

ch. IV).

* He also

suggests,

some Phoenician

involvement

details
Sea People based on Phoenician
(Barnett
1957,58)
ZINJIRLI.
at
ships

**

like

should
counter-argument.

to

thank

Bob Miller

for

of

in

the movements of

some depictions

drawing

my attention

of
to

the

Sea People's
this

36.

The evolution

Asiatic

regional

Phoenician

system,

with

definite

The only
fror

the

of

seem to be significant
been

that

Ugarit

destroyed

structurally

more

Phoenicians

having

done
settled

traditional
cities

is

accounts
probably

conflict,

refer

of

11th

life

to
It

implied
their

of

at

is more consistent

in Phoenicia
is

It

centuries.

in

condi-

the
easily

and re-establish
that

the
Phoenician

the

of
in

the

face

of

interruption

of

the

Pritchard

has

not

from

L. B. A.

the

the

foodstuffs,

emphasised

be suggested

a serious

transition

and hence

import

to

evacuations.

it

that
vassals

them

disruption

survive

populations.

the

to

and refounding

temporary

in

can be relatively

this

can even

clear

texts)

available

them,

to

can be made for

a case

on ships

would

to

external

found
I. A.

the

(1975,10)..

interpretation

developments

capacity

is

and possibly
Ugaritic

of

produce

abandonment

abandonment

development

urban

to

Since

never

cities

Thus,

fleets.

to

only

SAREPTA (Sarafend)

This

the

of

and urban

any evidence

the

trading.

strategy

increased,

and probably

commercial

at

their

It

(1956)

it

known

re-occupied.

coastal

dependence

is

that

own hinterland

adaptable
their

them -

life

its

and population

preserve

urban

the

comes

argument,

city

was never
of

relations

and 'abandonment

Levantine

only

Western

external

a circular

disruption.

to

strife:

- by moving

potentially

within

a more

on land
to

necessity

the

to

destruction

interpretation

prone

external

than

that

defined

Nougayrol's

rather

is

'typical'

was never

(following

of

this

the

within

reference

for

and abandoned

was territorially

tions

special

evidence

UGARIT and whilst

have

city-states

first

introduced
were

Tyre

- particularly
of all
for

the other

with

established

- during

that

the more secure

evidence

a series

maintenance

for

the 12th and

of technical
of large

in
One of the most
marginal
ecological
conditions.
urban populations
'innovations
is thought to be the use in the Phoenician
of these
significant
cities
stored.
condition
harsh
the

of lime

plaster

for lining

(This

would,

incidentally,

for

the later

environments.
'invention'

TAANACH, Israel

be a significant

establishment
Albright

fresh

so that

cisterns

(1961)

lime
lining
plaster
of
(Glock 1972 ms. ) cites

water

could

technical

pre-

in similarly

of new settlements

the Phoenicians

attributed
for

cisterns

evidence

for

but

evidence
'waterproof'

,a

be

with
from

37

(15th
B.
A.
I'
L.
century)
a
of
cistern,
canonical
view that it was an invention
near
lining'

Iron

age'. *

A number of references

Phoenician

were the recipients

cities
(1961,341)

Albright

to this

'opposing

thus

the

the beginning-of
period

suggest

of new population

the
that

the

elements,

eg.

to

refers

'...

the invigoration
of the decadent Canaanite
from the hardy
stock by fresh blood, especially
hardy peasants
mountaineers
of Syria and the equally
Israel,
of northern
who were drawn into Phoenician
by its tempting emoluments. '
service

Leaving
attraction
is

significant,

During
independent
These

are:

this

the

maintenance
to

related

in

independent

sources
labour;
of

of

large

technical

inland

areas

the

of

the Phoenician

as the

into

Danites

a number

and economic

of

These

a smaller

to

place.
centres

of

population

of

an increasing

supply

innovations

technical
developments
the

taking

number

accretion

in

changes

of. apparently

,
phenomena

an artificial

centres.

urban

a number

interdependent

population

lastly,

and

in

activities,

we see

area;

such

of the

permitted.

highly

reality

of the

observation

by a consideration

and other

therefore,

contraction

but

external

demand for

be amplified

increase

period,

but

Albright's

to the inhabitants

cities

of production,

demographic

a reduced

from

moral

and should

scale

that

cities

judgments,

the coastal

of

increased

in

his

aside

in

can,

Phoenician

wider

for

the

turn,

be

economic

system.

As an indication
point

to the development

iron
an

technology

account

(Breasted

already

found

this

in

1973,70ff).

(Katzenstein

* For

of the expansion
this

of

period

Katzenstein

for, this

of bulk

refers

development.

1905 and 1923; Leclant

in considerable

reference

too,

in
numbers.

I am indebted

the

trade,

carrying
large,

heavy merchant

in particular

We should

not

1968) of

ships

the early

11th

to Bob Miller.

we can
ship

to the use of
forget
of

this

century;

Wen-Amon's
nature
even if

38

the account
to 10,000

is

owned by a Sidonian
of the scale

of merchant

organisation

in
particular
-

50 according
in

resident

merchant

in

terms

'habur'

1968,10!
is

at Tanis,

at this

of the

of Byblos

to Leclant

the Delta

in operation

shipping

by the king

the reference

somewhat exaggerated
(Breasted
1905,514;
ships

indicative

The

time.

be discussed

- will

below.

importance

Of equal

of the Phoenician

transactions
the king
'kind

of the Delta.

of shorthand

of papyrus

of past
were sent to him by
as a

script

to facilitate

primarily
(1957,60)

And Barnett

period
in
and

records

the Phoenician

invented

perhaps

this

transactions

commercial

had precise

describes

Riis

...
(1970,174).

mercantile
the invention

attributes

the abacus to the Phoenicians.

(1957,59

Barnett
ivories

(Palaipaphos)

KOUKLIA

at

trade'

a suggestion

by Mller

here

une

expddia

statue

"l'ambassadeur
to

attempt
Phoenician
with

the

humain".

Delta

But

Since
they

the
to

appear

Thebes

than,

relations

with

'henneur'

shown Wen-Amon at

were

clearly

feast

him.

not

yet

By contrast,

d'Ainon dans

this

regulated,
the

on pays'

building
princes

they

interested

in

Prince

'...

were

from

of

Byblos,

il

m'est

boat

sacred
on

rob

him,

when asked

impossible

but he was sufficiently

relations
into

account

However,
to

and the

established
entering

que

as an

Thebes

Leclant's

Tjeker.
able

the

be viewed

had

were__the

as a

Ounamon natant

cities

appear

Cypriot

the

pheniciens,

between

relations

also

name.

voyage

of

can also

voyage

he less

Dor,

a Phoenician

Wan-Amon's

les

Phoenician

that

a
is

There

centuries.

"Amon-du-chemin",

as would

to hand over teen-Amon, replied

l'cnvoyd

indicating

had

the

par

commercial

re-establish
cities.

egards
appeld

'

(Megaw 1954),

(1973,86))

regards

wood for

get

d'Amon

and half-worked

11th

and

account

(1968)

'avec

Amon and therefore

to the worked

by Katzenstein

Wen-Amon's

to

commerciale'

12th

the

Leclant

Significantly,
'mission

in

refers

on Cyprus

(cited

in

mentioned

princess

1) also

note

'flourishing

of

of Byblos

and 503 rolls

Egypt,

with

intercourse'
of

the king

eg.

in

the wide dissemination

used to record

alphabet;

administration,

is

perhaps

since
as well
by the

trade
the

of

relations
as
Tjeker

d'arreter
disinterested

in

39

of Amon outside

the representative
'Laissez

moi

(Leclant

1968,11).

1'exp4dier,

The nature
is

Byblos:

goods,

manufactured
garments;

ropes,

papyrus;

rolls

received

5 rolls

exchange

and consumption

therefore

Wen-Amon's,
Mediterranean
of

emissaries

Phoenician

sent

is

that

given

that

unimportance
of

its

is

that

the

former

the

balance

of

for

- probably

The Phoenicians
later

they

their

major

power

in

he is

that

rem-establish
low

position

subsequent

were
came to

resource

the

of

city

and major

trade

the

to Cyprus.

former
like

trading
Byblos

of

king

gifts

and
to

implication

for

commercial

a series
the

with
he is

Byblos;

of

The problem,

attaches

outlet,

Eastern

one of

network

the

configuration

the

contact

and lack

h vis

vis

only

commercial

status

visit

a Phoenician

a new regional

of

(Wen-Amon

and fish.

which

whilst

sense

his

of

disruption

ruler

commodities

the

to

subordinate

in his

the same occurs

in

time

Because

a very

to the prince

T timber.

represents

by Thebes

cities.

in

placed

this

at

lentils

and lentils

'export',

and later

voyage

linen

luxury

or at least

was then - as earlier

ie.

homeward voyage. )

on'the

the very

themselves,

produce

the Delta

cities

'royal'
fine
and silver
vessels;
from Upper Egypt (according
to Leclant);

of Upper. Egyptian

receiving

from

and foodstuffs,

ox-hides;

of the Phoenician

of the rulers
sent

1'arrAter':

pour

such as gold

linen

of

lui

aprs

of items

by the list

linen

courez

the requirements

of

illustrated

puffs

he controlled:

the. area which

therefore,
the

relative

a representative
we must

opportunity

draw

had

(The isolation
discussed
by this period.
above is not limited
"o0
but
(eg.
Cyprus
`Astrom & Astrom 1972,
Egypt
to
to
applies
some extent*to

developed

78) and to the Aegean. )

It'is
economic
of

power of the Phoenician

the Aramaean states

Assyria,
venture

that

no coincidence

of North

at the same time

cities
Syria

occurs,

king,

Tiglath

we see the foundation

and the first

known from a document from Assur

of a Neo-Assyrian

as the resurgent

recounting

Pileser

I:

major

expansion

the first

of

western

40

'I

(Lab-na-a-ni).
I cut (there)
went to the Lebanon
for the temple
timber
of cedars
of Anu and Adad,
(them to Ashur).
the great
gods, my lords,
and carried
I conquered
the entire
I received
country
of Amurru.
(Gu-bal),
from Byblos
(Si-du-ni),
Sidon
tribute
and
(Ar-ma-da).
(belonging)
Arvad
I crossed
over in ships
from Arvad which is on the seashore,
to Arvad,
to the
(lies)
in Amurru
(a distance
town Samuri which
of)

3 double-miles
I killed
overland,
a narwhal
they call "sea-horse"
on high sea. '

which

(translated

1955,275)

by A. L. Oppenheim,

in Pritchard

journey

On his

'tribute',

receive
Phoenicia.
(Winter

This
1973,

Phoenician

The ascendance
from

to

demonstrate

even
the
ties

if

1968).

were

Phoenicians'
Assyria

of

An initial

by

the

desirability
they

appear

valued

strong

to

be ties

the

of

of

gifts,

to

the

for

the

equivaland

c. 75 years

- was

with

power,

a major

on the

city

serve

also

would

L. B. .,

Phoenician

for

king.

dependence,

for

the

and

Assyrian

ties

economic

the

hospitality

This

cities.

of

of

demands

the

conquest

of

part

these

economic

state

economies.

of the Phoenician
cities
with the
in the biblical
to the
can be recognised
references

phase of alliance

relations

of Tyre,

Solomon.

In addition

to accounts
in

relationship
written

in

the works

the 1st

the first

with
in

the unification

have been associated

with

'friendship'

is

of the Jewish

century

A. D. using

of Israel,

the Philistines

in conflict

to a change in

and

Flavius
of Dius

the writings

to the annals

David

we have records

historian

the Phoenicians

of Israel,

attributed

kings

the Old Testament,

Menander of Ephesos who had had access

in Katzenstein
1973,77-84},
discussed

and their

asset)

interrupted

of

functioning

of Hiram I,

Before

seen

in

particular

military

on one hand,

offering

been-shown

hinterland

Josephus

are

of

and in

attitudes

Amon,

of

Pileser

Syria,

of

contrasting

Phoenician

the

As has

cities

as a campaign

and the

iianediate

of this

the

- although

start

the

the

other,

most

the

to

by

does Tiglath

only

representative
on the

cities.

vital

But

Egyptians

the

politically

Phoenician

the

not

be regarded

not

Assur,

from
(the

maximised

feted

to
of

payments

even

but. he is
should

cities

timber

Amurru,

Moscati

representative
ent

through

of Tyre.

(Fully

are thought
with
'foreign

and
,

to

the Israelites
policy'

by

41

Abibaal
when the
the

sea,

were

Phoenicians

were

able

inland
It

competition.
the

inland

Egypt

(eg.

king

conquered

houses',

71-76).

Thus
of

Egypt

Bunnens

I and David

contractual

the

security

and Aqabah

the

Israelite

kingdom

with

buildings

public

a Philistine
between

as far

as the
who

store-

of

and storehouses

was

(Culican

1966,

settlement.

and

cities

Philistines

the

over

and even

'cities

Phoenician

the

access

by Solomon,

and continued

port

Phoenicia

and that

Arabia

established

with

of

Syria,

as Palmyra,

control

alliance

1973,97)

such

network.

Philistine

without

that

on

and good

the

relations

too.

Although
Hiram

trade

was through

was consolidated

alliance

implied

Israel

power

of

was previously

a close

it

Katzenstein

Anatolia,

David

cities,

on what

kingdom
with

to

and an Israelite

established

1958;

that

Thus,

and possibly

maritime

Israelites,

the

1973,74).

by David,
their

expand

The expansion

was achieved.

rebuilt

to

territorial

routes

under

land
on

with

Albright

(Katzenstein

century

be emphasised

must

trade

Euphrates

the

trade

expanding

was achieved
to

10th

early

defeated

with

the

Philistines

connected

Israel

in

Tyre

of

nature

'Sidonians',

(1976)

and Solomon
of

the

relates
to

are

the

a series

exchanges

and Solomon

ill

of

entered

evident

in

accounts
gift

of

relations
the

exchanges,

into

by Hiram,

this

passage

between
unambiguous

representing
from

I Kings

V,

1-11:
.
'Now Hiram King of Tyre sent his servants
to Solomon,
in place
him king
they had anointed
when he heard that
father;
his
for Hiram always
loved David.
And
of
"You know that David my
Solomon sent word to Hiram,
father
a house for the name of the Lord
could not build
his
his God. because
the
enemies
warfare
with
which
of
him, until
the Lord put them under the soles
surrounded
But now the Lord my God has given me rest
of his feet.
is
there
nor misfortune.
neither
adversary
side;
on every
And so I purpose
to build
a house for the name of the
'Your
Lord my God, as the Lord said to David my father,.
in your place,
upon your throne
shall
son, whom I will-set
C

Solomon appears to have come to'an agreement with the pharaoh over
degree
Philistine
the
territory
Israelite
and
of their
of
occupation
illustrated
is
by the unique case of a daughter of a
co-operation
(Malamat
in
1963).
foreign
to
ruler
given
marriage
a
pharaoh

42

build
the house for my
that
cedars of Lebanon
join
will
your servants,
servants
such wages as
is no one among us who
the Sidonians.

Now therefore
name. '
command
be cut for me; and my servants
and I will
pay you for your
for you know that
there
you set;
knows how to cut timber
like

When Hiram heard the words of Solomon,

he rejoiced
"Blessed
be the Lord this
day, who
greatly,
and said,
has given
to David a wise son to be over this
great
"I
And Hiram sent to Solomon,
have
people. "
saying,
heard the message which you have sent to me; I am ready
in the matter
to do all
you desire
of cedar and cypress
My servants
it down to the sea
bring
timber.
shall
from Lebanon;
to go by
and I will
rafts
make it into
have them
sea to the place
you direct,
and I will
broken
it;
up there,
and you shall
and you
receive
by providing
food for my household.
shall
meet my wishes
So Hiram supplied
Solomon with
the timber
all
of cedar
he desired,
Solomon gave Hiram
that
and cypress
while
twenty
thousand
Solomon gave this
cors of beaten
oil.
to Hiram year by year. '*

(1968,32)

Moscati
(Ant.

Jud.

technology,

of

natural

skilled

natural

and dependents.

is

V,

11,
to

(eg.

materials

and skilled

labour

10th

century).

quarter

of

aid,

for
payment
probably

Samuel

similar

conditions

Hiram's

the

to

those

needed

grain,

be the

exchange

Josephus
and

wine

an initial

king

David

(1971,
above

(1973,95)
to the east
phase-of

1):

Hiram

204)

may have

its.

to
the

the

believes

been

Hiram's

Israel

Old

supplied

(in

a house

note

regards

in

passages

XIV,

which

access

essential

by other

and I' Chron.

build

in

invested;

had been

and the

of

commodities:

and commodities

processes

confirmed

described

the use of roads

to

craftsmen

Harden

and Katzenstein

represented

in

account

and manufactured

resources,

This

Testament

II

resources

some manufacturing

foodstuffs,

provided
allies

or

can be seen

alliance

technology,

labour

skilled

Hiram

that

states

this

of

an island.

the

services,

exported

confirmation

which

he inhabited

The basis

Tyre

141)

VIII,

because

oil

cites

"

2nd
that
to

attached

aid

as 'partial
'exchange'

and south'.

But,

the dalliance

between Tyre

this

from the Old Testament are from The Oxford

All the quotations
New York, 1965.
Revised Standard Version,
Bible,

(which

Annotated

43

was not
Israel,

dominant

the

yet

building

temple

and other

contractual

relations

some cases,

corvde

the

Israelite

partners
for

evidence

trade

of

lesser

in

the

political

and other

Cypro-Phoenician

Harden

(1971,48-9)

and Culican

the

Iron
(1966)

in Israelite

between
is

There

on
in

and,

Mendelsohn

1942).

Phoenician

and

considerable
in

10th

and

(Culican

black-

1966,76).

to the activities

refer

like

been

(red-burnished),

Ware'

both

have

cities,

Age wares

towns,

(cf.

could

Israelite

'Samaria

of Phoenician

craftsmen

in

based

neighbours,

it

that

rank.

occurrence

secure

of the relationship

arrangements

on-red,

Phoenician

is

of

and ambitious

of slaves

nature

and Israel

contractual

levels,

9th century

allied

and the provision

Tyre

of

established

loosely

the

when

be contemplated

could

kingdom

emergent

Solomon,

of

had been

reign

of the contractual

rulers

and the

reign

formerly

labour

by similar

replicated

the

projects

with

The relevance
between

his

to

attributed

Phoenicia)

of
in

was to mature

which

conditions

city

Samaria

of
in

and Megiddo,

same period.

details

Further
given

are
of

Solomon

II

Chron.

in

Phoenician-Israelite

the

of

frequently

the

and Hiram
17).

VIII,

from

economic

quoted

passages

describing

Aqabah

(I

IX,

Kings

in

The account

26-28;

the

interconnections
joint

1 Kings

ventures
X,

11;

begins:

Chronicles

'Then

Solomon went to E'zion-ge'ber

and Eloth
on the
And Huram
shore of the sea, in the land of Edom.
familiar
ships
and servants
sent to him by his servants
the
together
the sea, and they went to Ophir
with
with
four
fetched
from
Solomon,
there
and
of
servants
it
brought
fifty
hundred
to
talents
gold
and
of
and
King Solomon. '

But the account in I Kings X, 11 differs

'...
fleet
Hiram,
the
to
which
of
solely
'brought
From both

from Ophir
versions

a very
it

is

land

of Ophir,

the

least

Solomon;
of
-

involved

in

the

venture,

if

only

brought

Phoenician

that

Red Sea, and thence

authorisation

the above in
gold

that

it

from Ophir'

amount of almug wood and precious

great

clear

from

its

to the ports

depended on participation

Solomon's
in

access

representatives

preparation.

refers
also
stones'.
of

the

- or at

were probably

44

is

There

it

it

believe

and others

as to

no consensus

in Somaliland;

be in

to

location

the

Arabia;

Albright

(1957,168)

Barnett

(which Muhly supports)

location
The correct
of Ophir

evidence.

the interruption

for

the evidence

and Babylon

of Assyria

is

There

general

in

this

and Katzenstein

trade

access

to this

Another

'joint

venture'

Mediterranean,

is

suggested

and II

Tyre

Israel.
from

Phoenicians

Thus,

in

of

in

this

as being

trade

indirect

is

unlikely

in

I King$

mentioned

to

Also,

beyond
both

horses

these

supplying

X,
in

merchants

Albright).

routes

access

royal

of

in

role
following

and via
had

horses

prerogative

an important

Israel

direct

But,

Eastern

the

within
in

the

or Somaliland

from

the 8th century.

time,

1973,113-4,

have

would

the
to

eastwards

period

'gold

in

Euphrates,

the

Mesopotamian

and demands.

resources

but

kingdom

Arabia

by the'trada

played

(Katzenstein,

the

at

16-17

I,

probably

Cilicia

through
the

Chron.

in India,

to Phoenicians

power

found

on a sherd

Ophir'

to have been available

by

to the 8th century from TELL QASILE referring

to
(eg. Barnett
1956a, Culican 1966,77).
reaching Israel
source 'of gold

its

for

argument

dated

levels

28-9

locate

once the economic

the inscription

of

Culican

on the basis of linguistic

in India would be supported

were re-established.

acceptance

Harden,

makes a convincing

in India

location

Ophir:

of

India

reality
in

traditional

which

(cf.

expansion

a Phoenician
Tyre

1973)

Muhly

began

of

Near

was nominally

- essentially
to

the

dominate

Tyrian
Sidon

Eastern
in

trading
hands

the

- venture.

and Byblos

(eg.

network
of

This

Solomon**
is

Moscati

the
1968,

in I Kings XXII, 48 to the failure

* eg. the reference
of King Jehoshaphat
'ships
'for
in
Tarshish',
for
Ophir
Judah
the
to
to
of
gold
sail
of
This could refer
to the
either
ships were broken at Ezion--Geber'.
failure
to
the
the
trade
of the venturq
or
route,
eastern
of
closure
(1957,168):
Barnett
Phoenician
eg.
and
navigators.
sailors
without
'depended
Ezion-Geber
on a powerful
the prosperity
alliance
of
of
Sennacherib's
Israel
campaign was broken'.
and Phoenicia,
which after
is
for
Solomon
this
** The credit
to
comparable with the
venture
given
for
in
late
7th
N"ecko
the
the
to
century
pharaoh
role attributed
in Herodotus.
described
Phoenicians' voyage around Africa

45

31).

is not possible

It

'created

of Tyre;

the greatness'

trading

opportunities

aspects

of Tyrian

on acceptance

expansion

the

and lead

tin
in

another

of

of

II

the traditional

westward

Tyre,

reaching

Chron.

IX,

21,

below. )

in

expansion
'Tarshish'

to

references

10th

the

in

the

of

(XXVII,

Ezekiel

following

is

century

as a source

as found

and the

and indirect
(The other
greatness.

of this

be discussed

will

Hiram I

that

views

of direct

the expansion

was the foundation

The possibility

iron,

to dismiss

from

account

based
silver,

25ff);
Kings:

'For

the king had a fleet

of ships of Tarshish
at
Once every three years
sea with the fleet
of Hiram.
the fleet
of'ships
of Tarshish
used to come bringing
ivory,
gold, silver,
apes and peacocks. '
(I Kings X, 22)

'ships

But,

the

long

voyages,
etc.

).

(1956a,

91;

1958)

the

other

from

North

Part

II

could

called

'Tarshish'

is

(1971,151)

been

source
brought

issue-will

the

of

back

metals,
to

the

be discussed

eg.
Tarsus

with

locate

Harden,

Barnett,

much disputed:

'Tarshish'

in

used

ship

of

(cf.

Phoenicians

associate

as the

type

Barnett
in

'Tarshish'

in

suggesting

that

Eastern
fully

more

Mediterranean
in

below,

B 1. )

(eg.

or

'mine'

founded

by Phoenicians

'...

n,-xed

'New town':

areas

mining

'Tarshish'

that

believes

the name Tarshish

west Mediterranean
metal-bearing

believes

to on the Nora stone,

as referred

'Qart-hadasht',

To Culican:

1941, -21)

Nieman (1965)

was Sardinia.
sites

by the

many who

have

as the

regarded

of

(This

Africa.

Albright
plant'

one of

regarded

items

Ophir,

and Carpenter
is

is

which

are

location

The

Harden

Spain,

as to

such

Moscati

Cilicia;

Tarshish'

of

areas

of Tuscany,

there

that
'Tarshish',

ie.

and that
would

just

'Tarshish'

simply

in general,

Tarshish

have been many

as there

in Solomonic

referred

Sardinia

means 'Smelting

were many

means 'foundry'.
times

and more particularly

and Spain'

(Culican

to the
to the

1966,116).

46

The location

in the western

of Tarshish

a more general

thesis

which Albright

(1941,1958

the date

regarding

of'Phoenician

and his

etc)

(eg.

followers

to the 10th and 9th centuries.

76) date

is part
'colonisation',

of

Katzenstein

1973,

Mediterranean

Their

and the traditional

views

be
used to support their
views will
writers
of classical
in
below
Here,
the context of the Western Phoenicians.
considered

accounts

of

-collaboration
royal

trade

Tarshish'
were

is

merchants,

maritime

in

and only

Fdvrier

the

biblical

one instance

the destination

- II

in

Chron.

'The picture

of Phoenician

from Iberia

laden with copper is one sustained

'
(Muhly
1973,183)
scholars.
modern
During
is

colony

the

to

thought

Katzenstein

(1973,84-6)

Kition

were

ruled

in

'court

the

by the

Abibaal

have

been

of

the

local

largest

known

1973).

Masson

temple

king'.

and Sznycer

suggest

on Cyprus

inscription
is

is
and

to c. 900 (1972,20).

other

materials

from

that

during

there
the

visited

in the 10th

century.

the

have

of

have

of

people
installed

a revolt

quelled

KITION

9th

10th

of

However,
where

the

(Karageorghis

century
been

an appreciable
to warrant

century

tomb, known as the Honeyman

by the

which would have been a vital

mid
must

late

returning

relationship.

area
the

the earliest'Phoenician

one of the places

been Cyprus,

tribute

sacred

on a Phoenician

which

Thus,

the

dates

Astarte

inscription,
dated

the

to

Tyrian

governor
to

said

refer

on Cyprus.

appointed
is

Tarshish'

ships

I-a

that

possibility

Hiram

from

KITION

at

a Tyrian

or

eg.

of

settlement

the menacing

the

and re-established
evidence,

archaeological

established

Hiram

of

of

by the imagination

only

father

the

discusses

by a Tyrian

'Itykaians'

Phoenician

of

reign

'Tarshish'

21 - does

IX,

It

1975).

'ships

the

they

which

Lloyd

to

are

for

and

'of

ships

merchant

1958;

references

of the ships.

the

Barnett

through

obtained

had developed

1950;

including

merchants,

were

carried

cities

(eg.

that

with

were

-and

Phoenician

renowned

Israelite

The supplies

significant.

the

be noted

should

merchants

connections,

which

later

Phoenician

the

inscription

'ships
source

from Cyprus

of Tarshish'
of copper

may have

and possibly

between

The alliance
linking

the

up of

new pattern
gained

control

the

their

territorial

in

Phoenician

involvement

reign

the

Gaza region,

which

been

The language
the

camouflages

two kings
formal

by the

'Sidonian'

of

'greatness

(Ball
of

of
begun

by the
place,

Solomon's
in

route.

'staging

of many
route

the

on this

post

between

the

I',

the

posts'

Phoenicia

additions

and the

(Melgart)
and a palace

city

and Astarte

to

the

island

on the
(Katzenstein

of

enlarge
older

main

Bible)

and

Solomon
the

survived

of

record

keeping

1973,77).

to

attributed

' The

to

reinforced

plan;

(Katzenstein

phase

cities

Solomon's

which

traditionally

the

the

of
port

were

1973,77-94).

Tyre

was

and its
Heracles

of

by a causeway.
island

the

urbanisation

island

temple

by

when we consider

introduction

centuries.

the

tobe
the

eg.,

had

a Phoenician
some of

a later

notion

Phoenician

in

the
of

the

emerges

scribes

on which

was linked

was built

cult,

embankments

island,

the

was one of

to

Tyre,

of

and 10th
of

which
described

probable

between

as proposed,
of

in

as recounted

and rejects

(as

and Israel

Tyre

interaction

expansion

Phoenician

represents

11th

alliance

the'

according

by Phoenician

of

the

interdependence

was built
of

between

daughter

Hiram's

court

Shamem) stood,

Heracles

adorned,

in

relates

TELL ER-REQEISH,

alliance,

and the

Hiram
in

economic

kingdom;

The expansion

market

with

trade

gifts

and services

aspects

Israelite

extended

(1973)

Arabia

relationship,

political

gifts

temple

the

of

The cultural

wives.

certain

process

and extend

trading

regards

their

the

through

of

Solomon's

the

for

by intermarriage:

confirmed

to

trade

at

of

(1976)

basis
But,

le

exchange

division

inland
own

relations

significance

exchanges

(1973).
possi!

adopted

had

cities

century)

the

of

Bunnens

as the

Katzenstein

that

economic

as political

treaty

was only

diplomacy

of

Testament.

old

Israel

Phoenician

trade

on the

and the

and BETHPELET as two

established

created

East.

Culican

burials

(9th

which

Red Sea and Arabia,

the

direction.

the

represents

(1971,55).

and Egypt

the

to

overland

a later

ER-REQEISH

have

would

the

trade;

represent

includes

Harden

in

Near

the

their

expand

an eastern

incense

in

southwards,

to

Israel

of

power

and Mesopotamia,

state
trade

maritime

with

routes

to Anatolia

and northwards
used

interdependence

land

of

kingdom

and the

and a territorial

a maritime

economic

of

Tyre

The

rebuilt,

temples
and

4n

The development
for

workshops
the

confines

the

Tyrian

the

of

Phoenician
crucial

development

the

in

of

the

centralisation

definite

break

(and hence

(I

economic

organisation;

It

break

would

have

drained

opposed

manufacturing

the

feudalism

surpluses

long

distance

estates

for

of

IX,

for

city-state

11)

the

Thus,
the

of

be seen

as the

in'the

the
the

limits;

city

the

city;

immediate

hinterland
imports
on

dependence

through

exchange

Solomon's

him by sending

him

expansion,

of

of

of

This

but

in
were

to

reluctant

of debts

the

(eg.

and control

resident

for

luxury
to

take

Tyrian

is

careful
gold.

of

is

of

Hiram

in
in

the

the

late

cities

commodities
possession

and

phase

of

could

cull

obtained
of

as

by the

own land

to

an

land

over

20

- would

This

interests

situation

of

inland

resources.

reluctance

bankers

exchange

120 talents

maritime

expansion

analogous

but

offer

of

offer

pattern

particularly

Tyre's

commercial

wealth.

Solomon's

of
this

territorial

land

non-payment

Tyre.

can be defined

This

its
on

illustrates

declines

when merchant

trade,

involvement

culminated

within

-refusal

supplemented

is

the

in

within

obtained

Hiram's

of

primarily

commercial

Tyre.

population);

among

their

should

which

city

within

domination

population

the

of

place

reflect

it

activities

and

and services.

than

desires

to

political

in

of

territorial

as a source

the

rural

with

population

European

majority

Hiram

that

and Gebalites

1961),

state

dependence

Kings

rather
of

to

of

relations

appear

indication

the

account

cities

to

of

commodities

Galileen

Danites

urbanisation

and raw materials,

The biblical

not

of
city

on a dependent

manufactured

taken

projects

as one of
Albright

process

the

of

foodstuffs

basic

(eg.

a commercial

contraction

of

industries

to have

can be assumed

phase

by Tyre

cities

thought

and construction

this

regarding

are

Israel

industries

phase

by the

in

and dying

weaving

The presence

city.

workforce

in manufacturing
instead

and ivory

bronze
of

fishing,

the

of

through

landed

Duby 1974,150-4).

is contradicted
in Chronicles.
by the-later
The
account
version
in
is
in
'payment'
Kings
discussed
by Solomon
terms
usually
of
account
but Hiram's
for. Hiram's
the temple,
aid in building
eg. Bunnens (1976);
The episode
does not
and his gift
of gold are not explained.
refusal
interested
in
Katzenstein's
Tyre
that
territorial
view
was
-support
(1973,106-7).
expansion

* This

49

kingdom,

the Egyptian

towards

this
(eg.

Judah
attempt

(1968)

Leclant

continued

throughout

the

temples
to

330).

He also

of

embellished

(c. 874-850),

at

of

Egyptian

found

at

of

the

relations

in

Byblos,

the

kingdoms

to

set

up in

22nd

dynasty,

Alabaster

of

Omri

the

with

deities

(pp. 308-9).
the

of

place

and inter-marriage

re-alliance

stela

Byblos.

with
in

Samaria,

the

by Elibaal

beginning

relations

establishment

Kitchen

the

with
Hebrew

the
to

refers

subsequently

'link

out
gold,

major

- of

and Ahab,

kings

Phoenicia'

or

and Babylon
successors

silver

and lapis

the

of

state

subdued

(1973,303,

compete'

I,

by Osorkon

Byblos
A statue

of

marks

the

indicating

II

Osorkon
resumption

his

with

Tyre

of

reign

were

seal

the

contemporary
of

to

not

by his

vessels

Israelites,
the

Syria

Egypt

of

wealth

and

'shrewd'

into

and was carried

the

of

...
between

trade

amazing

the

and inability

Philistia,
note

to

that

Israel

against

he was sufficiently
thrusts

period
the

(c. 924-889)

Osorkon

this

attributes

gifts

but

notes

campaigns

of

"prestige"

'unrealistic

Kitchen

a series

1973,294ff),

Kitchen

(p. 300).

lazuli

began

rupture,

any

too.

of Solomon (c. 931) and the division

of the
(c.
Sohshenq
945-924) who had contributed
I
pharaoh,

the death

Following

rethe

with
*

and Israel.

regards

'the

presence
of such objects
as an alabaster
presentation
vase (once filled
with valuable
) in the palace
(as) part
at Samaria
ointment?
embassy to the
of an Egyptian
of the gifts
court
of Ahab and Jezebel'

(1973,324)

indicating

the beginning

for

100 years.

last

Takeloth

Culican
Part

II

over
II

and Shoshenq

1970c;

Pellicer

of an Egypto-Israelite.
The alabaster
II

found

in

alliance

urns with seals

-I,
(eg.

ALMUNECAR

1962; Gamer-Wallert'1973)

which

of Osorkon II,

Leclant

will

was to

1970;

be dealt

with

B.

daughter of Ittobaal
* Jezebel,
of Tyre, was married to Ahab, son of
daughter was given in marriage
to Jcra: n of Judah.
Omri; their
both Ahab and Joram adopted the cult of Baal
to Moscati,
According
(1968,34-5).

in

50

ivories

Phoenician
Samaria

(cf.

9th century

other

in the palace

found

were also

major

in
Omri
of
1948).

Barnett

cities,

Barnett

the condemnation by Amos of those who 'lie

upon couches of ivory'
'houses
'royal'
in
ivory'.
instance
live
Another
and
of
of
use of
ivory is known from the tombs of SALAMIS, Cyprus, of late 8th and 7th
it is significant
1969,1974):
that the use
century date (Karageorghis

cites
.

of ivory
slip

here

wares.

is

of collection

'surplus'

of

for

luxury,

of

agricultural

produce
of

for

'kings

their
have

should

Phoenician

of characteristic

we have further

of Ezekiel,

by the

items

sumptuary

population

that

associated
with
And in the prophecy

the earth'

of

been

recognition

which

they

among the

redistributed

kingdoms:

the

'When your wares came from the seas, you satisfied

many peoples;
with your abundant wealth and
the kings of the earth.
merchandise you enriched
(Ezekiel
XXVII, 33)
'merchandise'

The

of

bronze,

incense,

instruments,
including
out,

items

(cf.

tribute

Gulf

territorial
Lambert

(Barnett

(1920)).

on the

inscription
imports

(Brown

of this-trading

expansion

reaching

Ashurnazirpal

at

products

in the Near East

which

of the god Assur,

records

coast.

as well

political

were intended

in whose name all

subordination

and

system by the

to Assyrian

The references

Iran

Mediterranean

(and other)

is known from Assyrian

and political

has pointed

from north-west

domination

as representative

musical

1969,191).

we are dealing

records

vessels

or manufactured

and the Eastern

from public

and

1957,60,

of

Anatolia

evidence.

'

bowls,

As Brown

to Central

are mainly

1974).

wines,

system,

empire

as archaeological

metal-work,

all

dyed

and faience

glass

Autran

are

liner.,

trading

and economic

Neo-Assyrian

the king

listed

'fine

and seeds'

the 9th to 7th centuries,

The political

domination

in

raw materials

a new regional

the Persian

of

foods

1955,266)

imported

During

sorts

mentioned

Pritchard

made with

with

of

carpets,

spices,

items

the

the

Calah

and other

silver

included:

have

would
tapestries,

cloth,

embroidered

exchanged

'surplus'

when the

own consumption

red

was carried

to glorify
Assyrian
out

(eg.

The members
series
Assyrians
kings

their

received

of

important

faced

(1960)

for

system

by local

Assyrian

impossible

empire
for

followed

a period

beginning

caravan
the

in

Levine,
p. 123 note

in

the

169),

kings,

Euphrates

the

across

of

became

the

which

for

the
in

the

special
- eg.
and into

army

Damascus,

to

western

operating

who organised

desert

the

borders

the

still

those

of

reigns

attributes

routes

to

addition

trading

and there

in

Rostovetzeff

as the

it

but

authority

neo-Assyrian
in

the

be controlled

caravan

merchants

control

has

Iran

and wealth

transmission

an unpublished
related

by Urartu

northwestern

power

of

the

that

overall

(858-824),

the

of

the

directions

Assyrian

1956b).

Barnett

(1932,16).

Arabia

to

in

command

rebellion'

During

to

independence.

to

for

mouth

decline

organisation

period

routes

new territories

their

the

of

Persian

from

of

reasserted

states

the

(cf.

of

and Shalmaneser-III
all

for

can be regarded

and control

in

as tribute)

recorded

inevitable

peripheries.

extended

(for'which

functioning

Urartu

the

of

strategically

'almost

in

by a"complex

ability

often

succession

on the

were

all

gifts,

especially

on their

(883-859)

its

situated

as the

alliances
II

states

involvement

greater

Ashurnazirpal

the

kings

in

role
of

resources,

describes

Assyrian

the

jostling

the

or

routes

What Hallo

by the

and the

routes

quantities

vast

tested

was constantly

trade

dominant

their

to maintain

interconnected

were

system

and maritime

overland

of

trading

the

of

of

of

during

manuscript
the
the

eastern

the

9th

and Urartu's
Elamite

decline

products

of

are

elements

eg.

824 and 744

rivalled

centuries
Elam

(1973,

' The power

routes.

with

and cultural

between

Assyria

trade

and 8th

connections

by Winter

quoted

of

Elam

Assyrian

indicated

by

westwards

(cf.

the

'rule'
in the west
the establishment
to Baramki,
* According
of Assyrian
'led
Sidonians
Tyrians
large
to
in this
and
of
contingent
a
period
(Kart
Hadashah)
found
homeland
leave
at Carthage'
city
their
a new
and
(1961,28).
Neither
Tyre
king
texts
to
leaving
rule
a pro-Assyrian
internal
If
from
finds,
Carthage
this
support
view.
nor archaeological
had led to the expulsion
exile
of some elements
or voluntary
conflict
(the
HHADASHAH
KART
date,
Kition
this
original
the
early
at
city,
of
Fr4zouls),
Forrer
to
was a more
and
eg.
authorities.,
many
according
fissioning
destination.
The actual
likely
of population
process
be
dismissed.
the
should
not
city
within

52

1956b).

Barnett

Furthermore,
Syrian

and the north

the Mediterranean
to

ivories

Syrian

sphere

The fortunes
linked
in

political

in

recognised
of

the

of

Damascus,

the

in

Shalmaneser
southern

confederacy

1974). *

There
Philistia

Israel,
since
in

trade

this

Tyrian

overland

Mediterranean

would
routes
coast

their

have

as well
which

function
in

own quarter
the

each
in

security

as jeopardising
further

the

(Lambert
and Judah,

trade

southern

Damascus

other's

capitals,

Jerusalem

(Winter

north

alliance

of

Damascus

Phoenician

Assyria's

kings

back

possible

of

are

Cilician,

breakdown

between

and

'12

of

held

which

the

Israel

and the

between
of

of

clearly

confederacies

with

1960),

conflict

was blocked

were

The internal

resident

affected

period

alliance

cities

control
to

illustrates

two

by Shlmaneser

over

and Israel
and
1973,
to

access

access

by the

routes

to

the

Syrian-

complex.

(1973,325-7)
* Kitchen
notes
Egypt paid
Shalmaneser III,
direct
conflict
of
accounts
**

Phoenician

of

to

of

Aegean

Shalmaneser;

to meet

Qarqar.

merchants

the

North-Syrian

the

(Hallo

continued

having

merchants

trade

Urartian

with

period

This

century,

- probably

relations

442). **

9th

a. period

Anatolia

kingdom

mid

at

and Central

this

the

made conquest

followed

in
divided

contingents

westward

1 and p. 17).

the

the

5 campaigns

to

of

Israel,

and Arabian

Iran

cities

was formed

that

Judah,

fig.

trade

of

The distribution

status

lands:

western

sea coast'

Egyptian,

1976,

During

to-Assyria.

turn

from

Phoenician

the

1956b).

Barnett

the kingdom of Urartu

control
Cilicia

through

century

(Winter

of

the

with

1973,

9th

the

their

extended

and northwards
in

trading

this

states

Sea (Winter

Black

the

between

an-alliance

that from then on, during the reign of

but no further
some form of tribute,
the reign of Esarhaddon.
are known until

(810-783)
(Pritchard
III
list
Adad-Nirari
Although
the tribute
of
domination
to
1955) is generally
with
regard
as unreliable
regarded
description
detailed
the
the
gifts
of
countries,
western
over
"the
from Damascus and the list
alliance
states
may
of only southern
attempt
by the southern
the
to re-establish
alliance
an
reflect
the dominance
trade
of the
with Assyria
which would undermine
control.
route
under Urartian-North-Syrian
northeastern

53

At this
North

Syrian

considerable
highly

stage,

the trade

cities

(S. S. Smith

effect

on the Assyrian

support

between

in

exchange

to

refers

the

for

and the

(1969a).

between

the

of

the

of

it

the

sub-type

Ib

not

for

except
Assyria

between
the

could

countries,

own produce.

at
'

least

(p. 28).

for

production
1st

millenium
with

the

transactions

interacted

and trade

1969).

and the

neither
not

feed

to

early

other

on credit

households

be invested,

on the

Hence,

international

of

from

and money

Mesopotamia

(Diakonoff

Mesopotamia

"ir-kind",

not

in

based

conditions

existing

goods

sustain

and trader

was conducted

imports

and metals,

the

economy

and exchange
palace

By

items

luxury

significantly,

a moneyed

(1969,14).
any

Ist

the

of

and Babylonia,

and to

more

who characterises

beginning

require

and handicrafts

...

developed

demand on their

which

goods

and international

at

did

on the

as luxury

by Diakonoff

Asia

type

Oppenheim

dependent

as well

timber

cities

under

being

particularly

of

the

former

expanded

Babylonia)

on loans,

be arranged:

need money

produce

in

he says,

Elsewhere,

protection

Western

means by which

since

for

exchange.

expansion

interest

the

economic

Perhaps

trade.

exchange

not

(eg.

agriculture

notes,

equivalent
could

city-state

as an inevitable

Mesopotamia

are

of

raw materials,

Mesopotamian

Diakonoff

points

facilitate

tc

the

constituting

the

was

who

which,

states.

raw materials

palacg

periphery

turnover

Western

of

economy

distance

of

the

an in-kind

developed

charging

of

his

required

BC witnesses

made through

essential

the

countries

used

is

as practising

developed

hand,

of

These
the

of

he means

was not

not

time,

(1964,89),

Mesopotamian

the

of

and trader;

palace

needing

millenium'BC

long

was to have

by this

by Oppenheim

out

structure

import

the

peoples

profit

economic

trader

contacts

its

This

economy which,

structure

economies

between

symbiosis

the

brought

the

which
the

characterises

this

1942) was dominant.

and other

investment
based. on credit
transaction,
capital
and usury,
,
in
'goods
kind'
the
economy,
of a storage
contrasting
with

economy

latter

has been

aspect

distinguished

the

to Carchemish,

commercialised.
This

of

from Urartu

route

in

of

trade

western
the

did
amounts

an

economies

periphery
they

as

need

equivalent

did
the
to

54

As a consequence

However,

exchange.
the

and looting

tribute

for

evidence

millenium
factors
also

tribute

that

showed

Also,

nature

very

tribute

by the
distance

have

evidence

for

this

acquired

(Oppenheim

together

with

'commercial

But

the

finest

the

trade

to

of

refer

were

called

(1969a,

of

of
of

pounds

from

the

long

red-

west,

the

same commodities

ie.

booty

we

and tribute
in

tribute

decoration'
'prestige

re-

was regarded

facilitation

4800

37).
to

order

frequently

multicoloured

linen

Egyptian

kings

in

coming

wool

exchange',

with.

forcibly

and hence
the

is

(This

quite

channels'

referring

Assyrians

linen

Assyrian

of

1st

1969b).

shows

Assyria

all

as significant

imposition

importation

246).

made of

for

purple

'forcible

and laser

Assyria

dark

of

the

'garments

to

the

to

(ABL347)

through

1969b,

which

representation

a letter

In

36;

Oppenheim

as an economic

and trade

activity

and 420 pounds

purple

as were

seen

as a symbolic

trade.
wool

goods

destined

were

was clearly

Assyrians

lists

they

economic

orientate

the

of

ignore

early

routes

(1969a,

exchange
in

the

trade

over

policy

forcible

seems to

during

west

1973,438ff.

by Winter

the

how '...

foreign

this

argued,

the

proceeded

inequalities

to these

control

of

Assyrian

discussed

in

trade

importance

dictating

has

as Oppenheim

Diakonoff

imposing

empire',

as a solution

Assyrian

and the

observation

significant

as a 'warrior

Assyria

to characterise
through

of this

which
in

value'

Babylonia.

kingdoms
from
'All
the conquered
or threatened
Carchemish
to the Mediterranean
coast had to
large
deliver
to the
of such apparel
quantities
kings
these obviously
Assyrian
who distributed
"Western-style"
fashionable
garments
among
very
illustrated
by
is
their
a well-known
as
officials,
his
from Sennacherib
`o
letter
crown
prince
as
father,
ABL 568. '

(Oppenheim 1969b,

Oppenheim

XXVII,

Ezekiel
that

uses

Tyre

and
these

tion

of

paid

as tribute

been

acquired

merchants.

the

24 and their
the

other

garments.
to
initially

the

the

to

references

246)

in

repute

Phoenician
It

can

from

the

6th

cities
also
kings

Assyrian

production

of

probably

to

by Babylonian
cities

dominated
that

from

garments

century'Babylonia

be suggested

Phoenician

fine

the

rulers
and their

suggest

the
wool
would

producand ivory
have

caravan

Another
tribute,

comes from

Assyrian

ruler

trade

interest

example of this

an inscription

for

being

and to

relations

the'first
its

abandon

in trade,

rather

of

Sargon

which

to

succeed

II
in

than mere

forcing

Egypt

isolation

traditional

the

glorifies

to

open

(Oppenheim

1964,93).

Hence,
of

the

trading

external

over
their

economic

Diakonoff

Assyrian

of

objective

both

that

we see

foreign
in

partners

activity

policy,

which
force

to

order

trade

and

have

and Oppenheim

Assyria

to

grasped
impose

was'to
them

to

control

re-orientate
to

than

rather

aspects

competing,

centres.

Hence
the

9th

the

trade

Assyrian

in

position

Near

that

had occurred

that

the

Assyrian

of

tie

Euphrates

to

the

south

to

isolation
interest
of

the

It

is

supply

of

and vassals

loan

the

(in

that

and the economic

of

one mina

particular

the conditions
and military

control

of

silver

disruption

of

the

at

Assur

at

trading

of Assyria

Assyrian

phenomenal
reduction

severe

of Tiglath

of the usurption
resurgence

disintegration

this

time.

to

corresponding

external

trade

maintaining

implies
into

east

vassals,

economic

this

over

difficulties

by the

as an example

silver)

of internal

to maintain

same time,

cites

As she says,

in such a context
failure

increasing

partners
Pileser

in the late

III

8th century

be understood.

can best

The primary
against

metals

Winter

dominant

disintegration

nearest

that

seems clear

disruption.

period

the

at

of

capacity
and craft

indicated

their

eastern

a previously

of

is

period

whilst

the

economic

of

controlling

also

400% (1973,123).

of

only

It

social
this

in

1960),

and east.

at

by this

had

rulers
(Hallo,

internal

The state

trade.

the

agriculture

basis

on the

both

to

undermined

intensive

during

alliance

access

severely

its

developed

Assyria

Syrian-Urartian

control

have

to maintain

Eastern
in

North
to

would

routes

had been

that

the

of

centuries

economy

production

led

8th

and early

and western
the

expansion

the North

focus

of Assyrian

Syrian-Urartian

subsequent

to Tiglath

and east.

In a series

Pileser's

resurgence
alliance

pacification

of campaigns,

Tiglath

in

was therefore
the north
of

and west,

territories

Pileser

understandably

defeated

to the south
Sarduri

of

r. r;

Urartu

and of

kingdoms
His

his

of

North

treatment

of

Syrian-Urartian
matter

of

the

This

involved

provinces,
into

perhaps

significant

certain

degree

tribute

immediately

the

was constantly
for

Syria,

its

Anatolian

(Winter

example

the

metal

aware

of

in

defeat

importance

the

with

However,

trade.
threat

for

of

a resurgence

moved

Anatolian

again.

(cf.

against

Annalistic

of

populations

of

the

is

left

is
a

with

Hiram

it
of

gave
Tyre)

Assyrian
that

clear

of

Syrian

It

because
did

to,

north

organising
it

completely

Assyria.

of

(as

As a

occurring

primarily

Sarduri

of

North

them

kingdom

only

1973,135)

717 BC Sargon

'Evidently
Assyria

was the

the

to

cities

movement

dependency

Euphrates.

incorporate

a coalition
of

the

1973,126ff).

reorganisation

controlled
Carchemish

that

so as to

and the
the

strategic

had made alliances

ruler

1955)

autonomy

of

such

threat

of

was determined

and repopulation

tightly

after

the

Aramaean

the

west

(Winter

kingdoms

and prevent

that
of

shows

Pileser

these

Pritchard

a more

because
to

Tiglath
of

provinces

to Assyria

and consequently

economy

access

clearly

destruction
in

Assyrian

had been

empire

103-133

and also

states

structure

the

743 BC, and he incorporated

the

policy,

Assyrian

Records,
other

these
alliance

re-organise
the

into

Syria

strategic

into

in

coalition

power

in

Carchemish

Assyria
North

when'its

kingdoms.

it

for some time whether

was not clear
or the Phrygian/Urartian
opposition
was
to emerge more powerful,
going
and the northwestern
states
of North. Syria
as well
as the states
of the
Taurus were therefore
Assyrian
domination
resisting
By his 14th year,
however,
as long as possible.
in establishing
in all
Sargon had succeeded
his rule
it
the
troublesome
that
regions,
and
of
was apparent
the hegemony of
no other
power could challenge
'
Assyria.

Therefore
western

trade

Cimmerians
Greeks

(Winter

1973,143)

an obvious

effect

was the weakenir.. _ of Phrygia

routes

in 698 BC), and the cutting

established

the Ionian

of the Assyrian

on the Levantine

and Black

Sea settlements

off

(which

of the trade

and Cilician
(cf.

re-organisation

Barnett

coast,
1956b;

fell
routes
as well

of

the

to the
to the
as to

Birmingham

1961).

V,
. q*.

does

Assyria
Anatolia,

in

Greeks

the

and economic
to

did

first

not

at

ian

of

states

discussed

more

precisely

in

Mina

in

fully
early

order

to

one would
complexes

mining

the

considerable

Phoenician

cities.

is

evidence

there

and redirect

control

virtually

control
that

...

begin

the

establish

that

the

revival

of

Whilst

Israel

Assyrian
the

that

suggest

contact

trade

in

policy

route

and Judah

were

to

be
it

Tarsus

the

with

in

and Al

routes,
their

is

of

source
Halstatt

(1973,422).

overland

the

from

off

Rhine/Rhone/Danube'

upper

their

to

trade

those

will

destroyed

Cilician

forced

the

that

suggests

(cut

Greeks

on utilitar-

for

(This

in

trade

1970),
crisis

when Sennacherib

the

Greek

trade.

who

Aegean.

the

a major

isolated

Assyrians,

Riis

Eastern

the

them

dependence

one of

significantly

of

left

political

Assyrians,

North
to

left

resulted

independent

the

incorporated
whilst

some degree,

Syria

as vassals,
to

attempting
the

Phoenician

cities

autonomous. *

Harden
KARA-TEPE in

'...

to

Winter

regain

can be argued

It

of

that

metals)'(eg.

Near

7th

shift

with

suggest

represented

in

century,.

suggest)
of

have

7th

'

to

trade

with

early

now dominant

in

cloth,

involved

below.

the

effectively

as before,

was,

must

a massive

the

with

available

-timber,

most

was abandoned,

iron,

East

circumstances

city

Cilicia,

evidence

Near

which

be interested

to

(iron,

commodities

Greek

in

the

East

contact

appear

and the

change

Near

the

faced

western

established

by the

Hence,

Greeks

over

ties

corimercial

Mediterranean.

re-establish

Considering
Anatolia

in

control

extended

the

over

and Aegean

power

and unable

taken

Eastern

the
Ionian

the

century,

have

to

nor

not. appear to have

regards
Cilicia

are no proof

the

late

8th

(Phoenician

of a colony,

century

bilingual

and Hittite)

though

they

inscriptions

as significant:

presumably

indicate

from
they

the presence

'secured his throne by

* Metenra, who succeeded Hiram II, probably
(Cogan
1973).
independence
loyalty
Tyre's
Tiglath-Pileser'
to
pledging
by
do%-n
however soon ltd to revolt,
the Assyrians
put
which was
with
a demand for 150 gold
death
the
at
uprising

This,
talents.
of Tiglath-Pileser

in

brought
turn,
about another
in 727 (Cogan 1973).
III

58

of

groups

(1971)

Phoenician

of

has noted

inscriptions

is

dated

similarity

degree

indicated

to

ZINJIRLI

the

with

A certain
cities

the

traders

the

of

some letters

(1971,54).

intervention

letters

KARA-TEPE

the

of

Balmuth

ingots.

silver

Tiglath

of

businessmen'.

Assyrian

of

by two

reign

or

from

Pilaser

in

Northwest

the

in

trade

Phoenician

the

Palace

Nimrud,

at

III.

'The letters
to the murder
refer
of the king's
in Tyre and the imprisonment
tax collector
of
in Sidon as reactions
to Assyria's
an official
diverting
in
timber-from
policy-of
old outlets
Egypt and Palestine
'
to Assyria.

(Winter

By the
in

measured

terms

be used

for

demands

different

demands

trade

are

value

conodities

of

that

bulk

Phoenician

value

to
the

silver

to

may have

the Assyrians

commodities,

have been obtained

been

have

(Pritchard

would
in

include

own manufacturing

dependence

on Phoenician

and
1955,
high

gold,

which
centres

silver,

and

products,
(Culican

1961).

in acquiring

interested
have
been
would

from their

been

commodities,

Nimrud

such as plain-cloth,

which

tribute

tax,

different

resident

be

commodities

or

lists

wooden

century,
could

therefore

the

and fine

7th

which

therefore

would

tribute

that

can

satisfy

attached

ivory

vessels,

craftsmen

unlikely

there

cities
If.

It
in

levied
it:

against

the

from

in the 8th and 7th centuries

and bronze

Phoenician

been

was probably

and by the

Assyria

1971,1975).

Assyrians.

indicative

1969)

'copper'

have

on Phoenician
the

of

goods

all

was distinguished

(Balmuth

would

of
in

standard

currency

be exchanged

easily

could

a silver

for

tax

the. value

century,

manufacture
that

suggested

is

of

designated

silver

It

8th

1973,438)

could

more easily

or those

of

Babylonia.

The increased
valued

commodities,
been

a consequence

following
to

meet

the
the

intrinsically
of

campaigns

increased

the
of

Tiglath

demand for*high

to provide

exchange by Assyria,

or for

re-alignment

enterprise

of
Pileser
value

the
III

main

would

East-West

and Sargon

commodities

by

those

trade
II.
the

In

have
routes

order

Assyrians,

59

Phoenician

the

Maritime

(Oppenheim
garden).

Persian
refers

Expansion

beyond

was the

themselves

Essentially,
become

to

order

their

The scale

increased

or new centres

A new phase

633).
the

Sennacherib

between

Phoenician

subvert

Assyrian

freedom

to

inevitably

Assyrian

cities

which

dominance

in

in

resulted
increasingly

severe

according

to

Revere

(1957,59),

for

the

most

Early
Luli

part

installed

pne of

Ittobaal

that

to the new

increasing

used

(688-

by

the

than

with

to

attempts
their

political

partners,

Assyrians

'relationship

Tyre's

reigns

competition

their

trading
the

imposed

terms

and Elam

following

external

the

and Ashurbanipal

of

against

marked

which

Assyrian
with

were

put
But,

rulers.
Assyria

was

cooperation'.

in Sennacherib's

(Eloulaios),

with

had to

had
tobe
exchange

west

west, when they

rebellions

down with

the

Babylonia

pattern

the

in

that

own, or those

for

(680-669)

emerged

alliances

establish

with

with

the

the

established.

involved
But

like

significant

their

of commodities

Esarhaddon

1973).

to

Phoenician

the Near East or en route

relations

was more

(Brinkman

west

in

cities

the Phoenicians

either

of production

(704-681),

Sennacherib

sphere.

of production

of

is

demands.

Assyrian

the

raw materials

It

could

cities

centres,

production

Eastern

the

within

Phoenician

the

with

Sennacherib's

increasing

forced

goods:

in

Phoenician

ever

trade

by Babylon

plants

of raw materials

procured

sources.

of

trading

relations.

since

network

the

provide

these

of"manufactured

be more easily

could

had

obtain

as procurers

act as suppliers

cotton

the

to

feasible

trading

satisfying

raw materials

to function

order

Indian

the

exchange

re-established

means by which

only

had to enlarge

cities

had been

the regular

whilst

of

and in

Assyrian,

no longer

were

to

their

extend

Assyrians'-demands

the

sources

to

Gulf,

1964,94:

Mediterranean
maintain

India

to

the

via

forced

were

expeditions

East,

the

cities

reign,

who was forced

(Ethba'al)

Tyre and Sidon were both

to flee

as king

ruled

from Tyre by Sennacherib,

by
who

of Sidon. *

the scenes on certain

* Barnett has identified
reliefs
of Sennacherib's
as
including
flight,
Luli's
depicting
of the city of Tyre
representations
(eg.
1959).
Barnett
W.
S.
Smith
Phoenician
points
merchant
ships
some
and
display
intention
their
the
that
the
and
at eye--level
portrayals
of
out
in
in reception
the
particular
of scenes of foreign
rooms of
palace
'impress
invincible
foreign
Assyria
the
to
power
of
upon
were
conquests
(1965,57-8).
be
This
a warning against
should
some of the too
envoys'
implications
interpretations
by
literal
of these scenes and their
Hawkes 1969; Maluquer ]. 970c;. Blazquez 1975; and others.

9n

by Phoenician,

Ship-building
imported

is

timber

1969,193).

depicted

Severe
payments

1955).

The independence

tribute

important
of

Taurus

kingdom

the

to make high

to maintain

an attempt

on the

'annually,

be made
of

forced

she was similarly

Assyrian

to

were

imposed

were

the

and Cypriot

ship-builders

Phoenician

Israel

tribute

necessary

external

and trade

exactions,

Sidon

kingdom.

This

political

(Brown
and high

cities

interruption'(Pritchard

without
of

using

inscriptions

Sennacherib's

on one of

terms

tribute

Syrian

was destroyed

trading

to meet

relations
an alliance
led

alliance

in

Consequently,

payments.

formed

and

with

destruction

the

to

an

Sidon,

The confederation

formed and led by

of the '22 kings of Hatti'
Baal of Tyre (which included
Judah, and 'all
from
the western countries,
Gaza in the south to Arvad in the north,
and ten of the city-kings
of
(Katzenstein
Cyprus'
1973,263)
Tyrian
was an attempt to re-assert
dominance

among the Phoenician

Egypt

trade.

But

the

corvee

labour

aid

of

place

of

as seen
of

Egypt

in

'the

Tyre

free
the

the

Baal

to
city

maritime

defined.
of
prior
of

thy

land'

to

visiting
king

beyond

depended

the

the

on their
As Winter

were

Assyrians,

not
ports

and those
Assyrian
success

port

Tyre,

of

role

and

of

territories
'the

sphere:
in

of

*and

establishing

of

had

traders
Assyrian

no doubt

land'
the

governor

king

the

of

the

the

with

Assyrian

the

rule

defeat

his

deals

under

people

(in

cities,

following

Tyrian

undermined.
in

the

providing

Phoenician

The treaty
and the

to

Kar-Esarhaddon

of

by, Esarhaddon,,

on Baal

Mediterranean

addition

made on the

1973,263ff).

is

and in

Assyrian

the

of

Eastern

the

the

- with

as an attempt
over

successful

The autonomy

the

operate

power.

imposed

to

hegemony

demands

(Katzenstein

671

ships

building

the

treaty

of
is

was not

increased

ancients

permission
but

for

the

in

Assyrian

subvert

alliance

Sidon),

obligations
at

to

as well

cities

and
to

obtain

control,
were

still

autonomy

and maintaining

of

their

notes:

'...
by_virtue
foreign
the Phoenicians
of their
sea
(like
trade were able to provide
goods and services
from the Rio Tinto mines in southern
of silver
supplies
Spain)
the Assyrians
could
not otherwise
which
obtain,
equipped
nor ready to assume the
as they were neither
the
taking
themselves.
maritime
activities
of
on
"risks
(1976,20)

'

ei

In fact,

the Phoenician

this

due to their

when the Assyrian

Thus,

expansion.

to maintain

were able

to the Assyrians

of raw materials

of supplier
maritime

cities

western
in

fell

empire

role

612,

the

it
had
been
Esarhaddon
Phoenicia
the
as.
under
was
same
of
organisation
ie.
3
Assyrian
Assurbanipal:
there
the
provinces
were
of Simyra
and
(in

to the 3 autonomous

in addition
(eg. Moscati

do not
both

of

But it

(in

the south),
and Tyre

Byblos

and Persians

(eg.

under

Pharaoh Necho

the Persians
and later
in
important
the
role
noting

rulers

is worth

trade

and maritime

overland

cities

the'Babylonian

us here.

concern

they maintained
Rawlinson

under

the Egyptians,

1889,162).

Oppenheim refers

involvement

international
in
Phoenician
the
cities
of
the time of Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562) when the chief merchant

to the continuing
in

(Ushu)

of Aradus,

city-states

the Phoenician

and then under

the Babylonians

trade

and Tyre

1968,43-5).

The fortunes
(609-605)

(Kar-Esarhaddon),

Sidon

the north),

was probably

a Phoenician
'...
be taken as an
which can most likely
indication
Phoenicia
that
trade
was either
with
in the hands of the natives
of Tyre or controlled
by them in some way.
It combined with
the delivery
Phoenician
the procurewith
products
of typically
from other
countries,
raw materials
ment of essential
in
Asia Minor,
Egypt
and certain
such as
places
in
Phoenicians
their
the
well-known
acted
whereby
'
intermediaries,
function
as middlemen
as
...

(1969b, 253)

Thus,

II's

Nebuchadnezzar

conquest

of

in

Tyre

574

'did not at all shake the network of sea lanes and

trade routes that held the world of our period
(and beyond)
from the Pillars
together
of Hercules
beyond. '
to Uruk and, most probably,

(1969b, 254)

Similarly
organisation
the

Rostovetzeff

draws

and functioning

Neo-Assyrian,

Babylonian

our
of

to

attention
the

caravan

and Persian

the

trade

empires:

similarity

in

in

Asia

Western

the
during

s2.
'It

trade
that brought
was this
caravan
riches
to Aleppo
and splendour
to Damascus,
and later
the most flourishing
cities
of the Near East,
and it was this
trade
that put the
caravan
Phoenician
Byblos,
cities
of Tyre,
and Aradus
in a position
them to acquire
which enabled
importance
in the development
outstanding
of
commerce. '

(1932,16)

The Persian
the

co-operation

the

5th

of

Greek

the late

the

the

of

competition

(eg.
too;

in the late

of

the

Persia

resurgence.
in

as seen

the 7th century

Western Mediterranean

with

as the

9th and 8th centuries

and probably

autonomy

Phoenicians

may be seen

century

Phoenician

respect

the

Barnett

Phoenician

the

Eastern

and
in

Greeks

the

against
of

cities

traditional
in

Mediterranean

1948; Winter

1973; and others)

be shcwn below for the

and as will
8th and 7th centuries
(eg. Rathje

1976).

The structural

and the

preconditions

An important

aspect

of Phoenician

process

westward

of

Phoenician

expansion

is

expansion

the nature

We have seen that during both the Late Bronze

of the homeland population.
identity,
Age and the Iron Age, -there was no unified
ethnic
other than
for the inhabitants
that imposed by others,
of the Syro-Palestinian
coast,
'Phoenician'
'Canaanite'
to the
and
were terms that were applied
viz.
heterogeneous
The populations
Palestinian
Eastern

of the coastal

populations
of

cities,

Mediterranean

these

cities

as well

included

as elements

centres.

Ezekiel's

cities

by their

from different

residents
of other
lament

contemporaries.

western
for

Tyre

Asiatic
(XXVII,

Syroor
8-24)

* The ancient Greeks regarded the inhabitants

Cilicianof the entire
'Phoenicians',
Syrian-Palestinian
1970,80)
coast-as
eg. Homer (Finley
(Jeffery
Herodotus
1961,11).
Harden notes that 'The Phoenician
and
homeland was a meeting-ground
The inhabitants
of people.
of cities
such as Tyre and Sidon must have been almost as great an amalgam of
descendants,
races and tongues as can now be seen in one of their
Beirut. ' (1971,73)

$3

the diverse

mentions

origins

even the participation

in Tyrian

maritime
involved

of people

of

of merchants,
the inhabitants

elements
of Sidon,

ventures.

'Phoenician'

therefore

in certain

recognisable

activities,

the army,

of

Arvad

and

and Byblos
to a category

refers

than

rather

to a

in
for
the Homeric poems, when traders
as
example
group,
ethnic
single
'Phoenicians'
(cf.
1954).
Finley
The assimilation
of elements of
are
Aramaean and Israelite
(cf.

1961).

Albright

is,

That

in

seems to have occurred

populations

by taking

this

language

on Phoenician

way
and

could take part in characteristic

In
Phoenician
and thereby become identified
activities
as Phoenicians.
inhabitants
fact,
Phoenicians
or-the
of Phoenician
cities
- appear to
'men of Byblos'
have continued
to regard themselves as 'men of Tyre',
ideology,

of different

people

origins

etc.

two major
the

that

population

some cases,

The degree

wealth.

the formation

of

'Western

of Phoenician

density

sites

population

of the Phoenician
of peoples

Mediterranean

and North

later,

Carthaginian

Ch. III;

Picard

Whittaker

the sort

of commercial

whilst

as known in

is

in the Central
the case of

Warmington

1964,

the incorporation
)

populations.

to the local

described

by the

have involved

at least
known in

The incorporation

the

their

solely

is better

to pay tribute

the East,

of

contacted

indigenous

in

but

to assess,

(cf.
'conquest'
and
1968,65ff)
that involved

1968,65).

or manufacturing

Phoenicians

(This

were,

were involved

populations

and would

the

of

new forme of

creating

is difficult

homeland

and

Phoenicians

the

'expansion'

were required

(1974).

to

elements

the West and the intensity

Africa.

Western Mediterranean

populations,

themselves

the Eastern

and Picard

and Picard

Those

activities.

to have been accomplished

are unlikely

participation

(Picard

'Phoenician'

in

in

activities

the Magonids

achieved

Phoenicians'

there

entire

that

indigenous

to which

have had

and settlers;

the newcomers promoted

that

activities

the west would

traders

attached

involved

already

in

Phoenician

populations

on Phoenician

taking

indigenous

in

indigenous

of

by

Eastern

the

components:

elements

identity

foundations

the Phoenician

Similarly,

But,

note

Libyan

of elements
for

Carthage

of

too that

populations
of local
by

64

The organisation
the

of

Amon's

expedition

(1946)

cites

with

capital,

were

and Baal,

Esarhaddon
people

of

267ff).

'

success

Tyre'

records

(from

elders'

and the

people

of

crowns,

of
8th

the earth.
always

'Kyn'nw'

in

the

which

Maisler

'

acted

to assume full

merchants

(Isaiah

rank

were

XXIII,

as advisors
authority

15th

is

of

which
'...

as:

only

But,

the

14th

century

'special

the end of monarchic

is

class

of

repres-

another

we know

to

bestower

rule

be true
of

honored

here,

with

rule

of

earlier

Persian

under

for

trade

were'th":

dealt

on the

The Egyptian

the

whose-traders

the
1973,

'council

the

city

traders

In the period

to the king;
with

the

the

be the

to

noted

'of

maritime

the

Phoenician

described

princes,

8).

believes

the

'ships

advisers.
for

century

is

depended

in
to

king's

as the

operated

above.

refer

these

that

Katzenstein

the

of

for

between

have

recognised

which

of

when Tyre

(eg.

therefore

also

(1946)

elite

political

king

but

the

of

emphasised

city'

the

its

been

and Ugarit),

merchant

rights

has

the

the

the

sponsor
paid

too

treaty

nature

is

king,

as

function

activities

critical

traders

'men of

century,

whose

the

century

would

whose

own ships,

the

7th

of

company',

We know

traders'

with

stood

trading

'Hbr'

in

and subsequently

these

the

cities

economy

of

Wen

of

Maisler

which

their

in

operating

account

firms,

voyages.

control
of

Sidon

ships

owned

the

those

the

Amarna

El

Syria'

indication
the

of

term

the

entatives

the

deals

the

of

city's

status

in

build

as to

traders:

these

of

Phoenician

of

to

and from

as well

The wealth

political

commercial

traders

the

a great

of

these

direct

which

in

been

hands

the

1905,514-5).

at

of

The independence
account,

head

the

and organised
the

have

to

(Breasted

50 ships

the

Thus,

under

not

Wen Amon's

from

of

date

early

known

century

'probably

fleets.

the

independently.

use

to

own workforce,

traders

the

reference

the

provide

and protect
their

11th

the

'firms'

was in

ventures

and even mentioned

the

who was

trading

or

UGARIT,

in

the

for

evidence
was to

like

towns,

'Wrktr',

of

'companies'

mercantile

Canaanite

initial

the

of

the councils
were they

(Harden

1971,71-2).

I%

The organisation
residing

in Anatolia,

of

'firms'

in Assr,

at KANESH (KUltepe)*

with

their

and other

representatives
colonies,

has been

(1970,133)
ie.
that
the only
makes a significant
observation,
for
is
in
found on the sites,
their
presence
records
and that
evidence
indications
which would be generally
no material
regarded
as evidence
for the presence
have been found.
traders
of foreign

x Riis

65
0

from

studied
The

'firms'

that

'the

can-be

'kinship-based

the

with

for

Old

the

I Kings

would

organised

on a kinship

describes

'

And Moscati

Carthage

was also

that

the

incorporation

with

the

of

Danites

reference
SolorLon's

temple:

'of

the tribe

Gsell
activities

have

must

slave

on

or

Tyre,

'family

1961).

operated
a worker

In

within
in

in

the

We note

14,

VII,

there

construction
groups:

' and his

was by

by intermarriage

eg.

a kin-based
bronze...

industry

textile

be extended

labour,

I Kings

involved

spinning

(1968,223).
could

dependent

the

on an organized

the

of

lines'

(1971,

commercialized,

do it

to

slaves

provision

groups
Harden

openly

organisation

other

bronzeworker

not

the

The king's

I.

'Mostly,

'households'

these

made to

cities.

Phoenicia:

used

the

that

Albright

he too

was: a man of

in

'household'

many occupational

Phoenician

the

originally

(cf.

of

Phoenician

Hiram

of

a home industry,

notes

a Tyrian

to

father

in

means by which

the

too

largest

specialists

is

when reference

organisation

occupational
to

references

industry

been

and other

is

which

and commercial

kin-based

of

'household'

the

the

textile

some householders

though

at

for

basis

have

will

and weaving

scale.

the

11,

V,

been

have

traders

type

proposes

be a feature

city-states

of

This

we have

Testament,

household

'

trade.

by Solomon

foodstuffs

pattern

Phoenician

from

organisations

135)

recurrent

fact

and 1974).

(1974,469)

and Larsen

may in

family

(1967

by Larsen

there

groups'

the

of

predominance

proposed
In

found

texts

and long-distance

colonies

of

Assyrian

were

linked

closely

too.

Old

is

of
'...

mother

his
was

of Naph'tali'.

(1929,109)

described

the organisation

of

trade

and industrial

in Carthage:

d'assez
'C'etaient
petites
semble-t-il,
en gendral,
des
la
intermddiaires
des
produits
vente
pour
gens,
faisaient
dans la ville.
D'autres
qui affluaient
le commerce d'exportation
et d'importation:
de
de
commission,
g6rants
maisons
propridtaires
ou
ou a
soit Carthage,
soit dans les colonies
de navires;
1'4tranger:
affr6teurs
patrons,
d'eux,
des
de
Au-dessus
caravanes.
organisateurs
dtaient
l'aristocratie
personnages appartenant
Comme Tyr,
les vrais maftres de tout le traffic.
"dont les marchands dtaient
des princes,
et les
des grands de la terre"
ceux qui, h
ndgociants
de
Carthage,
dirigaient
1'Etat
pas
ndgligaient
ne
'
faire
des affaires
leur
propre ccmpte.
pour
,I

66
The leadership

of the actual

trading

was in

expeditions

repute.
The status
traders
of considerable
of specialist
Hamilcar illustrate
the prestige
of these expedition-leaders
their

in overland

counterparts

the nature

prescribed
were also

known the routes

of men and ships,

organisation

including

of Pharaoh Necho,

as those

voyages'such

exceptional

is

It

from both

therefore,

clear,

and from the political

situation
generally
regarded by their
were
(eg.

1965) and the Hittite

(1950),

Finley

Odyssey

(eg.

fine

metal

references
been

is

incident
and draws

cloth,

work,
to

1972),

ied for

ships,
jewellery

organisd'.

(1970,18),
ventures

of

the

the

crucial
that

(Finley
eg.
into

Eastern

Homeric

argued

by Lorimer

(1970).

the

aspect

'tel

devait

the

and Western

In

Eumacus

Greeks

is

The
to

said

regards

d'dchanges

alors

have
XV,

this

Phoenician

@tre

with

(Odyssey

slavery

of

the

and

1972,80).

Mossd

que systeme

dismissing

of. the

who supplied

and sold

from one of

as traders

Unfortunately

plus

thereby
in

men'

(Astour

taken

and Muhly

characterised

traders.

de pirates

ph&nicien,

convincingly

behaviour',

conclusion

specious

Phoenicians

and slaves

over-emphasised.

as an illustration
the

are
greedy

by Phoenician

razzia

Phoenician

they

with

(1968)

traders

'merchant'

The dating

been

Coldstream

'pirate-like

their

seldom

has

century

the Phoenicians

as specialist

'knn'

dye).

purple-red

2,244-5)

'fl

kidnapped

416ff)

(eg.
II,

navigators:

8th

the

to

contemporaries

documents

of written

above that

and Greek words for

the

manufactures,

Phoenicians

described

and the

of exploratory

the contents

of the Hebrew word

the association

their

of Africa;

and Hanno, which were examples

from Carthage. *
undertaken

expeditions

There

at the instigation

undertaken

the circumnavigation

the
and

transactions.

of Hamilcar

voyages

who, like

and destinations

of the exchange

and extent

of Hanno, and

would have controlled

trade,

caravan

the hands

activities
le

"commerce"

rentablement

significance

of

all

Mediterranean.

in
in
Periplous
Hanno
found
Avienus'
the
these
*-Accounts
and
of
are
of
in Harden (1948),
lines 114-6,
They are discussed
Ora Maritima,
(1968,86ff).
Picard
Picard
(1966,81ff
Carpenter
arid
and-212) and

67

in the Odyssey to the sojourn

The reference
illustrates

one year
Phoenician

transactions

they

can be seen

over

short

Since

we can
technology

transport

in

differences

hands.

in

to have

different

by dominating

bear

find

the

have

would
access

many of

since
their

in

eg.

low

bulk,

high
later

of

stage

items,

the
the

to

commodities

commodities

cost,

development

the

own cities.

particular

sphere

production

level.

settling
or

by

the

of

of

Phoenician

of

exchange,

An example

its
of

this

is

And

Phoenician

and its
Phoenician

for

exchange

the

in

for

needed

network,

Phoenician

the

sole

At

new centres

maintenance

costs

cloth.

some of

craftsmen

signify

dyed

trade

production

would

or

regional

establishment

The former

in

as timber

the
of

be obtained

such
this

costs.

to

able

had

they

the

could

having

high

raw materials

reach

extended

then

of

easy

source
distribution

(whose

transport

the

they

of
in

involved

- or

within

Cilicia,

low

between

without

were

to which

at

supply

are

effectively

commodities

production),

available

or

centres,

production
their

Egypt

the

local

the

command,

traders

specialised

they

between

their

had

their

under

centres,

relations

and controlling

Phoenician

the

luxury

- were

by

either

for

a position

these

became

Phoenicians

in

in

production

cities,

processes

Phoenician

so doing

exchange

of

Phoenicians

the

which

The Phoenicians
exchange

in

example,

through

By monopolising

advantage.
commodities

their

prohibited

and were

a rate

production.

demands

create

or

of

costs

establish

For

and in

of

in

spheres
of.

skills

of

production

entities.
organised

benefit

mutual

passed

items,

luxury

to make

order

trading

up specialist

of

transport,

maritime

the

Egypt

of

their

in

advantage

with

political

to

of m: nufacturing

range

linked

specialised

of

trade

absence

order

was to

which

production

Greek

the

in

be taken

one commodity

contribution

up separate

manufacture

exploited

to

place

were

commodities

of

exchange

another

Phoenician

the

could

traders

yet

take

link

up distinct

spheres

commodities

to

rates
that

the

linked

effectively

the

to

The Phoenician

often

of

served

notes

involved

seen

that

exchange

(1970,164)

Riis

assume

was to

of

the Aegean

and carriers

for

elsewhere

which

even within

interest

logically

must

is,

That

The traders'

trade

Mediterranean,

as collectors

acted

be exchanged

to

partners,

all

to have

distances.

another

profit.

the Eastern

within

of

- the nature

exaggerates

possibly

in
the West too.
out

to be carried

for

- although

'Sidonians'

the

of

these
the

luxury
original

of

production

commitment

to

expansion

at

involvement

68

in faience
Edgar's

production

Rathje

(1976,98)

cites

faience

being

of Egyptian
in

by the 8th century

at the latest

later

which

1976).

imitations

of Phoenician

recognition

produced

(Rathje

in Egypt

the Egyptian

town of Pi-em-ro,

became Naucratis.

There are many examples of the establishment

of new production
items,
faience,
ffit
in
for
luxury
Phoenicia
and
and
such
as
centres
and vessels,

glass

objects

often

with

work,

including

Egyptianising

the famous jewellery.

caravan

overland
and their

routes
these

partners,

KARMIR BLUR (Barnett

(eg.

Ridgway

(see

below,

Part

at

the

famous

their
there

Similar
Winter

use of

the

centres

as
in

centres**

Central
in

traders,

such

centres

and Mesopotamian

and indigenous

(1948)

of

shrines

similar

settlements
(1973,373)

some artisans

Urartian

in

metal-

by Phoenician

routes

colonies

ivories

Phoenician

for

to Greek

trade
were

of

a taste

established

1952),

the extensive

the

Mediterranean
'Far

the

West'

II).

by Barnett

attributed

reached

Euboean

and the

1973 and 1974),

The finds
are

products

fine
and
-

signs

Through

as maritime

and Watson

Italy

Central

East,

as well

containers

and quartzite

scarabs,
alabaster
'garbled'
hieroglyphic

Idaean

their

work,

establishments

of

'foreign

and Culican

established

to

the

apprentices.

in
the

settlement

Cave and the

perhaps

'

(p. 6).
of

in

some quantity
of

Dunbabin

and Samos

Phoenician

Heraeum:

married

Phoenician

Crete

'The

locally

craftsmen
settlers

and raught

(1957,41)

suggests
on Crete.

metal-workers

envisaged in Etruria.
artisans''are
(1961,47)
the possibility
consider

in Nimrud

of

too.

jewellery
Phoenician
has
* The problem of the centres of production
of
But it remains
tackled by Culican in many publications.
been admirably
between Eastern and Western (presumably)
difficult
to distinguish
(See
1958,1962,1968,1970a
Culican
and
Carthaginian,
centres.
1973a ; Stern 1976; Higgins 1969).
** A series of finds in different
suggest that even if
materials
in
Assyria,
their
products
Phoenician
resident
not
were
craftsmen
(Culican
found
NIrNRUD
bowls
imported
there,
at
metal
eg.
were either
Phoenician
be
believes
1968b
and
red slip. tripods
they may
products),
in
deposits
form
bronze
imitating
the
bowl
of
a
western
a, pottery
(J.
1959;
1970b).
Oates
Culican
II
NIMRUD
Sargon
at
period of

69

There is,

however,

ivories

of craftsmen

where the ivories

in the many centres

are found, since the role of the

in
distribution
king
the
the
of the
of

and representatives

merchants

the presence

no need to envisage

not be underemphasised.

should

is
in
Mesopotamia
The presence of Phoenician
glassworkers
by von Saldern (1970,211)
on the basis of the Egypto-Phoenician
influences

on motifs

There

is

and their

described

different

the

(Coldstream

Rhodes

1969),

connections

come from

(c. 850-750)

are

In

beginning

to

8th

viz.

containers,
characteristic
with
neck;

globular
and the

circle

the

body

and long

ring

footed

line

and wavy

in

the

-graves
contained
a number
flask

flasks;

neck-ridged
neck;
flask

decoration,

the
with

with

flasks
globular

which

is

says

type

the

'baggy

body';

the

black-on-red

body,

faces

1969).

IALYSOS,

of

Oriental

with

(Coldstream

cemeteries
of

then

Phoenicians,

- hellenised

Dodecanese

the
in

mushroom-topped

These,

and local

waters',

with

vessels,

the

of

Eastern

the
wares

decoration.

century,

black-on-red

unguent

enterprise

produced

of

Geometric

Middle

on

production

beginning

Phoenician

Aegean

CAMIROS and. EXOCHI on Rhodes

container

the

on Cos.

commercial

penetrate

of

for

evidence

Coldstream

from Rhodes.

unguent

intervention

of Phoenician

types

and black-on-red
the

the

of

imported

subsequently

were
2nd half

the

with

'represent

Coldstream,

imitations

but

neck-ridges

characteristic

just

phases

cemeteries

found

both

in distribution

role

7th and 6th centuries.

of the

glasswork

to illustrate

evidence

in production
has

of Assyrian

suggested

modelled

short

the characteristic

neck

unguent
the
oinoche
on the
and

'Rhodian'

imitations,
local
imports;
clearly
Some
these
others,
were
of
aryballos.
larger,
the
indigenous
Geometric
Late
by
of
style
the
uninfluenced
were
that
Coldstream
these
proposes
the
vessels.
open
closed shapes and
involved
in
Rhodes
by
Phoenicians
and
on
resident
were made
containers
unguent

production

and trade.
island
have
to
the
their
seems
to
arrival,
in
commercial exchange,
played only a passive part
8th
late
the
than
Rhodian
object earlier
since no
from
725
But,
found
has
been
c.
abroad.
century
initiative;
begins
to
take
the
Rhodes
suddenly
onwards
is
the export of aryballoi
symptoms
a most striking

'Prior

70

like Pl. II h [the 'Rhodian'

aryballos],
whose
(but
character
oriental
and wide distribution
direction)
for
always in a westerly
argue strongly
'
the commercial energy of the resident
Phoenicians.
(1969,4)

his

To support

Coldstream

Rhodes,
frit,

8th century

until

'glazed

clay'

42 with

a group of

flasks

'Egyptianising

the

cites

of Phoenician"'metoikoi'

the settlement

have been found

which

late

for

argument

in Rhodian
into

well

in faience

objects

graves

the 6th'.

on
or glazed
from

and sanctuaries

Furthermore,

the

one of the

in IALYSOS Grave

common to Rhodes was associated

'un-Hellenic'
pots and figurines.

And some burials

from IALYSOS and CAMIROS were inhumations

in 'Phoeniciantype coarse amphorae' as found in 'the Phoenician
colonial
cemeteries
of Carthage, Motya and Kition'.

of children

It'is
the

context

into

introduced

also

the

Phoenician

perhaps

Phoenician

aryballos,

Fig.

CASALETTI

in

CERI,

of Phoenician

stimulated

by the introduction
distribution

face

1973;

Cerveteri

near

Cypriot

aryballoi

Syrian

Ridgway

production

or

containers,

for

who would

only

in

types

of

order

to

as readily

on Rhodes

than
In

be explained
finds

eg.

from

use
the

fact,
by

PITHEKUSAE.

and a 'Rhodian'

aryballos
and cites

another

Rhodian

- Ridgway

1974. )

The Rhodian

Phoenician

of a new commodity
in

oriental

equivalents.

can

the

manufacture,

the

numbers

- were
etc. )

On Cos,

possible

Rhodes

large

distribution,

their

a North

2a and b,
DI

in

Cilicia,

pottery

on Rhodes,

at

too

centuries.

as technically

Phoenician

involvement
illustrates

But

the

8th

above:

unguents

Syria,

general

calling

of

(also

and early
into

produced

'expensive'

(Ridgway

from

traders

distribution

westerly

9th

as closely

aryballoi

more

late

production.

imitated

'Rhodian'

these

the

unguent

were

containers
supply

and Rhodes

the

described

some cases

in

differently

somewhat

organisation

Dodecanese

incorporated
was

production

possibly

trading

- and in

in

Phoenicians

by the
local

the

evidence

containers

unguent

slow-pouring

this

Phoenician

the

of

interpret

to

possible

find

merchants,
was
into the Aegean, viz.

the East and West again denotes Phoenician

intervention
in
Phoenician
Another
the distribution
example
of
carriers.
(1969,
by
Coldstream
Rhodian
as
proposed
wares,
note 38), are the
of
context
kotylae
found
in
bird
late
8th
Rhodian
a
century
at AL MINA.
faience.

Its

71

To summarise,

we can

- Phoenicians

containers

unguent
centre

to

transaction

their

ultimate

destination,

possible

that

tion

trading

their

within

Phoenician
the

from

the

Oriental

make this

value
skill

and scarce

produced

but

garments'

of
that

this

a new

exchange

homeland

the

and their
is

It

west.
in

the

course

of

aryballos

produc-

technical

and especially
and the

Phoenician

of

organisation

to

and sculpted

production

pieces

and dyes

were

by Assyrians

Oppenheim

was for

1969b,

exchange

into

involving

known

high

decorated

ornately

(best

high

to

beyond

from

1958,1973a).

toilet

and the

produce

limited

technology

worked

jewellery

fine

produce

was worked

(eg.

metal

less

or

a specialist

eg. Culican

1956a

much desired
lists

tribute

to

Cloth*

1963,136-7).

of

viz.

Barnett

carvings

also

by means

homeland

(eg.

Ivory

another

further

was more

and elaborate

Wood was worked

1969).

stylistic

production

materials,

intricate

the Phoenician

with

of

adding

involved

were

prototypes.

commodity

items,

inlay

or

in

unlikely.

Phoenician

containers,

Aegean

the

a new commodity

production

between

exchanges

degree

but

trade

thereby

craftsmen

on Rhodes

variation

of

within

its

organised

sphere,

chain

introduced

having

that

say

tribute

the

items

or

lists,

furniture,
in

(cf.

Barnett

combined

to

and frequently
Pritchard

1955).

and prescribed

furniture

1939,1948;

produce

1955,

Pritchard
for

embellishments

often

Albright
'ornamented

the

referred

to

The fact

in
that

the
most

meant

presentation

the

'manufacturers
in many fields
of the exquisite
herself,
ranging from the metal work of Phoenicia
by Homer, to the patterned
cloth
so celebrated
districts
fabrics
even in the outlying
manufactured
Motya and Malta'
of
.
(Culican

1958,90)
0

possible
through
that
* It is quite
was obtained
cloth
plain
'western'
into
it
dyed,
that
embroidered
style
and made
was
in the Phoenician
cities.

trade,
and
garments

72

their

adapted
in

terms

production
they

of what
For

production.
'Layard

to

came was,

group')

from

furniture

the

example,

according

of

ivories

their

(like

the

(1948,3)

Barnett

to

customers

content
the

which

their

of

'cultural'

the

and often

produced

and demands

tastes

the

suit

in
fashion
that prevailed
an expensive
in the ninth-eighth
B. C.
centuries
circles
royal
have
Very similar
collections
pieces
or individual
been found in-the
Assyrian
of Assur and
palaces
(Arslan
Khorsabad,,
Hadatu
the Aramaean palaces
of
(Zincirli)
in
North
Tash) and Sam'al
Carchemish
at
'
in
Samaria
Palestine.
and
at
-Syria

'evidently

of furniture

was being produced on a considerable

scale, was
in its execution,
becoming repetitive
for elite
consumption.
and was destined
in the
In the case of ivory-carving,
this trend in manufacture
resulted

This

type

'unlovely

symposium of Egyptian,

(Culican

1958)

the

precise

all
built

'

up...

which

standards

features

or

Barnett

(1957,61)

defends

incorporated
and - more

style

shown,

the

centuries
of

carved

Praeneste,

of

significantly
the

best

in
and

the

which

represented

the

Aubet.

art:
feeling
the

its

which

purely

ornamental

1966;
component
the

were

degeneration

the

of

Phoenic?. an
their

neither

With

Bernardini
Phoenician

own
has

as Aubet
the

and 8th

9th

instead

was engraved

combinations

of

accomplish-

into
But

ivories

Aubet'1971a).
of

the

which

ivory

as the

(1948,3).

form'

symbolism.

Phoenician
in

described

iconography

Egyptian

disregarded

laboriously

had

technical

great

way in

it

since

aptly

for

portrayed

Phoenician
describes

more

themes

Freyer-Schauenburg
to

artists

by a period

(cf.

reference

elements

of

Egyptian
Barnett

real

followed
was

but

narrative,
themes

production

as

'bastard,

Phoenician

of

conviction

craftsmen
art

and which

little

but

However,

the

forms'

and even Hittite

described

which

(1942,13),

'characteristic
ment,

Albright

Assyrian

nor

symbolic
of

traditional

particular
ivories
ivory

of
working

as follows:

'La serie de cuencos metlicos

y placas Bernardini
intermedia
fase
la
o colonial
ast,
constituyen,
la
de
fenicia
Occidente
iconografia
la
y
o
entre
El carcter
y religioso,
simb6lico
crtaginesa.
hasta llegar
junto a la tecni_ca, van decreciendo
forman
los
desarrolo,
de
que
grado
al ultimo
'
de
Samos.
Cartago,
Carmona
y
marfiles
occidentales

(1971a, 196)

73

in

degeneration

This

style

especially

during

the

7th

production

and to

the

intended

and Egyptian
political

of

a religious

sphere

in

power

(eg.

ivories

no longer

did

detract

is

not
more

trading

their

dealt

items

for

served
the

contexts

content

symbolic
exchange

- as

or

indigenous

persons

of

beyond

Western

Asiatic-Aegean

the

high

political

ivory

specialised

other

can be assumed, but not yet

in the Phoenician
commodity manufactures
production

at the same time.

cities

With
first

from

vase

imitating

very

that

features

on the

Layard)

handle

bowl in deposits

a handled
132, Pl.

that

XXXVI,

29). )

18th

has

some features

and the
known

are

found

plates

1968b,

in

Cyprus,

a western

bronze

used

of the period

Similarly,

in

dynasty

tribute

I. A.

(1968b,
Near

of
291-2).

have

Egyptian

3,

after

may be Phoenician
was the

of Sargon II

products.

prototype

of

at NIMRUD (1959,
'braseros'

the characteristic

Culican

East;

288 and Fig.

form

clearly

continuity

the

view

and cites

the

NIMRUD, which

at

(cf.

attachments

has proposed

Oates

finds

metal

vessels

and resemble

B. A.

in

was given

for

the

supports

the

evidence

later

the

some bronze

believes

during

as supporting

few Phoenician

metalwork

KHALDEH, which

at

into

metalwork

that

Egypt

to

a tomb
forms,

metal

Phoenician
But,

(1966)

and Canaanites

Culican

metal-working,

by Prausnitz

proposed

L. B. A.

Phoenician

to

regard

by Syrians

(J.

the

had

content

What is known about

for

to

se as symbols

per

of

Asiatic

Western

the

lack

increased

the

cultural

their

value

to

served

different

and

as high

use

Phoenicians

sphere.

proven,

functions

these

beyond

and by their
in

But

working,.

related

had

carvings

1956a)

Barnett

is

ivories

of

ivory

- presentation

whom the

with

rank

had
from

likely

use

ivory

of

centuries,

function.

ritual

or

and 6th

which

technique

and

bronze
introduced

found
together
with Phoenician
material
or Phoenician
plates
in
in
he
Phoenician
Iberia
the
the
could
products
of
woikshops.
material
have been
Cyprus: some similar
homeland'or
vessels with hand-attachments
found

in a 7th century

the Iberian
but

in view

the former

finds
of the

could

context

be Egyptian

accompanying

hypothesis

in Egypt

(1968b,

distributed

objects

bronze

forms

is more plausible.

292).

distributed

In fact,
4

Culican

adds that

by Phoenicians,
in

the Far West,

the existence

of

74

Phoenician

and possible

from

in

finds

Italy

Phoenician

objects,

Phoenician

silver

1958,1968b;

Phoenician

the

influenced

in

(see

west

Eastern

fine
dead

the

accompany

in

graves

instead,

goods;

obviously

by

Culican

Phoenician
- do not

West

the

red

known

include

contents

is

But,

best

slip

often

wares,

(Saidah

1966;

cities

were

Chapman 1972;

1973b).

Culican

In

the

also

would

alum

and fine

'the

West'

in

Syrian

of

states,

from

gained
business
during

'progressive

the

rivals
the

their

...

eighth

century

be short

tion

was to

the

Phoenician

in

cities

seemed to

B. C. '

(Barnett

as Barnett
the

With

reached

1939,15).

of

from

probably

crushing
in

and the
Western

the

Phoenicians
of

wealthy

heights

great
But,

of

supplying

elimination

have

economy

the

woad,

origin

were

role

observes,

regional

frit),

of

the

to Assyria,

trade

lived',

area

and spices

and final

and

as coming

a considerable

weakening

They

Egypt
(or

noted

merchants.

indirectly

1969b).

blue'

specific

together
iron

of

between

'Egyptian

honey,

wines,

or

Oppenheim

trade

the

involved,

quantities

generally

had played

directly

many raw materials

as

without.
the

which

the

were

Phoenician

the

(cf.

in

such

texts,
Hence,

enormous

machine'

items

these

Assyrian

hands

the

'war

commodities

1969b).

(Oppenheim

North

in
linen:

in

the

supplying

as middlemen

acted

dealing

Assyria,

in

Assyrian

have

Phoenician

millenium,

kingdoms,

by the

required

lst.

early

Syrian

also

'rich'

forms,

found

is

workshops
tomb

metalwork

and others).

as grave

bronze

metal

Etruscan

products,

1971a,

and even

imitating

with

and Etruscan
and gold

bronzes

contain

ie.

and Iberia,

Aubet

cemeteries,

Cypro-Phoenician

this

'satisfac-

role

played

Asia

by

was to

change.
As discussed

above,

into

incorporation

the Assyrian

changes from suppliers

up complex political
judicious
through
etc)
of primary
Asiatic

materials

regional
).
1932,16ff.

from the late

empire,

of elite

systems

to having

trading

trading

the role

manufactured

and economic

to their

8th century,

Assyrian

system

(cf.

with

of the Phoenician

commodities
(Egyptian,

also

to act

and other

increasing

their

serving

Greek,

to lick

Mesopotamian,

as major

partners

cities

in

suppliers
the Western

Oppenheim 1967 and Rostovetzeff

75

Hence,
as relatively

economically

in the Western Mediterranean

Assyria
the

raw materials

Anatolian

Phoenician
primarily
unexploited
contingent
Anatolia

into

expansion
a drive
areas

as well

as Phoenician

workshops.

of

new sources

at

a time

of

increasing

supplies

is

Mediterranean

search

in

- such as

with

in

a decline

superiors

(particularly

Western

the

from

of

the

disruption

in

traditional

the

The

therefore

raw materials

demand

of

in

Near
sources,

previously

East
such

as

**

and Iran.

* It is insufficient
to isolate
imposition
tribute
of annual
in the late
8th and
expansion
it is
1966):
1970c and Garbini
in the regional
system,
cities
and carrying
voyaging
maritime
conditions
of their
structural
**

political

partners

trade),

metal

with

to supply

trading

- external

what would be seen

backward areas
and politically
has to be viewed in the context
of increased

underdeveloped,

demand for

into

of the Phoenicians

the expansion

factors

like

military
pressure
or the
as prime-movers
of the Phoenician
(eg. Blanco
7th centuries
1960; Culican
the incorporation
of the Phoenician
their
to
coupled
with
pre-adaptations
that must be regarded
as the essential
expansion.

'trade'
dismisses
Whittaker
as a function
of Phoenician
colonisation
in the west by referring,
to a Homeric
somewhat surprisingly,
reference
'Phoenician'
the account
to the activities
of one particular
merchant,
journey
in
Herodotus,
Colios'
and aspects
with
of Wen Amon's trade
of
'Trade
He concludes
that
Byblos.
empires,
and
commercial
monopolies
implied
by the term "commerce"
trade
routes
are fantasies
even regular
"
(1974,77).
hand
in the archaic
Von Berchem,
period.
on the other
(in the context
Phoenician
cults)
of a study of Phoenician
considers
but he believes
Phoenician
to be essentially
that
commercial,
expansion
'comptoirs'
they did not
on indigenous
sites
and since
were established
'le
des
distribute
Greek
de predilection
the
pottery,
matdriel
use or
be
located.
Furthermore,
their
establishments
will
not
archdologues',
he proposes:

'...

les Phdniciens,
fabriquaient
des
et colportaient
bijoux,
objets de luxe, pieces d'orfdvrerie
ou de verre,
dtoffes,
dont la nature ou le prix ont favorisd
la
destruction.
Ni leur poterie,
qui demeura grossibre,
ni leur architecture,
oa le bois semble avoir tenu une
laissd
dans le sol de vestigesn'ont
place importante,
immediatement reconnaissables.
'
(1967,75)

The archaeological
and North Africa
ephemerality!

the Central
evidence fror
and Western Mediterranean
his apology for Phoenician
totally
contradicts

76

Silver

and gold,

to have sought
Gse11 (1929, IV, 74ff)

Mediterranean.
ivory

4th

century

and silver

millenium

Near

the

East.
in

by value,

determined

of being

Its
late

the

1975) notes

use

implies

This

a new,

during

in

and standard
refers

of

supply

of

'All

currency

Western

to

source

is well

have
Asia

the

would

attested
legal

found

together

- a"vassal
Balmuth 1967, for

required

too).

This

boosted

the

the

that

with

cities

need

for

re

of

an enormous
by the

Phoenicians
would

value

in circulation
be cut

eventually

created

manufact':

and hence

availability

for

by

are represented

for

As

the use of silver

with

she claims

increasingly

by the enormous quantities

dealing

personnel

were

controlled

the 7th century,

of value

in

silver

its

silver

could

the

of Barrekub

material.

which

is

coinage

(1971,7)

can be envisaged

It

century,

to tablets

the temple

to

access

from

for

(See also

(possibly

required

known

requirements

of

wealth,

and the external

But,

this

exchange

be diminished

ultimately
storage

the
7th

the

the

when weight

by the 8th century

in the palace

of

and jewellery.
in

increase

of

was also

which
wares

direct

the name of Barrel: ub,

with

quantities

form

hoardable

silver,
fine

that

as a medium

use

is

and guaranteed'

weighed
inscribed

interpretation

ie.

as currency,

in c. 730 - at Zinjirli.

Pileser

her original

in

in

Hanno

of

that

2nd millenium,

and 'Hacksilber'

disc-ingots

of Tiglath

for

metal,

discs,

by the silver
with

voyage

an interest

with

and the Western

Carthaginians

that

the

But,
account of Wen-Amon's expedition.
'Aristotelian
that ingots fulfilling-the
virtue

Africa

the

in
metals particular
- were used as a medium of exchange during the 2nd
Balmuth

gold.

in

(eg.

thought

interior:

the

connected

was probably

West, -African
gold

from

and gold

were among the resources

in North

were likely

Phoenicians

obtained

ivory,

and probably

and

off.

as a medium of exchange

in Assyria.

and economic

affairs

Parker

(1963)

of members of

at Balawat:

these

transactions

concern

silver,

or the debt

in terms of silver.
Sometimes
the standard
stated
is
silver
of
specified,
eg. the royal
standard,
or
the standard
temple
of the Istar
at Arbela,
or the
tam aru standard
of the same temple. '
is

77

In

had

Phoenicians
together

the

to

trading

network

into

co: amodities

hands

the

has been shown for

This
intermediary

of

in the distribution
'The

in

to

value

the
in

flows

reorganise

Phoenicians.

and other

goods in the 7th century:

exotic

Etruria
must be taken as showing
the Phoenician
a connection
with
world,
as von
(The anthropoBissing
ago.
pointed
out many years
flasks)
faience
perfume
morphic
must be considered
imports
together
such as scarabs,
with
other
figurines
amulets,
of faience,
silver
ware,
glass,
ivories,
tridacna
squamosa shells
and undecorated
eggs. '
ostrich

It
west

must

west

the

the

Eastern

cheap

centres

found

seals.

in

there

at

in

the

the

East

The Cilician

lyre

associated

at no other

Western

with

quantities

well

The success
obtaining

could

be converted

the

player
Egyptian

the

above

of

scarabs

(Buchner

found

highly

of

exotic

there

1964) - all

and at

in

trade

'luxuries'
into
and bronze

slip

vessels

alabaster
such

the

production

trade

red

in

of

of

the

into

Phoenician

through

Egyptianising

seals

costs

a cargo

Cypriot-Phoenician
or

of

be carried

then

could

in

strategy

a number

of

on their

Egyptian

Greek site

mechanism. '

that

East.

eg.
the

trading

large

of

a value

that

Iberia,

of

existence

production

therefore

PITHECUSAE

distribution
of

sort

on the

products,

primary

valuable
vessels

in

this

Mediterranean

evaluation

was based

west

from

and

of

and distributed

and general

that

dependent

centres

in

items

from

be emphasised

initially
was

organised

finds

high

the
where Rathje (1976) stresses
(at first
Eastern Phoenicians)
probably

Etruria,

of-Egyptian

bulk,

be appreciated

be used

the

of the Phoenicians

role

was available

what
low

cost,

and iron)

timber

convert

would

therefore

and could

(eg.

low

the

raw materials,

available
skills'to

into

products

primary

procuring

craft

Mediterranean

Western

of

was locally

'exotic'

These

commodities.

strategy

developed

local

more

this

use what

highly

with

within

develop

to

order

quantity

at

CUMA.
E - but

exemplify

this

type

78

Considering
is

PITHECUSAE it
in

traders

the

no longer

trade

Eastern

trade

a burial

in

a baby

of

an amphora

funerary

burial

a 'family

group'

be discussed

in Part

This

will

large

supplies

venture

helps

Eastern

Mediterranean

Phoenician
at

Phoenician

(largely
at

- but

tombs,

Punic)

sometimes

MTARFA (Rabat)

(Zammit

cup and a 7th

Corinthian

(Rabat)

QAJJET
GHAJN
of
and vase

support

Dunbabin

1953;

in

in other

the

mixture

the other

expansion

partners

consumed,
for.

the

there. would

transport

1976).

that

Greek

and
wares

cup was found

Corinthian

1972,110);

1952;

Deposit

Picard
of

on

and jewellery

amulets

an 8th

were

of

from

occurs

Foundation

occurrence

type

trading

goods

1968,386-7;

bowl

obtain

found

Phoenician
Baldachin

century
in

a tomb

tripod
and

would

have involved

aryballoi,

trading

etc.

In the same way as there

facilities

supplies
themselves,

was
of
so

where such goods were being

incentive
to found trading
stations

sphere,

be an equal

and storage

ventures

commodities whose
- carrying
initiated
themselves or encouraged

they had either

eg. Rhodian

end of

to

of

incentive
for Phoenicians. to secure reliable
increasing
an
into the organisation
by entering
'exotica'
of production
at

lecture,

a western

anomolous

bird

(Baldachino

Spain)

trading

production
areas,

with

a Phoenician

etc.,

- centres

Proto

Trump

Rhodian

in Phoenician

beyond the established

specialised

upon

with

century

century

for

1972,51).

Trump

A second stage

together

(associated

found

for

and the

1927,1928;

inscriptions

(Ridgway

preparation

Coldstream

A 7th

on Malta.

the

considers

and Aramaic

Egypt,

the

and many others),

Near

the

PITHECUSAE includes

be evidence

Asiatic

including

1961,47ff;

involved

Greece,

remarked

Western

not

Euboeans.

Rhodes,

often

west,

Culican

1968,33-34;

Picard
in

(eg.

Carthage

the

the

I B, 2.

by the

he also

to 750-725)

as initial

explain

in

sites

(dated

with

'exotica'

of
to

trade

to

Phoenician

have

pottery';

handle

of

when

from

Greek

at

a time

to

both

with

on the

symbol

Phoenician

Hence

at

appears

'oriental

as

and a Semitic

within

post

The LG I material

describes

Ridgway

what

there

organised

below)

material

involvement

the

trading

(see

Phoenicians.

of

participation

Italy

Euboean

was threatened

deny

to

Central

the

of

and amount of Phoenician

possible

with

foundation

The very

71% of

the variation

to secure

reliable

trade

routes

and

79

to established

access

monopolise

the establishment

trading

trading

of regular

the specialised
the 'Par West'

of the trading

functioning

As political

as noted

maritime

by Gsell

city
of

representatives

of the trading
inland
and

for

in

found

the founder

was to supply

required.
for

can be envisaged,
for
are indications

such as the ampullae

posts

conditions

establishment

trade

Carthage,

by alliance

and the very

depended upon a:

the city

of

there

would have been the task

inhabitants,

local

with

it

city,

the secure

to create

it

products

value,

Once again

etc.

trading

the transportation

stage

of similar

production
(Culican
1970b).

the primary

the founder

At. this

of containers

The function
with

cloth

and unguents,

eg. oils

eventually,

beyond the original

posts

become
have
necessary.
sphere would
bulk,
but
greater
commodities
of
of

Thus,

partners.

Von
que
commerciale,
politique
peut r6sumer
soit
par des trait6s,
soi par la force,
ainsi:
de
des
fondations
colonies,
par
soit
aux
ouvrir
des marchds;
l'expoitation
Carthaginois
en reserver
il
dtait
d'ot
dans les contrdes
d'4carter
possible
dans celles
toute
concurrence;
oil ce monopole
ne
4tabli,
les transactions
pas dtre
regler
pouvait
.
des
des
pactes
stipulant
avantages
rdciproqucs;
par
la libertd
les pirates
de la
contre
assurer
des citds
l'existence
et des comptoirs
navigation,
'
maritimes.
'...

(Gs.ell

Essentially,
of

IV,

113)

the organisation

of

the homeland cities

would
firms,

have to rely
for

in

cities

to ensure
the western
exploitation.

exploitation
be
well
would

being

on commodities

in bureaucratic

establishments
By assuming
could

city.

With

At first

_this
became transformed

productive

be resisted*by

on the way to political

that

the trading

post

by the founder

the

increasing

military
political

functions

the trading
autonomy

into

too.

growth

spheres,

or

a relationship
Carthage

which

of

the

in order

domination

- as did
posts,

city,

of dependence

a relationship

and probably

of autonomy,.

replicated

posts

supplied

created

which

of the founder

the maintenance

the trading

terms of function.

exchange purposes;

to the advantage
homeland

1929,

by this

over
of
- this
stage

80

In

developing

these

have

In

in

a third

phase

though

dependence.

Carthage

(or

rationalises

the

relationship

with

However,

In

process.
from

drawn

the

than

state,

and - as frequently

reduced

core

The independence
depended on their
as well
this

of

a dependent

to

the

had

to turn

transport

of autonomy the local

for

on Phoenicia

for

own consumption,

materials

charter
the

symbolising

its

of

original

of a Phoenician

be obtained

to

being
case

of

trading

supplies
However,

trade

would

with

city

a mothez
population

must also
manufacturing

facilities.

and trade

ie.

colony.

into

and storage
colonists

from

colonies

themselves

colonisation

'Phoenicians'

indigenous

Greek

trading

locally,

into

drawn

- the

the

Greek

the

and turned

of Phoenician

dependent
their

fDrce

of

as its

links

underlines

in

than

population

labour

but

could

colony

the foundation
myth
kerstrm
and Forrer)

independence

of

was the

of

is
much
so

hinterland

capacity

as suppliers

degree

city,

population

rather

that

city

a'rarer'phenomenon

surrounding

the

the

of

founder

former,

of

to Frezouls,

the establishment

the

known

independent

economically

flows

be noted

should

independence

was probably

colony

is

strife

dependent

ideological

strong

involved

according

the

of

unsuccessful

EA 89 (discussed

from

an originally

the

may have

Kition,

type
to which

known

and become

ecnomy

It

the

9th century.

maintaining

mythical

This

conflict

population,

attracted

pressure',

expansion,

of

have

mainland.

'Assyrian

the early

This

existence.

the

indigenous

the

of

would

century

own regional

Phoenicia,
for

the

14th

another

its

in

strife

the

elements

colonies

before

eg.

attributed,

create

trading

existed

above);

absorbing

internal

in

parties
to

to

addition

have
centres

By achieving

no longer

goods as well
the hinterland

have been
as commodities
would

have
I

'trading
* According
to Katzenstein,
all the Phoenician
places overseas
(Isa.
by.
know
founded
Tyrians,
from
both
biblical
as
we
sources
were
founded in the name of Melgart,
tradition',
23: 4) and classical
which
link
between
founder
a
religious
and colonial
city which was
created
acknowledged at the end oI the 4th century
and possibly
even
still
(Katzenstein
1973,91),
later

81

had to

be particularly

develop

location

2.

stage
the

of

This

retaliation

in
as
-

economic

and political

by the

homeland.

ie.

the

of

the

trading

operation

Phoenician
Thus

or

(rather

than

distant

local

formerly

regional

network,

in

arranged

exchange

relations

utilisation
will

be examined

A model of
spheres,

is

which

primary

of

in

under

shown in Figure

their

the Punic

empire.

can be seen to

tracks

of

the

when the organisation

In

time,

Central

just

were

as the

commodity

to

Iberia

the Phoenician

collective

Eastern
sphere.

into

a larger

Carthaginians

then

1958,

the

of

trading

re-organised
and

times

and Western

Mediterranean

Culican

reference

in

mainland

the

them,

Eastern

(eg.

of

the

bound politically

states

aggression).

and influenced

the expansion

the

Phoenicians

with

of

In the

from

economies

first

domination

and the extraction

of
was brought in either
as part

by linking
the

of

of

formerly

city

transformed

materials

detail

by Carthage

escape

industries

external

local

to

in occurred

as refugees

colonies

autonomous

homeland

achieved

Population

had produced

cities

the

would have transferred

filling

of

economies

on the

had been

expansion.

manufacturing

community

the

Mediterranean

continual

a process

depended

degree

the Phoenician

of

colonies

have

to become part

activities

trading

on the

many colonies

took place.

strife
of

that

to

stage

also

sphere,

of local

products

internal

- but

to the homeland cities

expansion,

primary

Kition

trading

a need for

and expansion

away from

domination

The commercialisation

primary

enough

increasing

and trading

have involved

the

cases

the

With

and economically
allegiance

of

this

allow

some degree,

to

far

case

most

development

and Western

Central

in

that

would,

colony,

to

and advantageous

and we can envisage

at

stayed

rich

and

production
Rathje
in

cities,

Part

1976).

the
This

II.

and their

trading

2.

0
a

U'

,
-- ..s -''-

ist

phase

2nd phase

71

19

--40

dry

3rd

phase

Phoenician

Trading

city

post

Independent
Trading

Figure

2:

Model

-----

dependence

-" '-

broken

colony

situation

of

Phoenician

commercial

expansion.

dependence

83

B-

As has been
the

and Colonisation

Expansion

Greek

trading

of

establishment

trading

the existing

It

has

been

also

later

merchants,
cases

expected.

Since

expansion,

the

Assyrian

Old

The

the

trading

dealing

with

posts

trading

colonies.

Eastern

perimeter

to the maintenance

in

(ef.

than

rather

Larsen

some
be

populations

territorial

on an institutional

first,

area.

by Phoenician

only

homeland

the

of

a particular

people;

commercial,

cities.

cities,

inhabited
was

post

of

at

were

Phoenician

or within

and indigenous
sectors

the

within

a commitment

partners

larger

the

Aegean-Near

place

trading

too,

of

we are

of

an extension

that

Phoenician

the

of

and represented

craftsmen

influx

can the

case

took

certain

with

shown

the

posts

sphere

of exchange relations

in

above,

shown,

1974,

level,
the

concerning

a new

network:

configuration

when we examine the processes of Greek colonisation

we
dealing
that
are
with a more complex phenomenon that
we
recognise
must
began in the aftermath
of the Mycenaean civilisation.
of the collapse
However,

C. G. Thomas has argued

disunity

political

'cultural
whose
development

pointed
of

between Mycenaeans and the Near Eastern

the increasing

It

decline,

only

general

populations,
population
populations

is

therefore

not

surprising

and Lefkandi

was involved

established

new centres

of other

1960) and were later

involved

in

the

during

the

Vermeule

(1960)

has

that

in Cyprus

following

the

to maintain

1965),
ie.

whereas

their
thq

the Achaean

and Cilicia

flights'

the end

regional

with

were able

in migration,

'haphazard

towards

styles

(see Desborough

centres

to

kingdoms

contemporary

a few Mycenaean centres

eg. Athens

that

C is

LH III

(1970).

of local

development

so that

B styles,

to Muhly

according

centuries,

the 13th century,

LH III

The
was the result
of trade (1970).
bureaucracies
has to be related
palace

the elaborate

of

and 13th
out

and that
uniformity'

the contacts
14th

the Mycenaean age was in fact a per4. od of

there were many, competing, * warring kingdoms

that

which

(Vermeule
led

to

in the fertile
of
the establishment
coastal
plains
of Greek settlements
1970,94).
But. political
Asia Minor (Finley
and economic changes had

841

and the

occurred

palace

finds

archaeological

as we now know it

organisation,

and the

contents

Linear

the

of

from

B tablets,

was

particular

of

defunct.

Finley's
structure
into

the

dependents

of

and the

up by including

be built
of

dependent

membership

of

the

for

possible

the

the

of

oikoi

and large
of'the

up large

in

of

various

was land

and
This

an oikos.

work-forces

Dark

aristocrats

numbers

of

the

family,

of
of

oikos

made

and create

(1972,66-8),

Finley

cf.

oikoi.

self-sufficient

essentially

- consisted

the

us insight

gives
Greece

of

on membership

to build

nobles

size

The base

depended

society

Odyssey,

the

oikos

retainers

labour.

in

society

- the

society

and possessions;

categories

it

illiterate

altered,
unit

in

described

society

structurally

The basic

Ages.

could

Ithacan

of

institutions,

Homeric

the

of

study

and Austin

(1972,55):

and Vidal-Naquet

'L'oikos
de production
une unit6
est donc h la fois
de ses
et la majeure
et de consummation,
partie
matdrielles
ndcessitds
en dehors
sont satisfaites
de tout contact
avec le monde exterieur
et de tout
'
Schange commercial.

In

the

Greek,
of

given

objects

only

usually
in

exchange
in

world

of

2 references

of

exception
were

Homeric

the

10th

and 9th

to purchases

of

purchase

of

both

and Odyssey,

for

Iliad

the

from

is

not

a non-

as a standard

cited

it

(1954)

Finley

slaves.

bought

always

but

slaves

known what

envisages

that

was

these

out by

were carried
'...

are

the

with

jewellery,
and

frequently

Cattle

the

centuries,

wine

by Greeks,

a Phoenician.

exchange

transactions

the

bargaining

a mutually

until

acceptable

basis

followed
by a simultaneous
of exchange was reached,
and the departure
exchange of the agreed upon objects
of the foreigners'.

These

rare

exchange

occasions
by which

and maintained
craft

products

36-40. )

of

purchase

- marriage

alliances

by nobles
were

and chieftains,

distributed.

with

contrast

(Also

or

the

general
- were

political
and by which

discussed

form

of

gift

established

metals

by Roebuck

and perhaps
1959,

From c. 1000 BC, iron

ie.

and weapons,

pins
37).

Coinciding

period

(eg.,

'Greek

lands,

the

within

Furthermore,

of

example

Coldstream

shapes,

all
in

indicates

the

rod-tripods
been

found)

It

is

have

extension

located

of

by

the

and Cypriot

duck

(Coldstream

1968,337-40).

significant

(1968,332-5)

note

of PG pottery

represents

that

the

sea,

for

North

vases,

both

in

objects

the dissemination

relations.

to - the development

of

the

styles

Thessaly
in

population
Skyros,

turn,

ivory

Cyprus

connections
bronze-

spears,

have

and faience

(1972,346-9)

Attic

style

of some degree

the re-assertion

are characterised
with

also

and Coldstream

the 10th century

coinciding

the

in

shows

iron

to

to

Chalcis,

PG vases

of the Aegean through

But the 9th and 8th centuries

resurgence

of
of

unity

pottery

of

Desborough

of the Greek lands

in

individual

from

Cycladic

addition

the beginning

'four

Iolcos,

viz.

for

pottery,

that

of

Cyprus,

of cultural

of individual

centres

1972,345).

to be recognisable

d-istribution

main

of

in startling

begin

fact

the

of

picture

Protogeometric

on the

network;

the

up'

(Desborough

exchange

a wide

(where

and Crete

that

point,

is

of

the

The evidence

Dodecanese

the

of

remarks

and that

and Naxos.

Lefkandi

spheres

to-Attic,

were

'...

1967,

Protogeometric

the

a 'linking

Aegean:

first

At

(Snodgrass

during

for

the 11th century'

of

(1968,337)

century

Greek

as a focal

Athens

iron

of

Aegean.

the

produced

evidence

and distribution

styles

LPG contexts'

10th

is

there

discrete

foreign

were

use

now wholly

with

certain

basis

on the

with

1965)*

Snodgrass

display,

of

generalised

to the conditions

contrast

late

the

with

wide communications

Naxos

objects

in

was known

technology

commercial
by the

- but not

unrelated

oplis.

Greek traders
By the middle of the 9th century,
were establishing
in
local towns on the Cilician-Syro-Palestinian
coast.
their
quarters
The distribution
is

of the earliest

in
Figure
shown

Athens,
and tools,
KERAMEIKOS,
transition

* At

3 (taken

PG wares found

from Riis

on Near Eastern

1970, Fig. 46).

sites

The pendent

semi-.

iron weapons
there
are some exceptional
grave contents,
with
Grave'
as known for example from the 'Warrior
of the
dated to the
and Grave XXVII of the AGORA cemeteries,
from Late PG to EG (Biegen
1952. )

86

<

ALL

7,11

---l

10,

1.
f

NINI(I

I
fA rAl 11UYUK
TALL 4Y! N11 OC
'A
\
0 0
sl-M.
IALtt. UI)
DA

.`

nAtilf

-: ,

((

HAMA
!"
1

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kiAm"All

i
`,
i

r:

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HflkUi

r//'

l `I`

I"

" DAMASCUS

nA: C.AD

lL(
TALL b9oI
wnv
)r mn
y
0 O

Iy
iMff,

.l\..
uYWN

------_

f'

SAFAAN1AOQ'

'\

SYRIA, PALSSTINE

SOFO; l1;
1i/a

Dislributton

"

GreekCeomclric

Ot Imported

Pottery

(v 0'

L7AtH
O

CAIRO

_
;/

Figure
(Riis

3:
1970,

Distribution
46)
Fig.

..

I(
ASr(AION

-.

of

Greek

Geoi_etric

IUO

Pottery

in

100

the

: 'f:

Near

East

ti

"`A

87

circle

skyphoi

Kahil

1967; 'Catling

to

and from

1965,7).

AL MINA;

AL MINA,

of

belief

the
finds

wares

the

Orontes

and Tabbat

Sukas
that

routes
skyphoi

were

of this

type.

it

viz.

imitations
in

the

it

from

certain

Cypriot

and Byblos

inland,

1970,142ff;

are

along

1973,

of

(The pendent
but

the

mark

Boardman

continental

'Cycladic'

Habur

probably

end of

to deal

involvement

is

'Al

Mina,

caravan
semi-circle

now recognised

adequately

the confines

within

the Greeks in

of

the Near East

13; Boardman 1957,1965,1973;

appropriate

levels

X-

Greek
semicircle

century

Dunbabin

on the Euboean role

to concentrate

especially

from

AL MINA include

almost

skypoi,
kotylai.

local

this

1973,41).
the

mid

the

Other

9th

red

century

slip

exclusively

metope

panel

Certain

show a combination

features:

in

VI

pottery,

Proto-Corinthian

(Boardman

was established
pottery,

imported

8th

late

NINEVAH,

the

be

and

HAMA, and the

situation

to

the

sites,

coastal

valley,

...
the Aegean'.

But

pots.

on the

at

in

and others,

Greek

JUDAIDAH,

by

example

commented

1968, Chapter

pendent
of

for

the

trade.

The material

origin,

for

Akurgal

merchandise,
Riis

Hamman

the total

with

the eastern

of

wares,

for

1957; Roebuck 1959),

quantities

has

thought

(see eg. Coldstream

in

(see

impossible
be
would

thesis

their

Tigris

the

their

door-to

originally

as a Euboean

Since

the

opened

from

routes

al

as evidence

Boardman,

Syria,

TELL ABU HAWAM, in

Syro-Palestinian

of

or

(1971,141)

Sanders

'

traders

caravan

established

44-48).

and even

Greek

of

penetration

of

North

taken

TELL TAYINAT,

valley,

in

and from

had no use

people

on a number

TELL HALAF,

valley,

than

en route

post'

TELL SUKAS, near

at

and Tripoli

always

Cook,

Eastern

skyphoi

Orontes,

rather

a 'staging

and

TARSUS and MERSIN (Boardman

at

Tortosa

the

of

been

semi-circle

following

Greek

in

others

Cilicia,

between

traders,

Near

that

of

Tell

pendent

mouth

(1970,158-60),

Riis

in

(Karageorghis

and Cyprus

may have

which

and ASKELON, are

Greek

of

on Rhodes

and also

the

at

Haifa,

of

presence

the

1973),

TABBAT-AL-HAMMAN,

bay

the

found

also

The finds

Jebleh,
from

are

of

'Greek'

reached

Cypriot

and black-on-red

Euboean
and Euboean

skyphoi

made in

Euboean

these

inhabitants
- used

of

skyphoi

ware

considerable

of

the

AL MINA

styles

Cyprus,
site

which

TARSUS

- which

and Phoenician
wares

with

are

88

characteristic
Plat

which,

features

in

the

layout

and architecture

Greek

in this

the
inland

have

period

of

trade

(as

required

as Urartian
S.

following

during

the

entrep6ts

and Cypriot
wares

level

deliberate
example,

the region'

at that

ravaged

sites

the

the

dominant

encouraged

by Shalmaneser

at

'important

9th

in

from

Syria.

In

as

fact,

and black-on-red

may even

have

monopoly
'true

to settle

the

Phoenician

attracted

red-slip

and

for

Syrian

ingress

trade

state

the Greeks

dominance

Orontes,

of

maritime

8th

(1965,56)

on the

cf.

at

Western

North

Smith

North

East

positions

for

point

there

Near

and early
of

strategic

overland

Syrian

Central

suggest

(Boardman

new regional

ALALAKH,

Phoenician

would

the

dominance

W. S.

that

suggests

break

time

coast

the

any

to the propitious
in

late

This

Euboeans,

as the

as well

to

attempt

to

minor

of

a minority'

trade

the

expansion

access

Riis

Greek

industries.

Urartian

of

town,

and as outlets

was an

absence

have referred

above).

that

the

of

(Boardman 1965,12).

Syrian

on the

the

(Du

Cyprus

of

the

been

with

interior,

the

and their

VIII.

Hama,

described

AL MINA,

period

traders

in

dealing

(1942)'notes

S. Smith

of

Urartian-North

manufacturing

beyond

immediately

these

from

trade

overland

have

expansion

new outlets

majority

of

and others

we are

the
with

and entrept'

the

Essentially,

time.

centuries,

sea'

for

conditions

Asiatic

port

Boardman, Coldstream

political

well

'major

coast

together

may therefore

community

south

'...

notes,

Greek'

Riis,

would

As Boardman
not

1973,43)

this

dominated

are

'the

that

Phoenician

found

objects

the

1959).

Taylor

Greek

the

of

been
if,

a
for

masters

of

in coastal

III:

'For one or two decades after

844 the propitious
conditions
prevailed,
and therefore
we may well
accept the date of about 825 B. C. suggested by
Miss Du Plat Taylor for the foundation
of the
indication
settlement
at Al Mina as an approximate
in
of the time for all the early Greek settlings
Northern Phoenicia,
thus also at Sks and eventually
Tabbnt al-Hammm. '
(1970,162)

Winter
objects
this

(1973,418)

in Greece,

direct

trading

also

as well

regards

as Ionia

relationship

the distribution
and Anatolia,

(see map 1, for

of North

Syrian

as a consequence of
ivory products,
map 2

89

for
is

and map 3 for

metalwork,
in

found

Greece

she designates

which

Phoenician

nothing

(mid

KERAMEIKOS bowl

the

than

1968,344)

that

as a North

product.

we have

Thus,
Asiatic

trading

9th

the

be earlier

could

eg. Coldstream

9th century,
Syrian

that

She notes

steatite).

This

of Greek trade

Cilicia

and Syria

requirements
believe

trading
and dried

(eg.

of

middle

contribution

timber

that

the
with

to

Greeks

established

at sites

the

using

like

and copper

establishing

have

To this,
linen

adds

in

adds

(1970,

too

Near

'hides,

the

are

posts
Riis

their

supplied
Riis

to which

we can propose

trading

and probably

would

but

iron

for

need

1973,42-5).

and oil,

slaves,

ie.

resolved,

the

Greeks

the Greeks,

the Greeks?

with

Boardman

for

partners

with

or were they

Firstly,

attributed

usually

the

problems:

and what was their

can be satisfactorily

solutions.

motives

Both

to trade

issue

preliminary

Western.

major

from

Syria

two crucial

in competition

as the Greeks,

AL MINA in order

Neither

the

with

sphere?

Were the Phoenicians

same outlets

contact

us with

presents

What was the object

to the trading

direct

Urartu-Phrygia-North

of

sphere

century.

in

Greeks

the

! f-Off).

Eastern
furs

cattle,

fish'.

Thus, we can propose that once again the Greeks were establishing
In
in
this
East
Near
to
the
obtain
essential
commodities.
trading
posts
case - unlike
manufacturing
supplying
including

the North
cattle,

been greatly
required
vessels
bronze

the Mycenaean - it
industries,
as will

which

valued,

and possibly
ivory,:
or-.
vessel

Syrians

with

is

largely

for

be described
the produce

the development
below

also

oil.

were able
Certain

accompanied

_probably
handle and a partially

tribute

to obtain

luxury

stock-breeding
lists

the metals

items,

By

Euboea.

of extensive

we know from the Assyrian

the traders

for

of

to have,
they

such. as bronze

the_essential-commodities:

worked

ivory

tusk

were found

a
at

90

AL MINA
of

(Boardman

North
in

found
been

Syrian

influence

Rhodes

(1942).

from

obtained

Greece:

He also

(p. 165)

catching

and essential

(1970,47

Muhly
rings
ivory

from

tomb

believes

of

these

that

maritime

ventures.

jewellery
Phoenician

of, gold,
difficult

to

In

and early

7th

8th

[the

...

in

'we have

since

establish

jewellery'between

j -k).

in

a mid

the
fact,

Greek

century

no direct

century]

as later

with

ear-

- Higgins
by

regards

other

as the

jewellery

products

consists
is

he admits,

evidence

and the

drying

century

market'

production,

of

for

bowl.

graves

the

un-

were

9th

Higgins

7th

time

Phoenician

Kerameikos

the

this

Phoenician
bead,

Athens:

The centre

and amber.

appropriate

'for

made

established

craftsmen

faience

8th

late

most

glass

the

(1970,168).

lamps

for

in,

at

methods

1968),

with

contemporary

P1.34,

residing

fishing

variegated

were

or

have

to

oil-lamps

evidence

(Smithson

ear-rings

from

the

cites

beads

(1969,144-5,

Phoenicians
gold

for

222)

likely

Syro-Phoenician

mackerel

ie.

Agora,

the

Phoenician

of

tunny
and

and faience

seals,

that

a Phoenician

with

associated

the

more

at,

re-introduction

the

note

were

calling

from

source

CARCHEMISH) on bronzework

and linen

merchants
the

AL MINA as the

regards
from

timber

fact

on the

remarks

suitable

But

derived

are

Smith

(particularly

mentions

they

for

S. S.

Phoenician

Riis

same ports..
in

1965,13).

of

Phoenician
B. C. '

century

(Higgins

1969,146).

In
the

the

case

intervention

linen,

of

the

of

Phoenicians:

too,

papyrus

Riis

proposes

'...
that the
there is every reason to believe
trade with Egypt to a very great extent in the days
before the Satte dynasty perhaps almost exclusively
'
hands.
Phoenician
through
passed

(1970,166)

The bronze
(cf.

product
vases

in

wares

in

Phoenicians

and that

handle

vessel

Boardman

Phoenicia
sites

1965,13,

and their

like

AL MINA _is

stage

were

3).

Fig.
regular

AL MINA would

and Greeks

at this

from

possibly

But

the

occurrence
imply

secondary

Phoenicians

also

that
to

the

were not

virtual

a Phoenician
absence
Phoenician

with

transactions-between
major

Greek-Syrian

encouraged

to enter

of

Greek

and Cypriot
the
trade

Aegean

91

waters

(cf.

wares

inland,

is

as far

However,
destruction

Syro-Phoenician-Greek

this
8th

century

time

(eg.

Du Plat

1959,87).

Taylor

8th

route

with

century,

Anatolian

across
along

which

bronzes
-

reached

Levantine

the

via

west

The re-appearance

the

of

Greek

and Corinthians

The western

to

trading

establish

degree

sites)

obviously

separate

from

Iranian

Birmingham

bronzes,
the

reaching

AssyrianFig.

ll).
a brief
Greeks

Assyrian-Levantine

the

with

Ionian
even

(1961,

centuries

the

overland

on the

1956b;
these

relations

had different

network.

presumably

destruction

in

that
of

of the coastal
depending

the trade.

at AL MINA (and other

the traders

network

The dominance

the Near East due to the

consequences

of the Greek wares found

century.

with

of the Greek partners

- and therefore
10th

at

to and the eventual

Thessalian-Euboean-Cycladic
late

in

TARSUS and AL MINA after

Eastern
by
the
attempt

contact

of trading

of involvement

the majority

traders

posts
the

of

cities

of

and 7th

same

foundations

of routes
posts

8th

may represent-the

The interruption
disruption

is

trading

Barnett

been

the

about

- and possibly

distribution

network

late

of

abandonment

period-of

this

(eg.

Ionia

the

map of
that

network

Greek

the

plateau-to

the

destroyed

been

may have

importance

the

and West Anatolian

indicates

Etruria,

in

at

coastal

Urartian

Birmingham's

1961).

the

of

increase

we see the

the

coast

decline

the

it

that

century

end of

have

to

thought

believes

Boardman

8th

and by the

was 'threatened
is

and the

late

the

and AL MINA was abandoned

Corresponding
late

axis

Tarsus

(though

in

(1965,10-11))

abandoned

trade

696 by Sennacherib

dominance

of Assyrian
Syrian

disrupted.

totally

CARCHEMISH and NIMRUD,

(1959).

Taylor

Urartian-North

the

Cypro-Phoenician

of

TELL HALAF,

the re-assertion

with

of

The penetration

as ZINJIRLI,

by D Plat

described

in

1948,6).

Barnett

- originated

Coldstream

Euboea

in

this

identified
network

on the
We know that
Near Eastern
in the
in

the

was predicted

92

(eg.

by Boardman
MG skyphoi
in

is

semicircle

(1973),

although

skyphos.

In

its

concept

of

'trade

picture

of

Euboean

'para-colonial'

in

of

in

are

the

cups'

4 for

Fontanili

cemetery

(Buchner

775 and 760

finds

(1973,27)

from

prospectors

for

iron

in

finds

VEII

Coldstream
with

contemporary
paste

cemetery,

in

imported
cemetery

from
at

(Ridgway

in

a grave

to

VEIL

in

IIA

in

or
Quattro

the

Age cemetery

Iron

the

the

occasional

increased

with

their
between

Ridgway

connects

'oriental

trinket'

activities

Euboean

of

in

resulted

activities

Campania

(Close-

PITHECUSAE on Ischia

the

with

(c. 800-760)

in

1973,26)';

and the

context

contexts

an expansion

number

both

of

local

of

bronze

and

VEII'I.

'oriental

the

with
in

VEII'IIA-graves

and an Egyptianizing
two

'skyphoi

the

Euboeo-Cycladic

of

and a similar

in

found

objects'

associated

in

with

Their

1968,354).

the

CUMAE (1968,355)
1973,27).

in

Etruria);

Coldstream

directly

somewhere

skyphoi

sites:

of

compared

found

chevron

foundation

in

G 24 and GH 25;

associated

VEI"I

were

scarabs

or

the

by the

suggested-

dated

whose

refers

Italian

is

best

pottery,

IIA,

Ridgway

is

as recognised

metalworking,

West

1974).

same contexts,

metal

(eg.

Ridgway

1964;

the

as they

sited

(see

the

Euboean

of

the

Central

by Ridgway

with

raison

CAPUA and PONTECAGNENO (Campania).

found

cited

in

skyphoi

(Southern

VEII

are

chronology
ceases

traders

of

the

Greeks

the

is

that

been

Euboean),

with

and Dickinson

they

where

occurrence

these

a number

of

Ridgway

VEII,

Brooks'

Euboean

West

have

to

(both

locations.

CUMAE, and at

OSTA at

1967,1973;
at

likely

(1935)

Blakeway's

the

be settled'by

to

Euboean

in

is

MG chevron

trade,.

with

of

and Dickinson
by the

pre-colonial

foundations
area

of

it

ventures

glimpse

replace

trade

that

sense

characteristic

of

ie.

Euboeo-Cycladic

the

dominated

therefore

would

a first

by Ridgway

is

IIA)

the

of

Euboean

of

where

sighted

flag',

the

northerly

'Cycladic

of

Ridgway

or

The activities
finds

(VEII

two earliest

most

West,

the

has been

before

(See Figure

1967).

The precocity
in

context

identification

conclusive

origin.

skyphos

the'West,

the

the

now paralleled

pendent

d'@tre

before

Euboean

as of

East

the

1957)

Euboean

the

Atticizing
area'

Italy,

rontanili

statuette
MG II
in
is

2"

skyphoi:

Quattro

faience

statuette

Central

the

was

type,
native

known

from

OSTA

93

lo

z x
"Jy
11
Nj

r1

U,
0
cl
P.
x
w
Cd

w
V4
cu

'o
Q0
b

4,4

114

a? a
9

Co

cl

0p
U

op

Ili
cl

N
a)
41
Cl)
c0
W
d

a1

0
oy

hh

y
cl

4*

a)
0

VW

V)

INC
0ao
J
41

Lli

0.

v
4
a

'N

94

it

Euboeans
that
the
appears
and their
...
in the Etruscan
confederates
were already
active
during.
before
the generation
market
the first
'
colonists
came to Pithecusae.

(Coldstream

is

It

tempting

'Levantine

and the

exploratory

to

coastal

sites

8th century

The early

during

particular

the last

populations

of

production

had been destroyed

breakdown
partners

merchants

in

routes

before

to have

set

off

the Phoenician

the
from

interacted.
cities

were

own trade

network.

regional

system

the Near Eastern

This

them

involved

North

luxury

(Winter

in

goods

the

'viable

1976,19).

Syrian
-

such

in

distant

far

specific

craftsmen

cities.

Inevitably,

as the

economy'

Another

of

as

ivory

and fine

which

it

was

of this

consequence

to carry on as
of the North Syrian cities
in the trade with the coastal
centres.

predict

the main interest

that
in

the West dated

they were drawn into

by the Assyrians

than has been published

in

certain

the Euboean venture

the 8th century

that

and resettling

since

was the inability

intermediaries
or

We can therefore

say

of the 8th century when the Assyrians,

a 'thorough
and ruthless
policy
of

Syrian

- wos abandoned,

work

a part

trade

of

North

one can only

expand their

possible

1965,55).

populations

be

eventually

will

in
the Near East and
system

trading

third

(W. S. Smith

'confederates'

these

of

traders

appear

in which

and if

foreign

as entire

metal

Italy

role

where Euboeans and Phoenicians

followed

localities'

present

Central

Sargon II,

transporting

the

At

the

Euboean

the Euboeans involved

for

The crisis

well

was a time

had to maintain

therefore

occurred

the

to the main regional

peripheral

that

of

significant.

expeditions

the Levantine

here

predict

contacts'

to be quite

seen

to

1968,355)

(from

to the first

the main East-West

c. 744 onwards).

has been found

of Phoenician

on Ischia

So far,

to testify

half

of

Asiatic
more evidence

to the

* Rebuff at (1966) believes

that Phoenicians
were established
at the mouth
this is based on his
of the Tiber by the end of the 7th century:
interpretation
egypto-phenicienne'
found in late
of the 'pacotille
7th and 6th century contexts
in Rome and Latium,
and the possible
of a sanctuary
existence
of Melgart
near the port of the Tiber.

95

involvement.

Phoenician

(Spain)

RIO TINTO
inscription

on a sherd

defined
a baby

of

but

had

regards

amphora

evidence

of

Phoenician

During

to

their

use

production

of
with

scale

in

Euboean

crisis

of Villanovan

it

in

the

1976).

itself,

handle

Ridgway
- as
and by

was placed.

when the Assyrians

the

further
East

probably

word

on the

Phoenicians
west.

and the

with

This

continued
would

intensification

Asiatic

and perhaps

a be
at PITS?FCUSAE, following
in order to organise more closely

they had previously

- and thereby

partners

trade

and the

inscription

burial

bones

prospecting,
which

lecture

now

plot'
the

and Phoenician;

own benefit,
for

a 'family

container

expansion,

on Ischia,

craftsmen.

plot

has

Furthermore,

contained

funerary

the

whose

their

The Euboeans established

trading

the

as a base

activities

of trade and/or
in metals - for

(Ridgway

in

for

trade

the

Corinthian

Greek

involvement

probably

with

correspond

both

- particularly

'family'

it

as a wine

phase of greatest`

Phoenician
Ischia,

served
in

in

necropolis:

inscription

the

with

within

on it

funerary

this

implication

the

1976).

was found

type'

and an

be Greek

to

lecture

from

material

1973,16-17)

thought

(Ridgway,

originally

inscribed

was a Semitic

promoted

was formerly

by Buchner)

is

'double'

that

Greek

Phoenician

the

(Ridgway

claimed

'of

amphora

for

been

as Phoenician

ware

a coarse
(as

have

identified

been

Parallels

metal-working.

also

relied

contributed

on their
substantially

Humphreys notes

a phase
the trade

Near Eastern
to the

that

'the settlement
on Ischia may, like those in Syria,
have been organised by traders
who wanted a friendly
base where they could winter,
their
repair
ships,
or pick up cargoes which had already been collected
for them by middlemen'

that
involvement
in the Western
the
early
possible
of Corinth
due
beginning
to
the
was
of the crossing
ventures
of the Isthmus to
'formidable
from
Corinth,
(cf.
than
the
rather
risk
sail
obstacle'
Coldstream 1968,340)
that Cape Melea presented.
A canal across the
isthmus is known from the 7th century.

'It

is

96

it

but since

was established
for

surpluses

agricultural

not - at that

among people
redistribution

stage

- producing

or exchange,

'the

had to provide
for itself,
settlement
and
have included
farmers
must from the first
and
In this,
it was
that
craftsmen.
and in the fact
to any powerful
not subject
neighbouring
civilisaPithecusae
in
tion,
the later
resembled
colonies
in the
the west,
even if its
organisation
beginning
was not the same. '

(Humphreys 1965, p. 5 of author's

The use
jewellery

high

of

of
included
and the

Greek

bulk

value/low

Phoenicians,

will

The first
use

of

in

the

in

on Ischia,

Etruria,

eg.

for
at

local

BISENZIO

recognised

elements

are

motif'*,

certain

shapes

have

example

been

centuries,

on Ischia-is

1973),.

and dated

A 'Euboean'

pottery

industry

'Corinthianising'

like

would

suggest.
school:
neck

in

amphorae

to

Geometric

Campania,

in

the

and

from

Euboean

Distinctly
eg.

with

as finds

exchange,
1971)

by

was established

Euboean

for

(Buchner

splayed

by

characterised

Ridgway

Ischian

Etruria

carried

(eg.

this

the

to have

certain

associated.

1974)

of

The re-orientation

LG I-

and VIJLCI

in

a good

century

II.

and apparently

SANT'OMOBONO, Rome (Ridgway

and 7th

of amber reaching

and 7th

Part

is

version)

- Corinthian

distinctive
use

source

settlement

aryballoi

1964).

producing

wares

the

AETOS 666 kotylae

(Buchner

c. 775-750

Europe is

be discussed

and Phoenician

Rhodian

in Central.

8th

8th

could

in Ischia.

late

of

that

activities

Another

in

Amber

commodity

the

phase

(1969).

by Higgins

noted

colonies

and faience

as gold

routes to the south

trade
in amber.
the

trade

style

as well

of Euboean production

object

the

has been

type

the

amber

of

English

'tree

of

and oinochoe

life
with

Euboean
decorative
(Boardman
features
the
and
use
some
necks
of
cutaway
imitations
Certain
1970,104-110).
of Corinthian
slow-pouring
vessels
in
Euboean
Ischia
lekythos-oinochoe,
the
style,
eg. the conical
on
made
C

Greek example of this

is on the LG ovoid
k The earliest
oriental
motif
from KOURION, Cyprus,
krater
to the 'Cesnola
Painter',
attributed
(1971).
now regards
as a Euboean product
which Coldstream

97

globular

Phoenician

the

lipped

red

oinochoe

forms

which
for

suitable

(Coldstream

in

Phoenician

of

1970).

Thus,

its

in

is

there

combination

the

the

trefoil-

slow-pouring

trace

any

'

home...

at

in

(eg.

shapes

Euboean

and Corinthian

types

8th

(cf,

Culican

local

of

may have

and the

characteristic

1970b)

due to

production

(who]

traders

are

elements

flasks

the

eg.

produced,

century

1968,

Popham and Sackett

both

the

lug-

with

'independence'

a certain

LG'
of

bowls

and the

Significantly,

some orientation
'Phoenician

bowls

'Euboean

Ischian

the

sites

3-legged

the

of

bowls.

three-legged

the

hardly

from

and

'Of

Euboea:
is

there

unguents

difference

as the

as well

in

found

rarely

or

true

due to

pottery

imply

oil

(Boardman

recognisable
33)

are

Coldstream,

to

according

derived

1968,191).

The same is
handles

flasks,

slip

(ultimately

lekythos

and the ovoid

aryballos

which

would

influence

the

come this

of

or

needs

(Coldstream

way'

1968,370).

is

It
Ischian

hardly

settlement

iron-using
an
Elba

from
in

in

the

(Buchner

reason

for

the

should

be regarded

On the

other

resources
more

hand,

as the

credible

excavations.
area,

only

foundation

of

the

theory
for

reason

Of

four

structures

to

of

casting
fibula,

(p. 66).

Ridgway

of

from

and the

Buchner

casting
(1973,28)

of

from

the

(1971)

sheet

seams,
refers

is

the

in

itself

recent

MAZZOLA settlement

describes

discarded
finds

for

three

other

and wire,

to

but

copper

settlement

by finds

habitation

bits

the

a role

establishment.

Tuscan

of

ores

1971),

Buchner

exploitation

of

significant

a Euboean

of

known

bronze.

with

(cf.

site

confirmed

be for

debris,

the

had

Euboeans

The
working
too

the

within

the

since

century.

foundation

being

the

was worked

be attributed

the

of
the

11th

activity

also

especially

'miscast
a
and
short'

not

and is

metal-working:

too

should

as an essential

one appears

accumulation

the

since

1970).

iron

that

SCARICO GOSETTI area,

the

technology

find

to

surprising

the

slag

because
of

late

ingots
and
the

foot

8th

was

century

(cf.
be noted that
the slag and tuyeres
1973,17-18)
Ridgway
should
(Buchner
1966) and the slag found in
came from unstratified
material
the necropolis
was found in what is described
as 'an 8th century
(1972)
lists
bloom,
bronze
Klein
disc-shaped
level'.
weights,
an anvil,
for
in
the
the MAZZOLA area.
evidence
amongst
metalworking
etc.
.

* It

98

and an impasto

fibulae

(Ridgway,

mould

the

the

later

other
of

general

oriental

general

use

in

is

workshops

inhabitants

Their

possibly

faience

designs,

were

the

Near

the

case

Near

the

East'

to being

in

TARQUINIA

and VEIL)

MARITTIMA,

Calabria;

to Ridgway

(1974,54).

bowl,

now correlated

was found

in

both

'recall

There

is

a mid
those

also

8th

For

craftsmen

as one

Mesopotamian

of

introduced

vessels)

were

century:

'a most

may have

Egyptian

fled

to

kings:

goldsmiths

the

for
and

1965,55ff).

similar

a context

Eastern

the

by the Assyrian

(W. S. Smith

relief

8th

and

and

workshops.
of

to

ivory

work,

within

when craftsmen

is known to have taken

a Phoenician

(found

the

displaced

back to Assyria

VETULONIA

end of

even

trinkets

of

techniques

(often

glazed

Euboean

the

that

and gold

migration

polychrome
the

in

Esarhaddon

Recently,

the
at

West as an alternative

cabinet-makers

of

interpreted

and perhaps

specialist

techniques

'gold

as

Pliny,

had been

the

exchange.

who interpret

Jones)

and Aegean

of

goldsmiths'

of

feasible

bronze

of

local

for

and a handful

- az they

considers

especially

period

fine

Eastern

and commodities

H. L.

skyphoi

establishment

in

- of

Phoenician

Asiatic

here

items

and Buchner,

quite

with

than

using

transmitted

West,

together

is

Euboean

specialised

I, - following

it

Thus

we must

the

existence

transl.

note

producing

(1969)

disruptive

example,

Peltenburg

as in
the

1957,43

objects,

which

4,9

the

by

essentially

(1973,21-3)

that

veiled

fibulae,

V,

to

graves

was possibly

and tripods,

the

the

Instead,

both

workshops,

had more

- by'the

ways

origin,

(Geog.

in

that

in

implies

back

shipment

is

working

metal

consumption.

as bowls

by Ridgway

skills

Mediterranean

bronze

of

a tripod

of

bronze

1976)

producing

the

PITHECUSAE,

of

example,

like

the

lecture

a strategy

such

workshops.

contingents,

offer.

into

origin

Berard

them as pottery

of

workshops

mines'
(J.

workshops'.

Syrian

bronze

proposed

'gold

Strabo's

cities,

for

absence

for

copper

Greek)

to

addition

virtual

for'local

of

and a piece

evidence

(Ridgway,

intended

Etruria,

Etruria,

This
the

on Ischia

procurement

existence

In

1976).
since

was not

work

envisage
(and

date

to

excavated
bronze

lecture

important

particularly

from

amphora

to

the

one from

iith

Villanovan

century

context

excavated

the evidence

at

of

Nimrud'

B at

II
at

FRANCAVILLA
according

the Urartian

type

99

bronze

cauldrons,

1968,370)*

bull's

with

and the

(1970,22)

believes

of-bronze

cauldrons

head

to be of
- of

outset

But
their

at

still

Asiatic

families

of

rights

to

offered
different

people

dissemination

of

skills

by the

ment

the

of

from

it

oriental

Orientalising

'prototypes'

(Aubet

C. Berard
The production

Euboean

working

settlers

of

from

established

were
1971a).

to

to

At

in

the

7th

REGOIINI GALASSI,

with

land

were

Greeks

from

their

Syrian

in

the

craft

of
in

the

where

role

a primary

PRAENESTE the-products

associated

advantage

as to

resulted

they

which

communication

PITHHECUSAE which

traders,

settlement

as well

and the

tombs'like

in

A particular

propose

'Etruria
of

by

and perhaps

origin
to

establishing

of

be guided

new centres

'citizenship')

techniques

in

hope

the

a newly-founded

possible

schools

products

schools

in

ethnic

is

had

themselves.

than

and TUMBE DEL DUCE, Vetulonia.

Orientalising

Levant,

settling

Thus

burials.

the

in

vacuo

have

establish

inhabitants**of

their

in

off

the

different

of

areas.

set

(rather

membership

(which

in

in

for
-

of the bronze

They would

could

in

origin)

design

stage

not

operating

be recognised

would

known

did
abroad,

workshops

and their

cauldrons

PITHECUSAE.

craftsmen

probably

bronze

Asiatic

CUMAEmay have been a later

the

from

CUMAE of

use at

CUMAE (Coldstream

protomes,

the

establish-

century,

as best

Cerveteri,
of

the

local

and Phoenician

'

1956; Hawkes and

* These are dealt with in Amandry 1956; Maxwell-Hyslop
believes
Birmingham (1961,191)
Smith 1957.
that the Copenhagen
from
Cumae, was Phrygian and therefore
to
thought
come
vessel,
from
Ionia.
the
west
reached
(1948)
by Barnett
** The suggestion
in
later
established
were
workers
With regard to Orientalising,
of
by the Orientalizing
the Villanovan
eighth century and the beginning

ivory
and others that Phoenician
is discussed
Etruria
above.
course 's...
the transformation
of
phenomenon towards the end of the
involved
far more
of the seventh'

for
the establishment
the production
of workshops
-than
of luxury
(Pallottino
1975,86)
but was part
commodities
of the emergence
Etruscan
the literate
Greek
civilisation
which
came to contest
in the Central
dominance
Mediterranean.

of

100

The Euboean

the

case:

Euboean

more

Corinthian

than

(cf.

Coldstream

1968,369)

MPC ovoid

As in

8th

the

The Euboean

of

trading

summarised

and the

trade

the

Euboean

East,

SUKAS, in
- or

possibly

Near

East

easy

access

the

first
their

to

cities

the

Near

Phoenician

or

(cf.

Israelite

its

century

- using

had
-

taken

over.

some of

entrep8t

century.

Until

the

8th

They

timber,

' In

the,
AL MINA,
quarter

second

in

conditions

- whether

and there

Syrian

to

or

for

the

aad maybe

agricultural

produce

period

of abandonment

a brief

was

able

evidently

secured

the

advanced metalwork

in the late

of the Assyrians

to the onslaught

context

like

the

were

technically

the

sites

strip,

which

be

of

century

Syria.

should

decline:

at

commodities

following

and West

subsequent

coastal

of metals,

the Euboeans were no longer

Corinthians

an-examination

partners

possibly

But,

horses. and slaves.

corresponding

trading

supply

8th

re-established

on the

North

- with

1973,399),

Winter

- of

presence

Eastern

Euboeans a regular

to

9th

the

of

below),

late

the

wares)

East

the

established

of

in

century

Greeks

in

of

quarter

favoured

their

supply

half

second

(see

west

posts.

consequences
were

the

distinctive

proceeding

merchants

the

7th

the

enterprise

before

in

imported

were

other

trading

colonisation

sites

and Eastern

Euboean

century

briefly

(and

Corinthians

East,

the

wares

and in

aryballoi

Greek

of

Euboean

PITHECUSAE and other

At

the

processes

among the Greek traders

8th century

in the

active

Near East.

In the West,

Age inhabitants

the Iron
be access

to the metal

the settlement

Eastern

sites

essentially

unlike

where their
a centre

production

of Etruria.

resources

established

Euboeans was quite

bronze

to have established
relations
'their
is
Italy;
Central
of
objective

Euboeans appear

in
their

the mid 8th century

'quarter'

of production,

initially
largely

on Ischia
in-that

of pottery
for

taken

can be suggested

exchange.

to

that

by the

at AL MINA (and other

presence'is_recorded)

was initiated,

It

with

Near

"

PITHECUSAE was
iron,.
and
This

then

function

Phoenician
centre might have attracted
and
craftsmen
as a production
in
during
8th
later
the
the 8th century,
mid
century
and,
merchants
by
from
the
being
North
laid
Syrian
the
that
cities
were
waste
refugees
Assyrians.

101

Interaction

PITHECUSAE.

Sybaris

8th

also

large
(Ridgway

of

boosting

these

development

Ischia

of

but

the

of

south

in

the

the

polis
rights

a significant

This

9th

and 8th

interaction

centuries

in many parts

of'the

and powers

the

structural

of

change

in

area

Central

Italy
and

maintaining

below.

Greek

occurred

on the

straits
in

with

nobility

silver

colonies

Messenian

the

of

imports,

and bowls,

be discussed

will

1971,

tombs
pottery

and Corinthians

Chalcideans

near

(Graham

'princely'

Chalcidean

the

their

of

area

tripods

CUMAE and in

pottery'

FRANCAVILLE

that

of

occupation

and later

of

and

Geometric
at

Rome,

of

including

success

**

contacts.

the

in

colonies

bronze,

at

the

dealing

process,

ised,

Greek

century

a site

The establishment

respectively,
interest

of

'Corinthian

an EPC aryballos

contained

opposite

8th

in

Campania

of

entire

and amber'

the

1974)*.

and the

this

glass

quantities

We are

the

CASTEL DI DECIMA,

century

mainland

for

inhabitants

now evidence

pre-dates

And at

imply,

is

There

that

late

etc

known

'scarabs,

and later

45).

is

Etruria

Southern

indigenous

the

with

the

period

As part

world.
were

of

the
of

institutional-

as trade

and

in
form
land.
to
created
a
new
of
wealth,
addition
commercial
(1960) the productive
force of all Greek city-states
According
to Finley
ie.
increasingly
labour,
dependent
of
varying
non-citicens
statuses
and
was
activities

chattel

slaves,

- who

were obtained

as captives

or through

trade.

He

Maxwell* Whilst
origin
an Asiatic
of the Etruscans,
advocating
still
(Urartian)
imported
to the obviously
Hyslop proposed that in addition
8th century bronze vessels found in Etruria,
the BARBERINI base and
bowl
BERNARDINI
the
the
cauldron
stand
and
with tripod,
cauldron,
VETULONIA cauldrons,
protome, others were
and PERACHORAgriffin
in
The latter
Etruria.
were manufactured
after Urartian
produced
in
broken
742: they were made by
North
Syria
control
of
was
'metal-smiths
local
to train
craftsmen'.
who were ... in a position
In the 7th century Phoenician
the Asiatic
replaced
products
overland
(1956,160-165).
supplies.
**. Although some aspectd of this initial
phast of colonisation
will
here, no attempt is made to give a complete account of
be considered
in the West, for which see: Blakeway 1935;
Greek colonisation
1958; Cook 1962;
Dunbabin 1948; J. Bdrard 1957, chs. I and II; Vallet
1968; Mosss 1910, -ch. IIA;
Coldstream
Woodhead 1966, chs. I-III;
Graham 1971; Ridgway 1973; etc.

101

takes

the view

dependent

that

labour

and in agricultural

industries

in manufacturing

was used both

activities:

'...

landholders,
the large
they were,
the
constituted

though
elite
...

a minority
political

of the Greek world;

our evidence reveals
remarkably
few names of any consequence whose economic base
This landholding
the land.
elite
was outside
tended to become more and more of an absentee

but early
group in the course
of Greek history;
they sat on their
or late,
whether
or in
estates
dependent
labour
land
the cities,
worked on their
In some areas it took the form
as a basic
rule...
in
helotage,
the archaic
of
and
period,
of debtbondage,
but generally
the form was outright
slavery.

'

(PP. 148-9)

Hesiod,

a small-holder

advises

his

brother

597ff);

he also

264);

and entreats

lands

of

We also

on how to

warns

have
in

nobility,

eg.

'warrior

graves'

of

Athens',

which make it
provides

of the Attic
of their

swallowing

gods',

'so

to

'please

the

and they

the

evidence

for

the

local

'probably

as well

dated

EG II

to

c. 850,

pottery

the richest
information
as indications

of

lines
(line

nobles'

you may buy

(lines

342-3).

existence

KEREMAIKOS and AGORA Grave

interesting

nobility

that

buy yours'

may not

century,

and Days,

KEREMAIKOS and AGORA cemeteries

fine

number of unusually
goods,

'bribe

against

AGORA grave,

The exceptional

slaves

(Works

the

7th

the

his
use

archaeological
the

of

him

him

men,

other

and poet

in

Boeotia

at
XXVII

of

Athens
(Biegen

a woman buried

and a variety
post Mycenaean

of the external

the

this
(eg.

1952)).
with

of other
grave in
connections

of

the hereditary

of

land

nature

membership.

* The much disputed

question
of alienability
is
dealt with by Finley
(1968).
period

in

the

the Archaic

1o+D

'Its

including
contents,
granulated
and filigreed
ivory stamp seals,
faience and glass
gold jewelry,
beads, present a picture
of imported luxury and
local
technical
that was hitherto
accomplishment
barely hinted
at for Athens in the middle of the
9th century B. C. '
(Smithson

Smithson

the

father,

woman's

that

dealing

we are

trade'

the

emergence

or foreign

of local

time

the

of

general

propertied

wealthy

'exotic'

contain

items

of

archonship

Solon's

writings

and 7th

briefly

the

conditions
(eg.

(c. 594)

and reforms

Athens

century

Before

Ehrenberg

are known by later

such as
writers,
the well-known
and Aristotle,
and include

of Solon),

landholders,

accumulated
labour,

the hektomorai,

eg.

manufactured
the coast

desired

commodities

1964).

Solon

is

but not

which

said

land

holding

and other

When trade

trade.

(following

its

numbers by'the

of agricultural
were thereby

control

forms

for

to Egypt.
oil

of dependent

acquiring

was intensified
debt
by Athens),

on
slaves

in order to obtain the

produced in Athens (cf. French

nobility

were not being

to have cancelled

The Eupatrids

of their

of land

large

the export

and restricted
1938,118).

through

Salamis

in
be
to
used
came

tenant

was used by the nobility

commodities

opposite

with

but his

faintly

Solon was a member of a noble

ordinance'.

by large

can

prevailing

was based on commerce: he owned ships and had travelled

produce - wheat, wine and olive
c. 600 BC, agricultural

wealth

he

of an expanding overseas
in the AGORAand the

also

8th

by examining

Solon's

'Disburdening

in

nobility

some extent

(Life

Plutarch

this

of

to

1973,50-76).

class

manufacture..

The development
be summised

and 43) which

In

the

of

propertied

Athens).

century

with

(G 41,42

KERAMEIKOSgraves

basis

highest

the

as of

a
as
symbol

ie.

who were 'perhap's also the directors

(p. 83), as represented
by this burial

families

at

indicator,

5th

on the lid

5 granaries

with

a man of
of

pentakosiomedimnos

believes

the

of

chest

as a status

significance

status
(cf.

the pottery

regards

particular

1968,78)

debts

all

produce
deprived

and citizenship,

which

and agricultural

produce

on personal
to olive
of

oil

security
(Woodhouse

some of their

was still
(French

defined
1964,19;

power,

on the
Finley

104

1973,48).

The maintenance
by the

was accompanied
of

crafts

settle

were obtained
Solon is also
(see French

credited

with

used Corinthian

reforms

Figure

in

but

intended

Athens.

They

Sea area

(cf.

official

Athenian

1962).

Finley

coinage

to comply with

the consolidation

of the prosperity
The distribution

of Athens.

and to the West (eg.

to the success

testifies

the development

to promote

to the Northeast

references

in the 7th century

the general

Chattel

of

Dunbabin

of the commercialisa-

the 6th century.

The literary
and Attica

1930).

the system of weights

- the citizens

480-2)

App. III,

of Athens

tion

wares

craftsmen

and Euboean systems.

were clearly

than all

of more - rather

1948,241,

the first

and commerce and thereby

of production
Black

issuing

teaching

skilled

in

role

numbers from the Black

the more generally

Attic

important

and changing

to

the

(Adcock

Athens

in large

resources

ie.

manufacture,

in

an increasingly

play

agricultural

was offered

their-families

1964,22)

Solon's

of

and citizenship

with

came to

slaves

encouragement

was promoted

who would

the essential

of

to
have
the powerful
we
cannot

of these

nature

be applied

problems

is

nobles

directly

of Boeotia

to other
for

recognised,

areas,.

example by

and Vidal-Naquet:

Austin

'Le cas d'Athbnes

est le seul qui soft relativement
il
1'6poque
Mais
connu pour
archaique.
est certain
que des probltmessemblables
se sont posds ailleurs
'
dans le monde grec
...
(1972,77)

of Chalcis

The nobility
(Ehrenberg

breeders
pre-hoplite,
for

their

Euboea,

ie.

pre

existence

1972,18),

and the evidence

described

here.

By examining

dominated
Euboeans
the
when
subsequent
the context

thought

and Geometric

commerce as a basis
the evidence
the Aegean trade

evidence

periods

of wealth,

from Euboea for

with

to the

to refer

The archaeological

it
of conflict
and contraction,
Chalcidean
the initial
colonisation

period
of

period.

the Protogeometric
for

is

a name which

7th century,
in

the horse

was known as the Hippobotai,

will

in

be

the period

the Near East

is

in

and the

hoped to elucidate
the West.

1.19+J

The recent

on the XEROPOLIS hill

the settlement
into

the little

which

at Lefkandi

excavations

and CHALCIS can be fitted.

Lefkandi,

on the

have provided

is known about

that

edge

Lelantine

the

of

hill,

a small

and

a framework

us with

9th and 8th century

XEROPOLIS is

eastern

of a PG cemetery

of part

ERETRIA

near

modern

The land

plain.

between

and ERETRIA contrasts

greatly
with the fertile
plain between
(Popham
Chalcis
Lefkandi
The PG cemetery
and Sackett 1968,4).
and
finds are considered
to be early in the Euboean PG sequence, ie. there
Lefkandi

is

a group of PG vessels

influence,

a cast

The material

from

3 phases

of

identified

Despite

pottery.

'conservatism'
includes

are

foundry

worked

(1971).

by Catling

in

a couple

refuse,

technology

of

EG and MG imports,

been
the

pottery

production
which
(cf. Attic
semi-circle

pendent
(cf.

MG) (Popham-and

Attic

(c. 900 at

crucible

mainly

mould

one of

in

the
the

the

the

been

clearest

Dark

latest)

dating
(p. 29,

of

debris
from
using

(p. 29).

most

sweepings
evidence

of

the

of

matrix

of
at

The foundry

second

Coldstream's

existence-

working
important:
is

material

and envelope

a busy

workshop'

present

available

bronze-working

on XEROPOLIS,
the

bronze
is

used

believes

Coldstream

a sophisticated

Age'

been

the

exclude

consisting

of

have

1968,28-9)

but

pieces

to

for

The evidence

'routine

the

not

CHALCIS where

at

fragments

PG occupation

PG, probably

does

This

fragments

continuance
Greek

now known

are

Popham and Sackett

of

would have

earliest
Late

LEFKANDI.

Painter

'provide

1968)).

- have

century

Euboean wares known from AL MINA and other

eg.

which

Attic

with

but

pit-fills

analysis

the local

decoration

circle

centres,

to. demonstrate

of

in

noted

Attic

of

skyphol

in

produced

Cesnola

the

is

8th

mid

and stylistic

and from the West,

sites,

production

other

(described

and

stratigraphy
example

the distinctive

and probably

clay,

rare

concentric

Eastern

there

the

of

10th-to

late

from

mainly

1968,26).

Thus,

the

- from

basis

is

PG settlement

the characteristic

Sackett

of

the

of style

EG) and later

a belly-handled
amphora is found
(Popham
vessel
and Sackett 1968,23).

bronze

occupation
on the

and Cypriot

10th century),

with

associated

Near

by finds

paralleled

(c. early--mid

Later

but
Attic
no
in CHALCIS, and dated to c. 1050-975.

Cretan

with

half

material

contemporary
of

the

chronology

10th

is

part

with
century

(Coldstream

Jos

Bronze
of

the

9th

century

with

their

were

probably

1972,21)

and Schefold

in
work

stem

the

from

this

procurement

1964

of

probably
'importance'

was large
more

resources

of

for

*
'ore'
to

possible

in

later

the

LG period

hoplite

The
(Auberson

identify
their

centuries,
bronze

when their

and apparent

and raw materials

word

been

Euboea

centres

panoply

involvement

production

and PITHECUSAE - was greatest

bronze

of

(cf.

and 1967,70-71).

(1968,23)

Popham and Sackett

settlement

of

Pa and initial

LEFKANDI

the

has not

graves

distribution.

their

from

and designers

metal

now for

- as known

Snodgrass

Late

it

PG floruit

as bronze-workers

reputation
must

the

in

role

Geometric

manufacturing

prototypes

derived

and since

resembling

anything

is

Chalcis

of

Euboean

and the

an important

playing

in

as cauldrons

Urartian-Syrian

the

to

city

some quantity

Athens

at

access

the

name*of

in

was used

and must

so than
until

its

have

note
been

Geometric

c. 750 is

found

'The Protogeometric

that
of

considerable

successor',
in

the

importance,

and confirmation

of

this

graves:

'Objects
illustrate
the foreign
trade
which
relations
in
Lefkandi
B. C.
the tenth
of
and ninth
centuries
include
flask
found in a shaft
a Cypriot
grave which
also contained
an interesting
clay chest
and
brought
from Attica.
With these were
amphoriskos
duck vases.
A small
flask
also found two small
two seals
comes from Palestine,
and a scarab
are of
Palestinian
Two bronze
bowls'
or Egyptian
origin.

type, and a small jug, identical

are of Cypriot
with anto Egypt.
other found in Crete, has been attributed
Numerous small objects
of gold were found, and some
in ivory and amber, all of which must have been
imported.
The position
of Euboea, and the inhabitants
in particular,
as leaders in trade is
of Lefkandi
thus confirmed. '
(Sackett

and Popham 1972,16-18)

(1956) notes
bronzework
* Maxwell-Hyslop
found in
the Vannic
that
is on a larger
Aegean sites
OLYMPIA and other
than formerly
scale
both by the departure
be 'explained
therefore
and should
anticipated
from
North
Syria
smiths
of
and the efficient
operation
of the trade
by Greek sailors'
(p. 166).
probably
route,

1 07

In

we can

summary,

dominant

PG centre

in

Euboea;
plain;

access

to

the

Lelantine

in

earliest

known

the

ERETRIA appears

probable

another

in

located
al

1966).

to

that

none

in

insufficient

material

specifically

'Eretrean'

fortified

Geometric

material,
from

most

of

Boardman,
Keos

is

It

came to
is

heroon,

the

ie.

later:

late

record

islands"

is

of

however,

Kahil

levels

to

first

most

the

half

of

dominion

plausibly

referred

not
by

occupation
the

earliest

Apollo

of

8th

or

ERETRIA appears

and
but

century,
According

centuries.

to

Boardman

believed

dates

Temple

over

is

whether

that

the

the

of

(cf.

(as

(1968)

7th

and variety

there

Geometric

the

of

and early

Eretria's

clear

ERETRIA

et

identifying

at

not

in

lowest

range

As yet,

still

settle

(Sackett

much success

p. 40).

8th

of

been

of

the

been

CHALCIS are

attempts

beginning

eg.

the

the

is

have

in

1968,33).

significant,

the

1972,
from

'Strabo's

and other

1970).

from

and Schefold

some sherds

from

and
and

Amarynthos

of

8th

the

(Auberson

PG material

'scraps

have

there

necropolis

away

similar

to

It

the

ERETRIA is

ERETRIA for

LEFKANDI

from

with
south

and the

types

(Auberson

it

from

Boardman
of

been

have

are

gave

from

occupied

2 kilometres

which

from

and Schefold).

Auberson
to

1968;

inhabitants

the

of

location

the

1970).

known

(Popham and Sackett

type'

Kahil

is

been

was established

substantially

14 sites

LG LEFKANDI

same general

1952;

been

all,

The LG material

found

(Boardman

about

(In

Euboea,

have

settlement

and its

bronze-working

have

to

appears

had a"port

PG phase

to

1972,16).

Schefold

it

some PG material

although

century,

LEFKANDI

that

say

"Andros,
the

to

Tenos,
century'

eighth

(1957,24).
Near the West Gate,
cremations

6
a group of Late Geometric graves including
inhumations
9
cauldrons
and
accompanied by various

in bronze

The bronze cauldrons

with
goods have been excavated.
were associated
4 swords; Tomb 6 also contained
bronze and iron weapons - including
a
of
fragment
iron
(from
fragments
a
ring,
copper,
gold
and
a
silver
fibula?
probably

) and a double
a late

An exceptional
jewellery;

scarab

8th century
inhumation

another,

seal

in a gold

Phoenician
grave,

and silver

product

no. 14, contained

no. 11, contained

mount,

(C. Bdrard
gold

which

is

1970,16).

and glass

an amber bead (C. Bdrard

1970,16

108

and 33).
in

stresses

Bdrard

(but

these

for

parallels

PITHECUSAE and CUMAE, eg.

(1970,48ff)

the

use

also

were

bronze

of

in

used

in

Athens

local

their

specifies

nature

special

these

of

situated

originally

on the enclosed

within

that

the 8th century.

'have

they

that

still

9th

the

to C. Bdrard

1970)

to the contents,

by the fact

that

a heroon

the

they were
was constructed
represent

and clearly

or else

acquiring

century

from

to c. 720-680

here

as ash-urns

the cauldrons

and later

an enclosure

They are dated

area.

luxuries

oriental

is portrayed

graves

of Euboean nobles,

the graves

In addition

manufacture.

found

rites

cauldrons

He derives
and Boardman 1971,53).
(in the Introduction
Asia, but Schefold

Western

the

many of

Kurtz

- cf.

of

the

the

cherishing

in the earlier
had been more freely
available
part
by Kurtz and Boardman,
It is possible,
as'suggested
the founding

to do with

something

family

of

the city'

burials

reflects

(1971,183).

The inclusion
the

conditions

the

luxury

of

items,

possibly
commerce

at

may denote

ERETRIA,

conflict

with

restricted

a more

with

Eastern

(to

be discussed

significant

in

time

the. survival

is

it

Thus,

as the

trading

(and

network

Auberson

new institution

to this

manufacture

occurrence

the

Cyclades

Lelantine

'survived'

establishing

Chalkidike)

a different

(1972)

and Schefold

- by

in

some colonies

and

bronze

ERETRIA

war

of

Mediterranean

the

of

that

possible

period,

the

some Eastern

CHALCIS adopted

whilst

below).

Cyprus,

of

local

the

which

but

Euboea,

Rhodes,

CHALCIS - known

Mediterranean,

the

the cremation

of

come from

to

can be connected.

cauldrons

this

at

thought

Phoenicia,

the

conflict

of

in most

weapons

within

strategy

attribute,

viz.

'...
die Einrichtung
der "Aeinautai",
eines
bestimmter
die
Flottendienstes
Adelsfamilien,

die Seeherrschaft
Eretrias
zu berwachen hatten'.

durch

stets

Patroullieren

(P. 24)
And Descoeudres
influences

Ionian
believes,
'town

would

(1968)

remarks

on the Cretan,

Cypriot,

C
Eretrian

on 7th and 6th century

'middleman'
the important
confirm

of merchants',

in

the Aegean.

The recent

Rhodian

pottery
role
find

and

which,

he

of Eretria,
on Thera

of a

109

Euboean

in

tripod

the

support

would

Mediterranean

century

century

Chalcis

forward

in

the

of

Eretria

fact

in

to

and continued
in

is

the

Eastern

the

for

Eretria

6th

century,
to Athens
1947).

the
8th

the

end of
is

that

rodPC vases)

with

evidence

from

(Wallace

Chalcis

(associated

further

tribute

pay

bronze
and
a
-

a restricted

of

There

the

territory

was established

colony

tomb

city

century

dependent

had a large

the

of

6th

the

Geometric

network,

survival
to

decoration

continuation

proposed

trading

territorial

than

8th

a late

horse

grazing

- with

amphora

known

to

have

issued

more

coins

whilst

an Athenian

Boardman

puts

also

that

view

'.;.
Eretria
prosperity
continuous
enjoyed
from the eighth
to the sixth
century
with
no
disasters
or change of population;
alarming
in
fell
Chalcis
the
that
century
seventh
early
in part
from prosperity,
and was perhaps
deduce
further
One
that
might
abandoned...
her close
Eretria,
neighbour,
was
and powerful
'
the cause of this
eclipse.

(1957,28)

In
Forrest

order

to

1957;

Boardman

of

colonies

in

the

Near

access

understand

to metals,

controlled
the East,

supply

that

the regional
centuries,

had

etc,

the

and

we must

They

East.

the

supplies

the distribution

within

despite

an. attempt

had been met in

network

subsequent

or

to

the

established

certainly

through

Near

Eastern

in Central

in

the role
During

they had come. to depend on their

foundation

Euboean

cities'

dominance

over

trade
the

and had-even

they

presumably

However,

the crisis

with

the West the scale

of

of

the Euboean cities

in

9th and early

8th

the late
trading

large
PG
the
to
populations
support
needed
supplies
island
for
degree
the
to
the
allow
and
on
cities
observed

1974;

Andrewes

contemporary

trade

the Aegean. *

the East,

eg.

Italy:

to establish

was undermined.

(see

war

again

refer

their

begun to supplement

in

1957)

by Chalcis,

Lelantine

the

partners

for

least
of
at
of prosperity

most
3 major
we have

at LEFKANDI.

in classical
*. The existence
of 'copper
noted
mines'
(eg.
Boardman 1957; Sackett
accepted
et
generally
(1964,183)
in there.
believes
Snodgrass

writings
al. 1966)

is notbut,

110
dates

Forrest

between

writers,
to

last

the

nique

of

Asiatic

warfare
implied

Chalcidean

easily

with

in

observed

the

such

labour
(p. 167)

West

onto

means'

if

and figs

for

example

by disruptions

and regular

assume
supplies

labour

far

in

- which

and therefore

like
greater

- through

in

that

between

significance
trade

- of

the

increase

could
case

Euboean

the

of
certain
more

was more

than
essential

cities

be
when
in

described

are
the

hill-sides

high-yield
capital

crops
and

disturbed'

easily
In

supplies.
Lefkandi

population

involved

Aegean

'demanded

in

this

context,
can be

and Chalcis,
during

times

foodstuffs

of

'...

is

the Lelantine

plain

Chalcidian
territory
geographically
and
so must always have been for as long as Chalcis
If possession
was any sort
of power.
of the plain
was the objective,
we can only conclude
that
Eretria
is important
was the aggressor,
to
and it
remember that
possession
of the plain
meant
'
virtually
possession
of Chalcis.

(p. 27)

stability

and

too.

As Boardman (1957 notes,

of
associated

no longer

could

of

crisis.

expenditure'

to

labour

breakdown

population

and cultivation
restricted

a dominant

ensuing

The difficulties

hill-sides

the

it

- essentially

the

in

the

the

both

of

Euboean

in
when

that

of

severed.

farming

to

here

The hoplite

1964,183,200-202).

the

and
increase

productivity

lowland

expected

cities

tech-

1966,88ff);

of

PG and LG periods

profitable

plain,

consequences

allies,

of

attributed

'non-productive

suggested
late

of

especially

The terracing

olives

lowland

are

a significant

than

a fertile

foundation

Euboean

the

usually

and other

hoplite

the

knowledge

(Snodgrass

equipment

99)

own set

(Forrest

period
is

(V,

1957).

and the

Euboea

and the

were

been

as vines,

the

of
that

diminished

relations

have

only

probably

in

(1970,167-8).

by Riis
would

is

It

the

bronze

of

the

(Forrest

Greece

was considerable

cultivation

extending

'in

available

there

trading

when

(1965),

Euboea

by

supported

a time

the

of

living.

urban

their

in

'the

outstrip

urban

at

century,

war'

to Finley

centres

8th

of

relations

According

their

therefore,

- colonies

external

each with

bronze-work

'Lelantine

the

and Eretria,

abundance

development

the

But

the

the

by Herodotus

recorded

was emerging

surprising,

in

role

the

of

and European

not

conflict,

Chalcis

third

equipment

is

the

Ili

He suggests
a handful

'commercial

that

vineyards'

of

But,

as has been

part

of

the

jealousies'
have

would
forward

put

for

struggle

been

here,

survival

the

the

prime

motive

Euboean

the

of

between

conflict

both

of

'possession

the

rather-than

the

of

war.

cities

was

As Andrewes

centres.

out,

points

'Eretria

suffered
no lasting
won at least
one important
her ally
Corinth
with
she
in-the
West. '

damage
victory
secured

but Chalcis
...
in Euboea,
and
the upper hand

(1974,40)

is

This

the

context

colonies

by Chalcis:

roughly

contemporary

before

the

been

in

the

seems then

with
the

establishment

Lelantine
(Forrest

them

foundations

foundation

of
with

association

the

1957,165,

Corinth

The association

earliest

Euboeon

settlements

of
in

the

West

has

to the Euboean cities

supplies.

Finley

by conquest,
(1973,172,
situation;

and not
and note
the other

form of booty
the solution

regards

the

been

(ie.

Ischia

appear

and tribute

functioning

to'have

the

of

described

above.

in

the West can

the means

outstripping

with

the acquisition
from conquests,

increase
to
was

and

Pythia

Delphic

the consent of those being

49) as one of the 'stop-gap'
responses

being

following

with the cessation

of their
external
'hiving-off
of surplus
sometimes
citizens
...

this

always

Chalcis

that

Thus,

of colonies

of the population

as a consequence

by the

in

Corinth

the case of CHALCIS, the. foundation

available

7).

was

founding

fact

the

and Eretria

and sanctioned

north

and their

by

note

and Western

the

NAXOS, ZANKLE and RHEGION all

1957).

be regarded

in

west'

suggested

by Chalcis

(Forrest

In

war

Northern

the

colonisation
in

is

both

of

that

colonisation

joint

of

period

Cumae),

'It

by some of

was aided
the

end of

the

of

productivity:

of additional
ie.

inter-city

sent

away'

to this

means,
conflict,
k

'The so-called
Greek colonisation
period from
about 750 to about 550 B. C., ... during which
Greek states were established
new and independent
as far east as Trebizond
on the Black Sea and as
far west as Marseilles,
represented
no real gain
in the Aegean.
to the original
Greek settlements
.

in the
whereas

112-

They

were
outstripping
allowance
of goods).

"

(Finley

substantiates

Eusebius

and confirms

is

Chalcis
of

of

to

The special

is

of

the

foundation

of

of Thucydides

dates

earliest

the

of

7301s (Coldstream

'mother-city"-

Eastern

Ch. 2;
to

said

the

success
the

1958).

Vallet
have

forced

Pythian
of

Western

the

who guided
based

Apollo

the

In

venture

colonies,

both

the
of

internal

of

the

founding

Chalcis

to

dedicate

city

case

of

and some Messenians,

them,
VI,

C 257 and

'choosing'

is

recorded

in

some cases

organisation

Dunbabin

the

260).

oecist

in many stories
the

of
have,

oracles

1939, Chs. I and II).

now regard
of

of

straits

the

is no longer
cities
of the colonising
'over-population'*
'commercial
of
a consequence
or
either
(1972,81),
Boardman (1973, Ch. 5), Austin and Vidal-Naquet
and others

the
1973,

The motivation

(1973,14ff)

supplier

sole

Boardman

on Strabo

in

Sicilian

not
side

(see

and

1968,332-7).

but

Sicily

to Apollo,

(see Parke

been recorded

the

1939,50-55,

Parke

role

and assuring
the

1957,

population

RHEGION (see

in

3 cities

Bdrard

its

in

of the Western

chronologies

ZANCLE and RHEGION, on either

RHEGION, famine

a tenth'of

foundation

as the

regarded

and of

Ch. I;

1948,

the

levels

the earliest

of

the classical

colonies

for
-

population

Messenia,

evidence

Italian

and Southern

of population
(even after
distribution

1965,45)

The archaeological
colonies

the consequence
merely
the available
means
is made for inequitable
'

the founder

colonisation
city

ie.
-

regarded
interests'.

**

Ehrenberg

as a consequence
agricultural

as

of

the

production,

'The primary cause of Greek colonisation

is
* For example Cook (1946):
held to have been overpopulation.
For this
and sensibly
usually
into
there were 3 practical
to
solutions
condition
expand
neighbouring territory,
by emigration,
to reduce the population
and to import
food and other necessaries
which would have to be paid for by
' (p. 79)
industrial
exports or by services.
(1970)

distinguishes
between
due to_
founded
those colonies
land-shortage,
in the mother
ie.
stenochoria,.
city,
agrarian
'commercial'
for
ie.
and those founded
the need
colonies,
reasons,
for raw materials,
(eg. pp. 35-6).
especially
metals

* Mossd

11na

among land-holders
its
and
relations
-

conflict
labour

This

the late

During

routes

(Birmingham

1961;

connected
century

trade

and Western

the Greeks were increasingly

and Lydia

1956b;

Barnett

in

system

cities

but

the

were

late

the

until
1965),

Will

trading

the

The Ionian

network,

Phrygia

to

from

eliminated

were

us to draw some conclusions

8th and 7th centuries

by inland

in the

activities

the Central

of

cities.

the 8th to 6th centuries.

from the Near Eastern

excluded

and their

enables

in

by the Greeks

Mediterranean

cities

Mediterranean

and dependent

Greek and non-Greek

other

of the colonisation

the nature

about

with

land-holders

of the Euboean cities

review

and Central

Eastern

or between

7th
Euboean

the

half

second

of

the 8th century.

The consequences

of

on the

degree

of

depend

on its

own hinterland

own population
beyond

the

imports

have

the size
given

amounts of

ie.

subsistence

a shift

relatively

if

population

local

through

unaffected

* The foundation
of
(1970).
See Austin

since

Naucratis

be

to

of
out.

of

and the efficiency

and

the city.

involved

in

trade

would

have been able

fairly

still

mid

Sparta

remained

7th

Those city

and sustained

of agriculture,

states.. --like

the

of

and productivity

of

population

in

be sent

position

sometimes
its

have
sources

could

of technology,

city

importing

would

and the ecology

intensification

And the land-based

increased

would depend on the relationship

the hinterland

to alternative,

had

alternative

population

cities

level

in

or,

to

city

and on its

by the

production

difference;
or,

the

depended

the

foodstuffs

hinterland

the

of

peripherally

production

population

trade. *

is,

the trading

which were only

states

of

That

of the population

imports,

capacity
of

be found;

a certain

and the
supply

open to individual

The solution
the land,

to

relations

the

either

to make up the
would

between

then,

external

for

capacity

productive

intensified

with

labour.

foodstuffs,

surplus

their

commercialisation

for

of

disruption

the

century

to retain

perhaps

local,

sources

- would
rural,

is

of

be

a tight

relevant

combined

control

here.

11.4

the distribution

over

of land,

distribution

of resources,

independence

of external

But,
early

like

cities

stage

them at

sustain

for

opted

solutions

were

of

in

system

(cf.

developed

'to

is

Chalcis

ie.

with

backward

areas

Therefore,

new trading

between

the Phoenician.
undermined
Greece,

to

for

as materials

Eretria)

The

to

or

with

role

of

production

alternatives.

commercial

density

recreate
less

a new
a

such
well

be maintained,

cannot

establish

there

it

is

as before

in

economically

can be seen

trading

anew regional

that

in

established

to

be the

city

state

more

result

of

**

network,

economically
developed

the

centres.

undermining

and the establishment

and Greeks have in common the expansion

areas previously

Mediterranean

difference

standard

of

networks.

into

networks

and general

above

to

production

and economically

the commercial

of

The Phoenicians

Eastern

than

rather

of

into neighbouring
sending out population
'daughter
as
cities';
or, there is an

difference

colonisation

of the structure

is

which

significant

(cf.

population

a demographic solution:
or into new territory
cities
the

the
the

redefine

politically

is

solution,

sources

- as well
to

had at an

which

and Corinth).

Thus, when a certain

economic

and Corinth,
density

resort

partners

that

an area

produce

either

trading

external

partners.

population

and the

autonomy and greater

on external

of

unable
to

relative

of Euboea,

surplus

- were

set

level

the

and exchange
only

trading

reliance

by importing

living

ensured

those

it
on

what was produced

economic

the economies

we see that

sphere.

the structure

Accepting

but not

visited

of

But,

we can also

the Greek expansion

the more critical

of

incorporated

the more specialised

the colonisation

process

trading

** This would involve

some elements of the population
'abroad'.
or even permanent - residence

into

the

in contrast

could
in

to

must have

city
a kind

represents

* In some cases certain

elements of the population
for example as mercenaries
to Egypt.

trading

see a significant

that

conditions

of

states
of

in
"

be sent

out,

temporary

115

in which mother-cities

segmentation
cultural

wholes
for

conditions
daughter
from

in their
a sense

colonies

harsh

which

way of

the

established
of

the

in

ideological,

economic

in

the

Their

attachment

mother

city

freely

in

they

which

(whether

their
turn
in

therefore,

was an advantage,
the

establish

Aegean

in

the

was to

products,
the

breaking

with
the

initially

of

manufactured

slaves

**

independent

their

own

goods.
relation

monopolising
in

mother

was an incentive

and have

or Magna Graecian)

the

supply

and probably

there

own colonies

homeland,

was expressed

achievement

commodities

with

and self-reliance
cities

mother

the

of

institutions

Greek

function

supplied

the

associated

However

With

basic

of

but

terms*.

primary

goods.

and manufacture

dependencies,

the

their

and

and other

manufactured

to

to

in

and escape

the

all

independence

and symbolic

important

of

found

growing

the

of new centres

cities,

mother

pressures

for

foodstuffs

colonies

the

conditions

were

for

return

the

religious

with

subsistence
for

from

colonies.

ties

in

provided

cities.

a cross-section

found

and

turn

discontent

the establishment

containing

release

of

concepts

Greek

as social

consciousness

for

as channels

towards

categories

and social

cities

life,

and separate

Aegean

the

in

This

colonies.

autonomy

acted
in

conditions

These tendencies
Greek

daughter
of

themselves

reproduce

order

to

There
with

b2 able

for

The observed tendency towards the

greatest
gain.
independence,
identity
Greek
their
of
whilst
retaining
establishment
'which
'cultural
ties,
the acquisition
through
of some
of course involved
to trade

Aegean Greek products

cities),

was a feature

See Figure

5 for

(ie.

continuing

trade

of Greek expansion

with

any one or many Greek

and clonisation.

a model of Greek expnsion.

1963; and Humphreys (1966), who regards the

* See Graham 1964; Vallet
ties of the colonies
as a function
religious
of the colonists'
'attachment
[not] to a particular
ancestral
shrine or even to a
but by the desire
the metropolis,
city,
to keep in touch
particular
life
(from the author's
and religion'
with the centres of Hellenic.
English version).
** Humphreys 1965; Vallet

and Villard
0

1961.

1st

phase

2nd phase

3rd

phase

0
0

I'iyure

5:

mother

city

daughter

Model

strong

city

of

Greek

---

expansion.

economic

independence

ties

117

PART II

THE IMPACT OF PHOENICIAN EXPANSION ON SOUTHERN IBERIA

foundation

The traditional

ie. ' UTICA and CADIZ in

colonies,
(see

eg.

Harden

1948)

North

Africa

in

either

in

presence

in

the

11th

century

Phoenician

exchange

relations

of

Phoenicin

founding

of

staging

posts,

Part

I A,

with

local

exploitation

of

commodities,

thereby

linking

The

incorporation

of

has

been

as the

'Phoenician'

1929; Whittaker

trading
grounds

in

to have

Spain.
intensify

the

production

of

the

Eastern

in

typically

labour

of the Central

'Punic'

or Cathaginian

of

and Central

and Western

the
certain

activities

required

1974).

In

Mediterranean.

Phoenician

expansion

the

spheres,

political

and population

establish-

centres,

southern

or

from

preceded

production

an,: stimulate

economic

8th

1966).

and the

posts,

'settlement

of the later

(Jodin

to

non-Phoenicians

The first

to the late

strategy

from

source

West

the evidence

Mogador

the

of

up discrete

examples

dated

Phoenician

the

resources

with

extensive
this is true

peoples

than fact

rather

exploration

of

(eg.

Albright

Mediterranean.

presence,

finds

of

Phoenician

support

agrees with

which

phase

own burial
of

demonstrated
was

proposed

to

research

a series

century

Western

establishments,

functioning

the

below,

an earlier

their

with

pre-8th

- based on faith

of Phoenician

expect

despite

impossible

the

centuries

by archaeological

fact,

for

Phoenician

11th

and early

in Spain are now clearly

be described

however,

12th

In

into

expansion

point

ment

belief

their

the most resterly

We can,

is

Western

the earliest

late

Iberia.

it

area,

for

validated

as evidence

establishments
as will

century,

the

been

in

or

Cadiz

the

1941) and others

in

have'not

(1968)

by Blzquez

cited

dates

for

the

Mediterranean;

too

(eg. Gsell

118

The External

Ain

later

the

In
in

Bronze

came into

contact,

Southern

a long

For
ideas

and beyond

the

during

peninsula

relations

external

inter-regional

the

of

an appraisal

they

developments

later

the

'Bronce

one to

the

have

Age studies

1932b)
for

were

as the

from

transition

the

of

part

and Santa

Mediterrneo'

1946).

The

regional,

'Bronce

the

and

was regarded

other

than

rather

peninsular,

(eg.

Olalla

by

dominated

been

Atlntico'.
of

as a consequence

eg:

change,

ethnic

(eg.

presented

such

Bronze

-Iberian

time,

Bosch-Gimpera

of

frameworks

The

involves

they

which

with

population

pre Phoenician

the

enterprise

Age.

Bronze

the

indigenous

examine

Phoenician

of

organisation

on"the

This

Iberia.

-relations

the

we must

within

Industries

Metal-working

Age

impact

and its

Iberian

the

of

demonstrate

to

order

Iberia

of

Relations

'Aparte
locales
de los cfrculos
en que perdura
II mediterraneo,
en torno
se produce,
al bronce
Hispnica
el 1000, en la Peninsula
a1 1200 hasta
de cultura,
mercados
y
un cambio radical
finalement,
en cierto
modo, deLraza. '

(Santa

The pre-occupation

Maluquer

1952,1958),
with

migrations

into

Iberia,

of

in

Bronze

Iberia

of

Urnfield

et

a1'1972-73;

recent

(eg.

y Bellido

dominate
into

(1877,

brothers

Garcia

of

aside

'The

initial

culture
(see

In

notion

date

et

for

of

al

people'.

the

arrival

Fernandez

same article

migrations
of

1921;

1955),

Carriazo

(eg.

1947),

or
urnfields

still

Migrations

in

migrations

advocates

1971,1974a,

1974b;

which

invasions',

still

and a 'diaspora'

Miranda
in

the

Europe

Central
Gorbea

also'Almagro
1969;

ed.

1st

(1970b)
of

Mediterranean,

and many others.

Maluquer

eg.

1907a, 76ff),

1934,1952,1970)

populations

the

(1971

Siret

'Celtic'

Eastern

the

1947-48,

and others

- preferably

Schulten

and L.

'Tumulus

Blanco

populations
with

works-of

(1961)

Beltran

by a fascination

Age studies:

publications).

'put

European

(eg.

Almagro

Olalla,

(1945-46,1963,1970a),

Central

the

Santa

Bosch - Gimpera,

was matched

as exemplified
Siret

of

1946,62)

Olalla

1975;

and many other

he suggests
Maluquer

Catalonia

Jord

that

(1970a)

appears

to

we
writes:
be long

119

before

the eighth

Meseta'.

the

European
off

for

the

Northwest

century'

of

into

people
due

Galicia,

(1969)

Hawkes

Similarly

Urnfield

(p. 113) and then deals

to

Iberia

shortage
(eg.

of

Figure

a migration

proposes

Southwestern
land

France,
and rumours

1, white

the

with

arrows).

from
of

'conquest
of

Central

where

they

metal

riches

Later,

of

set
in

the

de lo que
'Rumores de los primeros emigrantes,
descubrieron
a la Peninsula,
cuando llegaron
de una Espana amplia,
en metales
ricas
con partes
de una meseta escasamente
poblada,
y con la ventaja
la
difundirse
Francia,
encenderfan
al
por
'
imaginaci6n
de todos los descontentos.

The

'adventurers'

took

the

sea route

to

Galicia,

lo: ' rfos

desde el mar, remontando
y
Guadalquivir,
Guadiana,
Tajo,
tierra,
por
cruzndolos
iba
lienndose
la
tras
tanto,
eilos
meseta
y mientras
de
lentemente,
tendremos
tiempo
ese
y al poco
mas
en la pats de Tartessos.
modo conquistadores
Quiz ya con un jefe,
para
con un caudilla,
'
Argantonio.
llamarse
tarde
un
ms
'Avanzarfan

(1969,190)*

interpretation
this
type
quoted
* Many other examples of
of
could'be
drawing of vague parallels
Similarly,
(eg. SchUle 1969a).
the futile
from the Near East to 'explain'
what are often fairly
common, widespread
(eg.
But,
1975).
from
Bl
be
demonstrated
traits
zquez
could
cultural
from
discussion
theories
the
and
value
of migration
of extrapolation
a
identities
literary
later
of preevidence
of the ethnic
or linguistic
Roman Iberian
the scope of this
cannot be undertaken
populations
within
is
it
if
However,
the
this
type
thesis.
complexity
of
of analysis
limitations,
have recently-been
to succeed - and its
shown by
_
(1976).
Ehret

120

The role

The last

to

the

entire

subsequently

peninsula.

Tarradell

distribution

Spain.

Since

area
the

then,
been

have

Atlntico'

local

establish

concepts

'Bronce

from

Southeastern

within

studies

undertaken

(eg.

The main criticism

bronze

of

examples

Atlantic

in

of

itinerant

and Central

jewellery

in

in

Iberia;

VILLENA

the

The recognition

finally

thereby

dating

with

immigrants,

(1970,18)

Maluquer
(Alicante)

of connections

as the
et al
of

reached
Gorbea

(1974a,

always ' apposite

and not

terms-

continues
Jord

and Almagro

specific

associated

smiths,
in

Europe;

Europe

frameworks.

no longer

tradition;

movements that
to

gold-work

the inter-

as the consequence

cemeteries

Atlantic

can be

in the earlier

although

1964,

Blance

that

the negleLt

working

'Bronce

and

regional

is

the

recognise

Mediterrneo'

studies

tumulus

Northern

Iberian

relates

germnico'

Culture

as influencing,

invasions

see the Asturian

Iberia

gold

to

Age developments

1975a).

the Northwestern

of,

in

of

of

European Tumulus population

terms

first

had been overemphasised

which

in Celtic

explanation

1974b)

was the

and others

they

of migrations

Northern

by Bosch-Gimpera

Argar

in

19th century

dominated by explanations
are often still
and invasions:
eg. Savory (1968, eg. 216,219)

Unfortunately,

Central

in the late

El

regional

was the El Argar

applied

Bronze

sequences-of

relations

(1972-73)

and its

network

Mediterrneo'

and important

abandoned

made of many of the recent

to believe

the

of

1962; Schubart

1971; Tarradell

regional

Mediterranean

brothers

but

limited

to

by the Siret

Spain

Southeastern

L. B. A.

'Bronce

phase of the

identified

culture,

the

Iberia

within

relations

in

El Argar

of

'explaining'

and

the

development
'un

recognises

elemento

treasure.

between Atlantic

Iberia

and the

Bronze Ages by Almagro (1940), Savory (1949),

and British
for two
MacWhite (1951), Evans (1952) and Hawkes (1952) was important
Biscayan

firstly,

reasons:

as a separate
Bronze
of

the

if
-

not

Age developments;

bronze

elements.

an Atlantic,

materials,
Thus,

double-looped

or even Biscayan,

independent
secondly,

it
Savory

- source

possible

(1949)

specified

to

palstaves

as

was acknowledged

'influence'

by recognising

became

and flat-backed

of

network

identify

on Iberian.

an Atlantic

repertoire
Iberian

specifically

'distinctively
and located

Iberian
their

types'

production

121

Northwestern

1949)

and MacWhite

French

palstaves

types;

they
of

sword

finds

(1951,64ff)

the

interest

Our main
Iberia,

and it

is

Spanish

developments
Late

southern

'Southwestern'
(Schubart

detail

the

'Southwestern'
(Algarve),

Bronze
Beja

Alentejo)

(Spain),
end of

the

Sierra

do CaldeirAo

systems

and Southern

in

El

than

the
to

appeared

Argar,

in

(the

Morena

is

Portugal)

the

for

the

understanding
of

its

and by defining
that

organisation

Schubart's

in

published

the

shows

Portuguese

great
external
the

preceded

Alentejo),

and Central

regions

'Bronce
Sierra

part

of

contrasting

Valenciano'

of
of

Huelva

province
The western

cultures.
Spain,

'Southwest';

its

density

with

the sparser

Faro
Evora

of

The high

the

Southern

in

de Aracena
the

distribution

districts

(Baixo

and Sado.

valleys,

and Central

Northeastern

has been

11)

Setubal

and

Southwestern

Spain.

Figure

Northern

are the Guadiana

the fertile

Age

an earlier

III)

an examination

with

regional

ie.

Age,

and the

and the

to

Age of

the

with

1976)

Southern

1976,

Bronze

material

the

in

6 (Schubart

Figure

HUELVA hoard

As a basis

period.

1971,1974,1975a,

foundations

Phoenician

with

Age:

we can establish

relations

(Alto

this

deal

to

Age we can start

Bronze

Bronce

Late

the

possible
in

Bronze

is

here

not

(MacWhite's
the

of

Bronze

development.

a Southwestern

represent

basis

- on the

which

Age

Northwest

Western

with

Middle

the

of

(1948,

he

Both

connection

European

industry

Bronze

and Tagus.

their

Central

with

palstave

Northwestern

Minho

the

recognised

than

rather

dated

the

phase

between

Iberia,

within

and
main

of finds

Sierra

the
river

corresponds

distribution

of

the

(cf.
1975,
interior
Schubart
the
most
of
regions of
and semi-arid
'Southwest'
is
bordered by the
The cultural
1-3,221).
the
area of

hilly

Tagus
North,
to the
to
the
the
and Guadalquivir
valleys
of
river
major
East; in which distinct
sequences of Copper - Late Bronze Age develop=cr. ts
to be recognised.
are beginning
The 'Southwest'
1970; Davies

is

renowned for

1935, Ch. IV;

Blance

its

wealth

1971, Karte

in copper

2; Schubart

ores
1975a,

(cf.

Allan

Karte

35

(copper
based
Nuevo
dc
1961,131),
Atlas
Espaia,
Madrid
7
Figure
on
see
and gold taken from Schubart Karte 35 and Blance Karte 3). ' It is significa^-,

TEXT BOUND
INTO
THE SPINE

1"

124

therefore,

that

the only-Beaker

sherd

(from

a Palmela

bowl,

according

(1971b)

known from the area comes from the site of ALGARES,

(Baixo Alentejo),
from which Domergue and Freire
Conc. Aljustrel
(1971,102-3,
d'Andrade
Figures 9 and 10) conclude:
to Schubart

'...
il ne fait
pas de doute que l'existence
d'un habitat
campaniforme sur l'affleurement
le plus important
du gisement de cuivre
d'Aljustrel

lig

minerais-de
simple
qui

l'exploitation
de metallurgie

est
cuivre
ont pu exister

en cet

des
assez
endroit.

'

(p. 109)

On the basis

of analyses

and some work on the pottery

they

suggest

that

de culture
des populations
...
appartenant
au group maritime
les gisements
allfies
explorer
'
1'Alentejo.

campaniforme
Tage-Sado
sont
de
cuivreux

(p. 110)

The Copper Age of the

is

dealt

is

in part

Connections

El Argar

Copper Age and Early

the Tagus area are particularly

(Schubart 1975a,
Palmela points

On the basis

Ourique

with

with

the copper

graves,

horizon
known
Ferradeira
the
as
in a series of publications
(1971b, 1975a,

contemporary

the local

with

continuity

of

by Schubart

with
It

etc).

'Southwest'

of associations

of pottery

A, but

in fact

represents

Bronze Age types.

apparent

in the case

70-71).

and metal

types

and horizontal
stratigraphy
as observed at ATALAIA,
(Baixo Alentejo)(eg.
Schubart 1964,1965),
Schubart

in
Conc.
has defined

2 phases of the 'Southwestern'

Bronze Age (Schubart
1971a, Figure 17).
Changes in grave form are related
in grave contents:
to differences
in technique
the pottery
shows continuity
and shapes from the .
horizon
Ferradeira
to the Late Bronze Age with some obvious exceptions,
(of Atalaia
eg. the ribbed and grooved vessels
type) which are thought.
to be based on metal

prototypes.

-Thus,

the development

bf the pottery

125

is

seen

the

be an internal

to

same cannot-, be said.

known from isolated

and

it

this

metalwork.

can be predicted
period

their

'Southwestern'

not

will

Bronze

from the graves,

always

origins

Age:

are

others

beyond the

lie

the external

to establish

use. the metalwork

an indigenous

for

finds

but

'Southwestern'

the

area.

cultural

of the

evidence

the

of

finds,

We can therefore
relations

of

few metal

There are very

'Southwestern'

feature

Bronze Age Phase I.

bronze

copper

- or

that

excavation

produce

significant

the

of

industry

in

for

this

area
of

sites

settlement

evidence

is no real

There

bronze

using

or working.
flat

About-"50

to be bronze;

thought

The possible
noted
basis

the

The next
the

at

chisels

common type
found

- were

El Argar

Other metal

B 'MontejYcar'
copper

most

axes*

from Blance's
72ff).

bronze

derivation

and one of bronze,

area,

does

axes

and stone

is
in

include:

the
graves

not

with

by Schubart
some depth

of

in

is

copper
(1975a,
the

exploitation
64-5),

(Taf.

blade.

are known from Phase I

on the

The daggers

halberds,

2 knives,

was

(Beja)

48,373,374).

they

they were made of copper

(pp. 76-81);

bronze.

true

MINA DA JULIANA

and although

2 copper

as 1.15%,

given

constitute

hammers

dagger

80% are

which

3 specimens

of

flat

B types,

finds

the

which

cited

found

from

content

the

of

da Veiga,

two axes

with

associated

the, tin

association

by Estcio
of

known

are

(Schubart"1975,64)

2.7% and 3.3%

unlike

axes

are

derived

(Schubart

possibly

1975a,

of Argar

one of arsenical
(p. 90);

from the

in
'Southwestern'
that
the
* Schubart
the
absence
of
axes
suggests
in
inclusion
Copper and Bronze Age graves,
their
contrasting
with
is the consequence.
the contemporary
graves
of the Southeast,
of a
'durchgehende
65} rather
Beigaben-Tradition'-(1975a,
than,. as
due to the scarcity
here,
in the
suggested
of metal
products
'Southwest'.

11
0

grave

exceptional
daggers,
by

These

rivets

the
El

the

are

2 beads

2 golden
the

found;

armrings

3 tutuli

from

area,

in

material

VILLENA

Garcia

have

1965),

parallels

(Taf.

54);

.
Northwest

the
date

the

was

rivets

Huelva)
in

both

beads;

glass

golden

(Prov.

Aracena

in

BELMEQUE

the

with

with

from

parallels

include

which

a dagger

parallels

(Soler

have

are

59).

finds

silver

associated

two
rivets

(Taf.

II

only

sections,

where

EVORA with

from

Phase

finds

V,

silver

which

gold

System

Alentejo)

with

spirals,

CASTAUELO,

and 2 armbands
the

the

rectangular

with

do Sal

are

The few

ATALAIA

Alccer

to

4 copper

also

from

vessel

spirals

(p. 93).

B graves

Argar

ribbed

and 2 silver

(Baixa

Serpa

and a knife

overlay,

two-spouted

there

area;

dagger;

in

gold

one with

dated

BELMEQUE, Conc.

of

and

which

is

graves,

in

of

disputed.
much
The use of individual
in

practices

the

with

continuity

Southeast

Lower

Tagus

the

Bell

the
(cf.

dominates

burial
of

the

Age of

Bronze

the

'Southwestern'

and flat

and Southwest

contrasts

and Guadalquivir

Beaker

Schubart
Bronze

both

cists

graves,

phase

is

areas,

recognised

1973b,

43).

Age Phase

But
is

the

indicated

the

with
where

but

strong
collective

where

special

relationship

by almost

all

the metalwork:
'Die Spiralringe
machen zusammen mit den
den Zusammenhang zwischen
Nietdolchklingen
im Sdwesten
der Kultur
der Bronzezeit
der
Halbinsel
Iberischen
und der El Argar-Kultur
da zudem auch hnliche
besonders
deutlich,
in allen
der
Fundhufungen
Gebieten
anderen
t
fehlen.
Halbinsel

(Schubart 1975a, 94)

Thus,
the

there

is

'Southwest'

area,
naterial,

ie.

a 'special
but

the expansion

in contrast
_Schubart

concentration'

of El Argar

to the restricted

notes

that

of Argaric
is not

distribution

metalwork
limited

in
to this

of El Argar

of

127

die Charakterformen
E1 Argar
Bvon
es
...
Schwerter
sei hier
nur an die Dolche,
und
Ringe erinnert
Raum
- eine ber diesen
hinausgehende
Verbreitung
allgemeinere

auf der Iberischen

haben. '
(1975a,

combinations

of El Argar

B are not

of El Argar

settlements

and later
and the

rivers

between

coast

of

and If re,

and Cartagena
In

this

primary
were

could
reaches of the rivers,
in
which
pattern
settlement

Aguas,

on the

(cf.

Sirer

area

of

Anas

and Almanzor

Southern

Levantine

1887 Livre

Argaric
cf.

occupied,

like

settlements,

by the Siret

IIIeme
sites

EL ARGAR, ZAPATA,
1887,

Ch. II).

in

the lower

EL ARGAR, Antas,

have been part

2,

settlement,

and CAMPOS (Sirets

CABEZO DEL OFICIO

defended

the

along

Remonte

and complexity

LUGARICO VIEJO,

The large

of

The main concentration

as recognised

by Blance"occurs

B.

size

varying

'Southwest'.

in the

burial

and the pithos

of material

and necropoli

Almdria

Figure

partie),

found

ramblas

gefunden

82)

The characteristic

brothers

Halbinsel

of a hierarchical

'Es knnten

Siedlung
zu einer
stadtahnlichen
Pltze
mehrere
vorpostenartige
stets
gehren,.
in der Regel eine direkte
die talab
Weg- und
'
Sichtverbindung
hatten.
mit dem Hauptplatz
(Schubart

1973b,

42)

no advance has been made on the investigation

Virtually

since

the Sirets'

settlements
located by them within

but

work,

signs

the settlements,

eg.

of the-

of metal-working

were

at EL ARGARwhere crucibles

(eg.
for
(Sirets.
flat
found
1887, IIIeme
together
axes)
were
mouldsand
27)
PARAZUELOS
Plate
CAMPOS
and
and
at
where slag and ores were
partie,
found
(1941,

(Jere
Figure

eg. pins

partie).
581).

(or awls),

EL ARGAR, chisels

finds

Some of these
Many metal
daggers,

finds

axes,

and arrow-heads

are illustrated

by Carriazo

came from within

the settlements,

saws and even a silver

with

long

tangs

from

band from

LUGARICO VIEJO,.

1^

Cn O
d

ww

aw

vI
Ix

O0U
G1 C7 F:

u:
W

ti

rn

cll

-,

t
iQ

_ww

WW

ra

OR)

n
s4
d""d

W
c

wr

ca ". "a
Q
. Q
ti

da
ma

(n

w
"cA

r-+

co

Ln

WOa
rn
-4
-4

H7UWd
OU

Ufa

(D -C

U) 0>

00N
wdQ

cl

a
<

:D U)
Ol NO

ti
00

C)

C4

")

NW0

xN

CJ

.--+

U
(1)

to

r
-G7
C <r CG
a+
c
C=7
Gil
<1
]
Q!
W
j
U
C
2

N
dd
WQ

1 ! Ud
+
N
C4
j
C
14 :a Cr4 :DW
f
r
C14 O CD ti W
G
a)

O
S
GA

G
N

r"O
s

1YYY

Ci

i!

,4N

cN

ro

N
b0
U-i
0

U
1)
U

c r.
OO

l4

a;
W

W
O
O

Ly

" rl

G
l

rr

U cV
ca
d

t4-j o:
O

p
".a

b0

ui
" rl

ro

is ,-,
d r=7

a)
H

a)
a
'N
f.,

129

Fuente

Vermeja.

graves

from

Metal

50 axes;

diadems

doubt

that

industry

working

of

noted

(Jere

partie,

(Types

rivets

phase

buttons

(of

I)

swords,

plate,

Schubart's

Blance
Southern

2,4

silver

Montejfcar

dates

daggers

the introduction

56).

The date

beads*:

Argaric

types

high

The typical
a central

carination

which

triangular

daggers

certain

pots,

holes

in

El

diadems,

1975b,

3-5

and
this

of
B:

Argar

by triangular

accompanied

a more

"

with

elements

other

as imports.

wristguards

1971,123.

the

(1964,1971):

Age

ornaments,

during

rectangular

rivet

a few halberds

80),

and segmented bone and

by 'Aegean' elements.

Helladic

for

parallels

the Argar

to Argar

of the transition

B hinges

A
on

date
disputed
the
the
much
of
sand
is now dated to 'c. 1500' by
the transition

of a corpus

towards

in

characterised

of Middle

the publication

phases.

Bronze

including

cf.

burial

and c. 1400 by-. Blance

pottery

bronzes

The Sirets

of El Argar to 1700, on the basis of

A (1964,33)
and Schubart arrives
at the same

of pithos

segmented faience
Schubart,

true

the

of

the beginning

German Reinecke

(1973b,

be used

Argar

or

type,

phase is

This

to

El

6 rivet

or

ornaments

but on the basis

date,

in pithoi

basis

on the

continued

eg.

armrings,

copper/bronze

hinterland.

(She relates

found.

and

can be no

There

its

gold

'Rckstrom',

with

beads.

faience

halberds,

by burials

(Type

the

of

beads.

and regarded

burials

were

Sangmeister's

characterised
daggers

2 phases

V and II),.

V-perforated
to

was scarce

rings,

production

in

copper

spiral

c. 250

the

c. 650 pots

were

arsenical

its

ores

there

metal

in

graves:

pins,

a true

maintain

that

cist-grave

with

of

with

and silver

tin

defined

A:

Argar

could

Ch. I)

Age because

Blance

here

copper

wealth

El

dealing

the

Sirets

halberds,

-swords,

which

great

Bronze

by the

and some necklaces

we are

in

abundant

EL ARGAR published

c. 200 daggers,
4 silver

was also

(1971,153).

of Argaric

recognised

carination

material,

and more curved

and more conical

has tried

in

the graves

profile

1975b);

* Discussed
and other

in Stone and Thomas 1956; Renfrew-1968;

publications

confirmation

preparing
the

to assign

to Blance's
show a tendency

in Phase A and a

shape in Phase B (see figures

in Schubart

a possible

is
who

(1887,135-6)

by the Sirets
shapes found

carinated

Schubart,

in settlement

6 and'7

material

Harrison

comes

et a1.1974,

130

from

.
CERRO DE LA VIRGEN,

also

Schubart

1975a,

This'tendency
of

body

the

Late

Bronze

Age Phase

Schubart

(1887

I4re

1975b,

upper

part

and Final

B. A.

C (eg.
be'

to

and others

5.58

and 15.48%

since

hinterland.

They

termed

EL OFICIO,

and the

therefore

Argar

the

area

and remarx-ad
This

partie).

'Quirdnima

the

in

found

(IIIme

by Schubart

bracelets

finds

grave

from

Late

type';

con la

carena

on the

be

its

immediate
pottery

unusual

has

brought

now been

PARAZUELOS and the

and Final

alto,

in

nor

contained

to

assumed

material

ALAMO
FUENTO
and LUGARICO VIEJO

'platos

bronze

on the

commented

they

which

illustrated

also

LUGARICO VIEJO

together

tin-and
is

no tin

Ch. I)

partie,

CADERO DE MOJCAR, BARRANCO HONDO, which

CAMPOS, QUIRRNIMA,

imported,

from

identified

1966,33ff;

The Sirets

sites

recently

Southeastern

the

on the

below).

discussed

from

(see

and IIIB

carinations

ie.

and Pellicer

IIIA

with

Southeast,

Schle

between

vessels

continued

phases

levels

134).

towards

in

from

in

in

is

the

ORCE (Almeria)

B. A.

settlement

includes

a veces

above
material

con un asa

de list6n
horizontal,
taladro
con doble
vertical;
la
que recuerdan
vasos decorados
en su tdcnica
de Boquique,
de punto
tanto
cermica
en las lineas
como, sobre todo,
y raya,
en su decoraci6n
a modo
'
de guirlandas.

(1975b, 90)
We have seen,
'Southwest',
Bronzezeit
eben eine
in

but Schubart
trotz

that

El Argar

B metal

insists

that

'Es handelt

above,

bei

the'

der SUdwest-

unabhngige

' (1975a, 135).

von El Argar.

in

are found

sich

Zge doch um eine

verwandschafter

Schwesterkultur

types

Blance

Kultur,
too believes

'distinct
local Bronze Age' in Southern Portugal
of a
(1964,139).
independence
There is no denying the cultural

the development

and Huelva
'Southwest'
the
of
'Southwest'
weapons.

the evidence

was dependent
This

coincides

Western Mediterranean
and along

but

on El Argar
with

metal

the South coast,

of the metalwork
B for

the inclusion
trade

resulting

its

basic

metal

of Southeastern

when the Argaric

in

suggests

centre

the establishment

that

the

tools

and

Spain

in the

inland
expanded
of some new

i^1

indigenous
incorporation
the
the
and
of
into the Argaric
koine.
The peripheral

settlements
other areas
'Southwestern'
in

developments

the Southeast

(a)

the apparent absence of any indigenous

'types;
and/or

(b)

the

reliance
the

and even

al

the

for

tools,

the

'Southwestern'

and ornaments;

weapons

Granada

the

centres

tradition

metalworking

'bottles'

group

and PURULLENA, Earliest

II,

can be suggested

(cf.

phase

of
B sites,

Argar

of

Arribas

et

mouth

ores

oriented

south-west,
the

Tagus

along

the

main

the

copper

with

the main centres

It

until

Mediterranean

or resources
developments

Argaric-Mediterranean

Atlantic,

to show that

with

the

trading

The Sado estuary

corresponding

for

this

period

of the interior
in this period.

the

area,

Sines

their
be an indication

and their

by coastal

control

coastal

Reguengos

the

may therefore

the

be

coastal
of

populations

function
a
was
In the later

of the
Bronze

Phase II,

the orientation
was
in a new
Iberia
Atlantic

re-integrated

system.
area is not

Bronze Age, but he discusses

those

in

MINA DA JULIANA

'Southwestern'

the Phoenicians

by

in

in

at

copper

to

de Monchique,

They

exploitation.

is possible

Age, contemporary

from

evidence

the

continued

axe finds

Serra

ie.

Age and was clearly

and controlled

flat

of ore extraction

to the produce

1973c),

of

area,
of

Copper

the

systems
of

Alentejo)

exploitation

Schubart

and the

the

supports

association

access

river

hinterland,

Alccer

hinterland,

outlets.

(cf.

The-concentration

populations.

in

the strategic

The concentration

(Baixo

the

began

which

towards

channelled

that

suggests

y in

larticular'.

and Sado.

do Sal

AlcAcer

the

Sado,

the

of

the

of

in

finds

exceptional
the

on the coast,

at the mouths of the Guadiana

areas

interaction

the El Argar/'Southwestern'

that

by populations

was controlled

of

in

of the

nature

1974,138).

It

in

of

found

vessels

MONACHIL, Fase

viz.

derivation

possible

from

II

Phase

imports

on Argaric

of

in the major

those

compared with
ins
can be recognised

inhabitants

with-Phase

included

illustrates
and
I in the

in

Schubart's
finds

'Southwest'.

from
are:

'Southwestern'
the area

(1975a):
'

132

the former

3 silver

rivets:

element,

the latter

2 dagger blades

do Sal:

(a) HOSPITAL, Conc. Alccer

are unique,

and

an indigenous

probably

in the El Argar

have parallels

2 gold

with

A material.

(p. 74, Taf. 40,432,433)

(b)

VALE DE CARVALHO, Conc.

with

Northwestern

(cf.

Harbison

is

the

ROUFEIRO hoard

to have been found with

said

a carinated

(p. 73, Taf, 41,438)

vessel.

(c) ALCACERDO SAL: a flat

axe of copper,

expanded blade (Taf. 50,425).

Savory (1968, Map 68) illustrates

engraved

slabs

with

butt

and slightly

of gold ornaments
them to the 'Early
and Middle

he dates

the Sado area and Estremadura:

Bronze Age', which is not entirely
'Alentejano'

a thick

the concentration

in

the

dagger,

an exceptional

in
as

such

parallels,

1967),

do Sal:

Alcdcer

as he also dates
Age (cf. p. 211,

especially

reliable,
to the Early

nronze

70).

Figure

At

this

system

it

contrast

following
c. 10th

stage,
715th,

the

of

it

with

the

is

worthwhile

14th

and 13th

later

in

centuries

Mediterranean
to

order

incorporation

Mediterranean

the Atlantic

the establishment-of

the

examining

of

trading

be able
this

to
area

in
the
system

regional

to 8th centuries.

The initial
coastal

distribution

of El Argar

and the absence of Argar

areas,

was limited

A material

to the-Southeastern
in

the

'Southwest'

has been noted.

But during
the graves
El Argar
obvious

and some isolated

The beginning

B..

Central

1958,65ff;

Bronze Age Phase I,

finds

1964,1971;

indicate

clearly
B in

of El Argar

Mediterranean

Blance

must be linked
the Central

'Southwestern'

and possible
Daniel

the metal

with

a connection

the 15th century,

Aegean connections

and Evans 1967,53;

from

finds

with

(Evans

-Schubart

the expansion of the Mycenaean trading

network
(see above, Part I A, section
2).
The
Mediterranean

repercussions
been particularly

with

of Mycenaean presence
noticeable

in

in Sardinia

the Central

Mediterranean

and Southeastern

its

Spain.

1973b)
into

has

i3

Sardinia,

In

found

been

in

period

imported

period

there

local

in
is

claims

beginning
but

of

form

the

bronzework

the

full

the

of

of

no other

extensive

and gold

Late

Bronze

increasing

Muhly

ores,
offers

he believes

but

the
tin

of

the

early

8th

century

1963,151-2).
(ie.

the
influences'

outside

had access

1963,156).

either

The external

may not have -'influenced'

that

the

of

source

tin

of

there

Ch. IV,

the

to

relevant

Tuscany

1973,

Muhly

copper

and tools

by the

been

exception
(see

of

have

believes

Guido
with

must

of

few

tradition

working

idea

(Guido

have

(Guido

tin

the

c. 1000

must

Nuraghic

weapons

'very

shows

of

period,

sources

of the bronze

working

Age,

too

need

of

for

in

that

Syrians

were destined

copper was supplementing

Western

expansion

of

were

with

the

and tin

copper

ingots

use in

Cypriot

both

in Sardinia

interpretation
for

context

of

must

Eastern

the
of

from

be

Mediterranean

Mycenaeans"

the

the

Cypriot

16th

century.

and Sardinian

(1967,52-83).

the Sardinian

the Aegean;

with

- associated

Mediterranean
of

were working

hence the ox-hide

a different

the

the

new sources

industries

working

within

particularly

Bass has suggested

copper

before

1963,

Archaic

hi

worked

area

metalworkers

this

as a consequence

envisaged

been

by

bibliography).

The stimulation
silver

period)

production.

Mediterranean

have

period

bronze

with

casting

theBarbagia
the

of

or France;

Spain

was possibly

in

bronzes

scale

to

to a source

of the Sardinian

expanding

in

Sardinian

relations
style

known

Nuraghic

or indirectly

directly

is

for

(Guido

the

of

At many nura

'foundries'

dated

and are

centuries

together

ingots.

of

too

earlier

and 12th

accepted,

for

which

the

13th

nuraghi

The beginning

generally

evidence

that

admits

14th',

the

300 kg - have

up to

weighing

and ASSEMINI

1967,29).

the

copper,

and probably

Guido

is

c. 1400

being

from

to

and Evans

Daniel

ingots,

ox-hide

SERRA ILIXI

the

near

authorities

various
110;

copper

and that

ingots,

But
which

Sardinian

supplies:

'It
is about the same distance
from Greece to
Sardinia
There
as it is from Greece to Cyprus.
is,
however,
in Sardinia.
no Mycenaean pottery
This suggests
that
the western
trade
represents

(to that in Cyprus).

type of operation
a different
be part of the 'amber trade
It must, "in fact,
through Europe which brought to the Aegean not
Baltic
Sea, but also the.
only the amber-of the

13 4
0

tin of Cornwall
and perhaps
even the gold of
Ireland,
the copper of Sardinia.
along with
This trade was not in the hands of the
'
Mycenaeans
who went no further
west than the
island
but may have been transacted
of Sicily,
island
on the tiny
of Lipari,
which was perhaps
'
in
Age.
Late
Bronze
the
an emporium

(1973,185)

as well

as copper,

context

that

axes,

El

of

the

and silver

MONTEFRIO;

swords

(1971,135ff).

from

A general

the

Argar

Carolina
La
and

areas,

and gives

the

and silver,
only in that

is

B can be explained

armrings

were

found;

its

the

but

resources,

as the reason
many references

in

graves

so far

flat

that
at
from

only

I dagger

Type

shown
density

especially
for

notes

expansion

not

and along

Blance

known

further

the

came from

PAGO DEL SAPO, MONTEJICAR

is

extent

cns:
centre;

found

another

ATARFE,
of

2 direct

original

coast.

A distribution

in copper

place
of

summary

(1975a):

by Schubart

in

southern

EL ZALABI,

to the interest

expansion,

gold

and it

an arrow-head

EL ARGAR was also

settlement

36 shows

tin,

of El Argar

B took

hinterland

along

I daggers

of

given

that

by El Argar,

expansion

QUESADA and RIO DE GOR - where

is

here

suggested

Argar

immediate

the

especially

Type

fully
been
has
not
system

trading

8).

from

coast,

this

were supplied

The expansion

the

is

the phenomenal

(See Figure

inland

it

by Muhly;

appreciated

in

of El Argar

The role

on his
of

Karte

finds.

B phase

Argar

37;

Karte

lie refers

in the Batios de la Encina

the western

to published

the

of

and northern

and much unpublished

material:
'Bafios de la Encina kann als der weiteste
Vorstoss
der El Argar-Kultur
nach dem Nordwesten gelten,
hangt aber uber"einem breiten
Keil von El ArgarPltzen mit dem Kerngebeit
zusammen; dazu gehren
de Baza und Orce die Grberfelder
etwas Baza, Cllar
von Peal de Becerro und von Ubeda.
direkt
Die weiter
des El
sdlich,
westlich
Argar-Kerngebeites
Granadiner
Gruppe der
gelegene
El Argar-Kultur
dehnt sich nach Westen hin bis zu
Linie
einer
aus, die durch Funde aus dem Tal des
Rio de Vdlez,
de Zafarraya,
bon Loja und
von Ventas
bezeichnet
Fr diese Gruppe
von Montefrio
wird.

135

(Abb. 17),
sind Graberfelder
wie die von Guadix
von Monachil
und von Almungcar
charakteristisch.
liegen
im Osten der
Hier
auch bei Gor und Gorafe
Granadiner
Gruppe,
Los Bermejales
und am Pantano
im Westen der Granadiner
Gruppe spte MegalithFunden der El Agar-Kultur.
grber
mit reichen
in der Gruppe
Manche der Megalithgrber,
vor allem
in
der
Gor-Gorafe
erst
sind sehr wahrscheinlich
'
El Argar-Zeit
errichtet.

(p. 136)

We can see,
was to

gain

areas

ore-rich

and IIIb

IIIa

Argaric
the

of

burials

Argaric

(Molina

and Pareja

Gonzalez

Argaric
of
phase
second
it
found:
consisted
was
2 flat

axes of Argaric

no. 2 of

beads,

copper

Argar

area,

in
levels

where
Argar

with

A and

indigenous

(Blance's
spirals

Among

B material.
l/Norte

Estrato

1975,34,

L6pez

or

DEL NEGRO, PURULLENA (Prov.

using

a dagger

pottery,

and copper

stone

by people

use

populations

by the

adopted

The-CUESTA

settlement,

Galera

the

can only

no evidence,

increasing

ORCE, corresponding

being

were

settlement.

the

within

characteristic
clay,

elements

inhabited

was first

Granada)

of

CERRO DE LA VIRGEN,

is

there

oZ existing

from

example,

This

trade.

since
of

their

and assure

and coastal
demands

B expansion

Argar

interior

the

distribution,

for

El

of

The incorporation

known,

of

show that

inhabitants

the

is

in

external

of metalwork.

production

strategy

hinterland

the

Argaric

the

the

resources

by increasing

than-within

other

to

access

be explained

B,

to more

access

over

control

that

therefore,

Type

contained
I)

and a necklace
bone bead

and a segmented

Figures

23-26).

In

the

in
II/Sur
Estrato
stone mould
-a
of 3 pieces and was designed for the casting
of
occupation

type.

In the same level

a loom weight

was found

47-51).
Figures
The CERRODE LA ENCINA,
and Pareja 1975,36-7,
MONACHIL (Prov. Granada) appears to have been tentatively
established
(Molina

during

Argar

extensive

with

Argar

B occupation,

In Granada,

Molina

the. Argaric

Bronze Age:

are either

in

B Fase I"beginning

radically

c. 1300,

then by a more

Fase IIa-b.

and Pareja

distinguish

ie.

the

transformed,

cf.

two types

'poblaciones

of relations

indigenas

eneoliticas'

ORCE, or they merely

of the. technological

changes, 'as occurred

dolmenic

of Gor-Garafe,

populations

and followed

among the-'more

Montefrio

absorb

some

traditional'

and Bermejales

(1975,53-4).

136
0

to incorporating

In addition
of

the

provinces

centres
Guadix

have

to

Argaric

Argaric

the

54).

finds

Surface
at

material

and preliminary
of

a number

MARQUESADO, ALDEIRE,

ALCUDIA,

BECERRA, GOR, GARAFE (cf,

54).

The existence

Marquesado,
the

is

coast

CERRO DE LA ENCINA,

At
(Fase

IIa-b)

with
ie.

centuries,
at

of

occupation

both

settlement

appears

to

Argaric

material

in

(Alicante),

found

near

found

in

the
of

the

of

faunal

Arribas

et

bones,

the

both

origin

al

IIa,

number
and

is

is

B,

the
for

found

the

'Southwestern'

in
of

Fase

individual

25 in

Fase

Ilb,.

and

both

the

famous

in

which

initial

PURULLENA

B settlement

of

and

for

the
are

bottles.
von

855 bones

represent
with

Although

etc

vessels
'bottles'

thought

be

to

An analysis
(in

den Driesch

dominance

contrasts

p. 153).

Arribas

gold

of

turn,

in

I,

ORCE material
the

treasure

ribbed

this

The earlier

B settlement:

a unique

animals;

The Argaric

construction

a prototype

which

occupation

CABEZO REDONDO, VILLENA

Argaric

II

Argaric

Argaric

main

revealed

III'(Cuadro

of

and 11th

12th

the

the

MONACHIL by Angela
has

to

c. 1000.

with

at

Phase

to

settlement

c. 1400/1300.

end at

century

that

it

and along

Argaric

dated

MONACHIL Fase

and 11th

1974,151ff)

river

phase

Argar

before

Ha

from

through

important

PURULLENA and MONACHIL which,

material

depression

-.

later

CABEZO REDONDO provides

the

BENALA DE GUADIX,

Guadix

Almeria

to

parallel

believe

especially

minimum
Fase

12th

(1974,137ff)

al

thought

'but ended

the

in

with

MONACHIL Fase

JEREZ DEL

1975,

the

PURULLENA corresponds

at

Argaric

revealed

and Pareja

the

the

the

1975,

Molina

from

defences,

earlier

An important

of

MONACHIL,

with

be contemporary

sites.

to

pre-

and Pareja

ALQUIFE,

1963;

CERRO

eneoliticas'

and Pareja.

is

sites

settlements,

pass

stone

began

have

BEAS DE GUADIX,

Sanchdz

pass

corresponding

Argaric

et

massive

PURULLENA, which

these

Garcia

by Molina

have

vicinity:

GUADIX,

Filina

the

noted

this

a natural

of

actsss

in

sites

been

PURULLENA at

of

(Molina

soundings

ore-rich

to have

Neither

material

Argaric

the

the

'pervivencias

of

and burial

settlement

in

appears

1963).

Sanch4z

Malaga,

settle

that

with

indications

any

to

a settlement

c. 1300)

inhabitants
the
-

some extent

population

(Garcia

nor

degrees

and to

where

(ie.

Gorafe

occupation

out

areas,

contemporary

DEL CULANTRILLO,

Jagn

sent

and Marquesado

established

in

Granada,

of

appear

- to different

of

horse

29% of
58 bones
horses

the
in

appear

137

to have been a source

use as beasts

of burden

The sites
do not

from

Argaric

south

brief

the

predominance

would

imply

their

too.

the

nearer

appear

their

of meat,

coast,

to

references

(1975a,

by Schubart

cited

finds

the

from

them

136),
be

to

indigenous
is probably
found within
The material
the incorporation
represent
of coastal populations

establishments.

contexts

and would

intermediaries
in
the transport
such as
as
of ores or simple castings,
to the coast, from where the metal would have
axes, from the hinterland
by sea to the main Argaric

been transported

and their

centres

ultimate

destinations.
I

implications

We can draw the following

B developments:

Argar

Mediterranean

trading
is

B developments

inception

of involvement

was a consequence

evolution

its

Firstly,

by the Central

of E1

the evidence

and hence subsequent

in the Western/Central

An indication

network.

given

from

of Argar-

the context

of

Mediterranean

- and perhaps

Aegean - derivation
of many aspects of Argaric
material
and
(cf.
Evans 1958; Blance 1971; Daniel and Evans 1967,53;
practices

ultimately
burial

1973b);

Schubart

the El Argar

of wealth,

expressions

of the flourishing
of

towards

of

Argar

extracting

B expansion

to these

towards

of metal

hand,

would

resources

of Argaric

greater'

ores;
indicate

access

production
quoting

should,

therefore;

of raw metals
Siret's

analyses

be technical

or easily
of certain

cast

evidence

the expansion
that

it

objects.

EL ARGAR silver

Davies
rivets

was

and that

to and distribution

for

centre.

to and

of metals.
There

the

resource

from the coast

access

relations

and working

need for

of'

places

are therefore

which

an increasing

on the other

was the basis

transport

metal

the exploitation

to control'access

maritime

of, this

indicates

the south-coast,

necessary

borrowings,

the subsequent

of the scale

expansion

and some of the burial

and cultural

on the one hand,

areas,

The wealth

are the consequences of external

for 'urban'
developments,
conditions

consumption

The orientation

2.

I A, section

centres

the-internal

created

which

Argaric

with

associated

industries

metalworking

in the Central

Mycenaean presence

in Part

has been discussed

Mediterranean

for

and the evidence

the greater
(1935,95),
and the

138

FUENTE ALAMO diadem,

believes

ores and was not native

oxide

Argaric

that

silver

in
as used

silver

from

was extracted
the Copper Age.

But

by Dr P. Craddock
the results
of recentanalyses
of Argaric
silver
indicate
by Argaric
the continued
use of native
silver
metalworkers.
is

There
of

the

silver

finds

in

casting

advances

flat

and most

axes,

unusually
609,661)

and Harbison

hilts

illustrated

Argaric

in

the

be arsenical

its

1 no. 2);
Figure

south

revealed

the

and the

in

(1887)

Sirets
This

has

the

British

(Craddock

alloys

rather

objects,

by the nature

intensive

trading

than

use

with

of

copper
bronze

of

by Craddock's
are

to

seen

implies

this

products.

the

of

rarity

confirmed

as a supplier

plated

gold

arsenical
the

All

608,

Analyses

Museum which

finished

Some

figures

609).

1977)**.

for

the role

of raw metals,
This role is

or

in
El
Argar
the
the period of
expansion
of
of
ie. further
into the southeastern
hinterland,
role,

and by the absence of any Argaric

Since

(1947,

noted

been

evidence

work.

swords

(1947,

use

PURULLENA mould

eg.

cf. - Carriazo

in the Western Mediterranean

cast

confirmed

the

material

copper

of El Argar
roughly

in

little

very

be post-casting

to

Figure

metalwork.

Argaric

of

copper,

known,

(1967,

62ff)',

Southeastern

analyses

in

by Carriazo

found

1975a,

There

increased

the

EL ARGAR necropolis

the
is

9 kg.

appears

are

from

that

techniques

for

Southeast

the

notes

weighed

castings

types

(Schubart

(1970)

shaping

fine

are

from

evidence
Maluquer

eg.

silver,

alone,
for

certainly

the proceeds

this

of

beyond Iberia.

metalwork

extensive

metallurgical

activity

are not

its
be
development must be the consequence
Iberia,
to
consumed
within
seen
economic
from,
demand
the settlement
coming
pattern
shows
outside:
an
of
the concern
would not

for

expect

consumption

of

have discussed

coastal
if

dominance

the. exploitation,

the metalwork
the evidence

us now examine the-nature

*I
**

should

like

and control

to thank

production,

was a closed
for

Argar

of these

him for

over resources

which

distribution

- peninsular

B/'Southwestern'

one

and

- system.

We

connections,

connections:

this

information.

According
to L. Siret,
for the
the lack of tin was the reason
.
'caractbre
des armes et outils
primitif
car le cuivre
est beaucoup
travailler
(1907,. 77).
Monteagudo
plus difficile
que le bronze'
(1951)
analysed
600/1400
that
Argaric
claimed
tobe
objects
proved
bronze,
c. 9.17% tin.
with

let

139

The 'Southwest'

was one of the resource areas tapped by the

the supply of copper ores
expansion of Argar B. -In the 'Southwest',
populations,
secured by relations
with the indigenous
or
was probably
intermediaries,
involved
the provision
the coastal
which
of metal products,
to be conspicuously
weapons and ornaments,
As noted by Schubart (1976,233):

consumed as grave

mainly

goods.

'Die Kupfergebiete
des Sdwesten der Iberischen
denen
Halbinsel
mssen auf Bevlkerungsgruppen,
an Kupfer gewinnung lag, eine grosse
Anziehungskraft
ausgebt haben. '

The use of maritime

in
finds
the
metal
the dagger

and river
'Southwest',

in this
horizon

the Ferradeira

use,

in Argaric

were satisfied

Schubart
o

the Sado ; opulation

finds

Argaric

and Argaric

worked

related

are known from the Central

items

areas,

whilst

which

smelted

ingots

weighing
Aegean.

A later

of the Mediterranean

74),

in Catalonia

stage
tin,

can be the reason

has been recognised

which

and which

local

demands

external

of raw materials
or rough castings
in Sardinia
down, possibly
to produce

whose form - but not necessarily

Northwest,

for

were largely

up to 300 kg,
for

since

by the supply

were subsequently

ingdemands

as

- has been proposed.

one must assume that

Mediterranean,

by the concentration
of
(1975a) Karte 27 showing

have
been Tagus oriented
which
may
-

trade

Since no characteristic
ie.,

eg.

indicated

and the importance

distribution;

intermediary
an

routes

is

contrasts
(eg.

Blance

with
1971).

for

trade

the complete
Harbison

associated

the Argaric

by Harbison

content

with the
and Eiroa (1973-

connection

(1967)

absence of Argaric
notes

- were
increaswith

material

that

'Northern
Portugal
and Galicia
stand alone among
regions
all the "Atlantic"
of Europe in being
influenced
directly
by Mediterranean
cultures
...
bronze (? ) weapons and implements which
certain
are connected with [El Argar] have come to lightin this context
Particularly
there.
noteworthy
are swords and daggers. '
(1967,1QO)

140

And Eiroa

notes

of

(in

Northwest

the

Bronce

I)

that

'...

las seguimos
supervivencias
eneoliticas
del Bronce Protohasta
los tiempos
encontrando
influencias
Atldntico,
coexistiendo
con ciertas
de Europa
y otras
argricas
procedentes
'
Occidental...

(1973-74,64-5)

Thus it

is possible

Northwestern
of

centres
as far

recognisable
in

interest

the

14th

the

and 13th

as ALCACER DO SAL.

Northwest

would

following

that

significant

in

initiated

have

by,

been

the

tin

the expansion

basis

in

clearly

Argaric

of

is

It

resources.

of "El Argar

the contraction

been

as has

centuries

The obvious

of this

tradition

the metal-working
but not

to,

area was related

Argaric

the

that

to suggest

the final

industries
Northwestern
bronze
Bronze
Age,
Southeastern
the
the
phase of
but as part of an
develop independently
centres,
of the Mediterranean
'Atlantic'

It
in

the

probably
was,

bronze

is

Western
tin,

Mediterranean
gold

trading
This

and silver.

to Muhly,

according

that

therefore,

proposed,

that

tradition

working

oriented

the

Argaric

centres

were

providing

Western

Mediterranean

the

involved

Iberian

sphere,

towards

below.

be described

will

island

of

copper,
in

trade
Lipari,

metal

the

'...
free port for the Western trade,
the
industrial
Mycenaeans bringing
their
products
for
Lipari,
the
there
to
them
to
raw
exchange
'
the
the
the
and
metals,
amber of
west.
materials,
(1973,280)

This

aspect

context
source
overland
Adriatic,

integration

of Mediterranean

of his

thesis

of Aegean tin
route

during

the 16th

and 15th centuries

was Cornwall

and that

it

that

up the Rhine

associated

must be examined within

with

and through

the trade

reached

continental

in amber;

the main

the. Aegean by an

Europe

or from

the

to the

the western

coast

with trade
associated
of France along the Garonne to the Mediterranean,
(1973,275ff).
in faience
He also disputes,
on the basis of the absence
of evidence,

the generally

held

view

that

the Mycenaeans'

initial

venture

141

into

the Central

instead

'...

that

was in search of metals,

and suggests
trade in
expansion is part of the developing
(p. 282). Furthermore,
century'

Mediterranean
this

amber in the sixteenth

'The total
in the
absence of Mycenaean pottery
far west, in contrast
to the western distribution
of Greek pottery
in the sixth
century B. C., indicates
the character
of Bronze Age trade in the western
Mediterranean,
a trade in expensive materials
through a series
and objects
conducted overland
of middlemen. '
(p. 279)

The Mycenaeans'

role

but

there

clear

not

still

from near Bdziers,

cargo

of

'about

date

300 bars

with

system

which

system,

but

demand,

external

1000;

to

dominated
in

which

the

bronze-working

centres.

Muhly

Mediterranean

involvement

in

that

the

context

1st

millenium

is

Aegean,

different

its

Following
network,

evolution

the disruption

undoubtedly

connected

12th century,

during

the

its
of

original

be described

with

centre

Aegean

the
of

Eastern
from

different

centres

By the time
in

trading

the Near East

presented

configuration

and

itself

here.

of the Western

Some of the original

to be used and a Late

de expansi6n

regional

Mediterranean

the general

the dominance

Southeastern

were more local.

'zona

will

phase

important.

in the West was resumed by new urban

in Iberia:

this

the

by a single

expand

West was structurally

This

in

was probably

that

recognises
the

to

or

trading

participants

by and stimulated

a possible

regional

of'a

and

'hoard'

This

a
kinds,

(Daniel
and to

publication

interest

a , substantially

80 axes of various

individual

supply

mid

WL.:ch carried

1973,279-82).

Muhly

the 8th and 7th centuries.

of

coast,

and javelins'

Arnal's

within

was organised
usually

French

spears

to

references

be understood

can only

cargo

arrows,

is

trade

metal

the CAP D'AGDE shipwreck,

and bronze,

of copper

1300 and

between

from

evidence

bracelets,

1967,42,
of

is

Western Mediterranean

the Southeastern

off

decorated
50
some
Evans

in-the

crisis

of El Argar

was broken
settlements

trading

in the Mediterranean

beyond the confines

and its

external

and cemeteries

relations
continued

Bronze Age phase was restricted

to the
1975b,
de la cultura
(Schubart
de
El
Argar'
ms antigua
or-Final

i4

90).
the

The Late

Bronze

excavators

Schule

were

to

Southwest

the

oriental

the

of

first

the

Southern
in
Age

Spain

CERRO DEL REAL,

GALERA (Almeria).

mediterrnea'

a picture

raices

(1966, '33)

Atlantic

the

and present

con fuertes

...

limit

to

that

'...
a
II

the

period

preceded

of

bronce

bronce

the

and
L. B. A.

de Andalucia

III

y raigambre
of

by

Pellicer

orientation

of

en el

identified

was first

eminentemente

Phoenician

and Greek

In terms of pottery,

contacts.

'...
lo
formas

del bronce
III
caracteristico
sern ciertas
en alta
carena,
con carena acusada,
con borde
recto
saliente,
con 6nfalo
en la base,
con ciertos
perfiles
en Sy en cuanto
a los tratamientos
con
depurada
una tdcnica
en el espatulada,
en el bruido
del reticulado
y sobre todo en la nueva modalidad
'
bruido.

(1966,34)
This

Argaric

during

the

and with

plan

Sirets'

(cf.

with

corresponded

oval

the

Late

use of

mud-brick

of

a different

in

construction.

are

now known

Bronze

eg.

EL OFICIO,

Age,

Illeme

to have

Certain
to

continued

ie.

type,

the

of

be used

FUENTO ALAMO, LUGARICO VIEJO

Schubart

Partie;

house

1975b),

also

the

cemeteries

PARAZUELOS, CAMPOS, CALDERO DE MOJACAR, BARRANCO HONDO, and QUIRENIMA.

of
But

this

At

Fase III
(cf.

is

phase

now better

MONACHIL,

include

Maluquer

the

material

'Boquique'

1956).

had been observed,

too by Santa Olalla
has recently
Age Phase C (1975b).
Schubart

in

known

Eastern

Andalusia

from

the

MONACHIL and PURULLENA*.

at

excavations

*A

introduction

settlements

1887,

Sirets

the

associated

(stab

and drag)

The occurrence
although
(1946b)

with

the

mud-brick

and excised

decorated

these Meseta decorative

of

houses

of

sherds
elements

not described

noted
as such by the Sirets,
at CAMPELLO (Alicante)
and FUENSANTA (Murcia).

emphasised

site
with
similar
material,
has been 'located
by Schubart
note 786).
_

these

aspects

of the Southeastern

Bronze

known so far only from surface

finds,
149,
Jadn (1975a,
at CABA ZJELOS, Prov.

143
It

Molina
found

at

and Pareja

a. number

of

LA ISLETA

PURULLENA, the
those
far

1975,55

cited

second

above
the

greater,

in

phase
that

los niveles

Cogotas

Iy

(Molina

and Pareja

a short

of

the

constructions

'una
extraordinaria
see

dominated

for

and CARMONA (Sevilla),

At

references).
is

occupation
quantity

of

entre

Boquique
in

They date

:f

Andalusian

Late

Bronze Age evidence,

but

with

the

unlike

ware

and excised

is

excavators

yacimiento

del

tipo

que hemos excavado'

the beginning

abandonment of the site.

V (see

CUESTA DEL NEGRO,

all,

cualquier

del poblado

superiores

the

L. B. A. at PURULLENAto the 10th or early

period

(Alicante);

Level

contemporary

different:

are

semejanza

1975,54).

LA FUENSANTA (Murcia),

CABEZO REDONDO, VILLENA

DE CAMPELLO (Alicante)

and Pareja

Molina

(Murcia),

has been

pottery.

SALOBRENA (Granada),

sites:

CIERRO DE SANTA CATALINA

influenced

Meseta

that

note

of the Meseta-

9th century,

They summarise

this

following
Eastern

as follows:

'La mayor karte

de los yacimientos
que acabamos
de enumerar
indigena
son estaciones
puramente
que han tenido
contactos
con las poblaciones
de l-Meseta,
detectados
arquelgicamente
en
decorados,
unos pocos fragmentos
quo contrastan
de los materiales
con el conjunto
en cada una
de las estaciones.
fiste no es el
Sin embargo,
caso del pobado de la Cuesta del Negro,
autdntico
Oriental
de la cultura
avanzillada
en Andalucia
del Bronce Final
de la Meseta. '

(p. 55)

They then propose

the practice

of

as the motive

of this

Mesetan

southward

penetration

transhumance. *

* The material
presented by Molina and Pareja is of great value, but
interpretation
is less acceptable.
their
Firstly,
the density
of
and the scale of stockbreeding
population
on the Meseta in the L. B. A.
Secondly,
A. D.,
are unknown.
even during the 15th and 16th centuries
in transhumance,
when 4-5 million
animals were involved
the main
led from winter
to summer pasture
routes or 'cafiadas',
on
situated
highlands
(cf. Vila Valenti
1968,247-8,
Fig. 25). "
on the Meseta itself
Thirdly-,
do not result
transhumance practices
in the establishment
of large
permanent
settlements,
as obviously
existed
at PVRULLENA.
'explanation'
The transhumance
has, yet again,
been misused
thereby
confusing
and concealing
these recent
of
excavations
_the-importance
in Granada.

144.

The Meseta

connection

disruption

the

ore

western

and control

sources,

and a few manufactured

in

involvement

Meseta
flat

Argaric

More

bronze
other

to

have

of Meseta
addition
Meseta

centres

or

exploitation
their

be regarded
We should

the

contact

either

to

interpretation

to

areas

appears
relied

The appearance

with

in

and Sevilla

indicate

by

an attempt
late

the

the

stimulate

the flows

and revive

of the Meseta elements

as a working
not

forget

In the recently

lines;

contact

which

had probably

Granada

would

functioning

the

Argaric
'

renewed

of raw metals

from

sources.

Arteaga

hypothesis

Carriazo

and'Raddatz's

observation

sub-groupings

within

the general

and Serna

bowls,

adequately
category

could

of LOS SALADARES, Oriheula

(1973,1974,1975)

carinated

the Meseta

that

were not

L. B. A. level

Spain should

be tested.

can and. should

types,

excavated

wares as burnished,

which

in Southern

'Boquique'

of general

and that regional

be expected (1961,98).

fine

Southeast,

Age'

Meseta

one of

which

in

Bronze

Jarama and Henares

in
role
restricted

of metals.

period

recognised

bronzework.

undermined

Meseta,

the

viz.

southern

centres,

extraction

ore-rich

the

in

viz.

'Middle
a

and its

have

re-establish

ores

studied

(Alicante),

the

with

has

in

from

centre

northern

post-Argaric

of the metal

especially

wares,

Argaric

North,

influenced

and working

and even

of

original

This

using

inhabitants

the

raw materials
for

the

the Manzanares,

would

on the

in

centres

in

of the Argaric

established

the

of

Atlantic

of

and Pareja

bronze

elements
to

in

bronze

can be expected

sort

distribution

on Argaric

period

and distribution

peninsular
been

and swords

the

by, Molina

production

of

the

daggers

The contraction

areas.

of

(1950,138-140)

Maluquer

where

this

of

mentioned

sites

sites,

preceding

evidence

working

North-

And possibly

some evidence

centres

after

SANCHORREJA and EL BERRUECO (Salamanca),

bladed

ie.

context,

bronze

Meseta

the

begin

to

distribution

is

There

seen

Southern

of
the

over

products.

LAS COGOTAS (Avila),

'classic'

B dominance

Argar

the

of

is

Southeast

the

with

describe

some decorated

the dominant
with

incised

incised
has
ware - mainly globular
or
vessels - also
(eg.
finger-impressed
decoration,
have
lugs
cordon
some
semi-circular
Artega and Serna 1974,110-1,
Abb. 2 a-i).
The excavators
note that on
the coarse

14

the basis

in the coastal

hills

Valenciano'

is not

yet

coastal

in
zone

that

clear,

contrast

with

which were on higher

this

period

inland.

hills

be related

should
between

relations

stimulated

L. B. A. sites on low
Argaric
and 'Bronce

were other

The relation
in this area
L. B. A. and the preceding
phase of settlement
into the
but an extension
of the settlement'pattern

late

this

these

zones:

settlements

between

there

collection,

of surface

to the same situation

and the South-

the Meseta populations

east.

in 3 areas:

developments
the

'Southwest';

Estremadura-Sado
(Schubart

the lower

Guadalquivir

and the lower

reaches

coastal

(Their

zone.

the Tagus and (-iiadalquivi:

groups

1967;

and Garrido

recognised

and coastal

valley

was the first

zone;

1971a).

10

to distinguish

burnished

of pattern

Schubart

as distinct

of the Tagus valley

and the
distribution
is shown on Figure

38). ) Schubart

1975a, 'Figure

(Schubart

Bronze Age is

the Late

Iberia,

In Southwestern

L. B. A. wares
del Amo (1973,

See also

'.

1975).

The Tagus
pots

those

is

stripes,
finds

Figure

83)

consisting

found

on the

come from
but

Tagus

some finds

MONTE DE S0 MARTINHO,

are

Conc.

(Prov.

BOQUIQUE, Plasencia
Tagus-pattern

exterior

the

burnished

Phase

triangles,

of

of

II.

or

further
Branco

closed

found

(Beira

Baixa);

1975a,

the MANGANCHEsettlement

of Aljustrel,

the Palmela

Schubart

Domergue and Freire

*A

characteristic
is represented
45,147

d'Andrade

noted

that

Tagus type of burnished

by a sherd from ATALAIA,

(cf.

areas

the

or

shapes.

along

within

to the north
bowl sherd was found (eg.

bands

inland

(Schubart

Caceres)

the

of

The characteristic
lines,

and Sado estuary

found

forms

the

oblique

open

Castelo

pottery

in

resembles

ware

'Southwestern'

Schubart's

burnish,

pattern

Most

of

burnished

pattern

the

'Southwest'

1975a,

c. 45 pattern

Tagus:

at

and CUEVA DE

287). *

ie.

1968,

Savory

near

The only
comes from

to where

138 and 287).

burnished

bowl, with shoulder

tumulus VZ (Schubart

sherds

carination,
1975a,

in
A.
1): although
form is quite
L.
B.
this
the
and Figure
common
Iberia,
Schubart
from Almeria
cites
of southern
parallels
and on the '
basis
'.
of this
between
berregionale
Zusammenhnge'
evidence
proposes
in the southwest
the L. B. A. populations
and southeast.

146

found

were
which

in

- with

only

(1971,

exterior

in

recognised
and the

both

Tagus
or

appear

would

of

L. B. A.

in

the

38 -

Nos.

(Baixo

Alentejo).

21,23,24,

CERRO SALOMON, Rio

by Schubart

listed
found

at

were

found

this

area

Figure

Conc.

of

9 shows

(Alto

...
(A few dubious
(Prov.

Tinto
1975a,.

(1960)

with

based

before

some of

this

the

are

noted

characteristic

L. B. A. material.

represented

material
the

have

used

been

found

in

coast,

the

Karte
do Sal

Alccer

'Southwestern'

area

and

(1975)and

by Pingel

highly

finds

probably

Schubart's

burnished

which

Alentejo);

the

Conc.

common

sherds

were

burnished,

The deposits

in

which

they

in

operations

in

major-. occupation

material.

are

(See

The two pattern

other

- most

and towards

from

of

surface

(Baixo

located

more

alone,

Moura

and ALCACER DO SAL,

finds

probably

sherds

of
is

settlements

area

Alentejo);

Huelva)

288. )

site

the

Moura

Alentejo);

burnish

pattern

valley

burnished

Pattern

Evora

SEGOVIA together

clearly

the

20)

and dimple

carinated

(In

(Alto

Campo Maior

GIRALDO,

of

Guadiana

de Lima

located

group'

and is

RATINHOS and AZOUGADA, Conc.

of

castro

the

Age date.

and Iron

Conc.

to

by Fragoso

The former

'intermediate'group

This

and Guadiana

present

cited

and with

are

(Estremadura)

Sesimbre

Alentejo).

Tagus

investigated.

are

castros

SEGOVIA,

at

been

9 castros

groups
type.

the

parallels

'intermediate
an

latter

'intermediate'
between

(Baixo

Moura

and Guadalquivir

of

interior

group;

The closest

on

on the

was. always

LAPA DO FUMO, Conc.

the

so few have
from

from

material

Tagus

the
the

the

than

the

-Figures

bowls

carinated

decoration

11 and 12).

Conc.

types

in

lllff-,

from

mainly

- the

one exception

CASTRO DE RATINHO,

represents
between

MANGANCHE sndages,

the

levelling

and fortification

began.

* All the pieces here are hand-made fine ware, highly

burnished
originally,
although in some cases the sherds are very worn, confirming
the stratigraphic observation
of their
secondary deposition.
1. body sherd (A I, level 8, no. 195);
2.16cm diameter rim (A I,
level 6, no. 181);
3. rim sherd of unknown diameter
(A I, level 6,
4.14cm diameter rim (A I, level
8, no. 193);
no. 182);
5.10cm
diameter rim (A I, level
8, no. 194);
6.28cm diameter rim (A I, level
6, no. 180);
7.24cm diameter rim (A I, level 8, no. 191);
8.28cm
diameter rim (A I, level
8, no. 190);
9.26cm diameter rim (A I, level
6, no. 179);
10. rim, unknown diameter
(A NW, level 8, no. 364);
11.22cm diameter rim (A I. level
8, no. 192), broad lug, just below rim;
12. body sherd with pattern
burnish
faces
on both interior
and exterior
(A I, level 8, no. 294);
13. body sherd with pattern
burnish on
interior,
of general Guadalquivir
type (A I., level. 7, no. 204).
I should like to thank Prof. J. D. Evans for
to use this
permission
information
from the 1971 excavation
at SEGOVIA.

147
)

u
0
-,

kS'Ym
kl Lr)
M
-A

: i
. .
`Ir tt
/ i

10

r.''
}y'

t:

' 1
I y!

'1
j,

.i

:'..
;
1
N

0
. r,
v
4J
d

0
41

0
ro
0

CO

8v
00
cWnd

1 Q
Nw
'H acl

148

The Guadalquivir
especially

pottery,
use

evolution

these

of

high,

with

interior

on the

of

also

(Blazquez

at

in

burnished
calls

'cerarmica

the

is

painted

ware

(Prov.

Cadiz)

(eg.

Alcores

(eg.

Bonsor

origin

of

1899.,

according

(1969,40ff),

and Maluquer

(1975);

(1972)

Niemeyer
ware

Alentejo)

by Schubart

and the
Schubart
from
their

Guadalquivir
1975a,

140).

surface

distribution.
on his

Huelva

city;

map:

finds

had

Miranda

painted
(Baixo.

Ourique

BOQUIQUE cave

the

even

wares

the

of

Conc.

Guadalquivir

its

and/or

de la

Frontera

and Garrido

largely

lists

pattern-burnished

Figure
the

del

following

zone

Amo 1973;
mainly

material,

(Schubart's

10

ware

coastal

1967;

unpublished

ALJARAQUE; NIEBLA;

Karte

38)

(pp. 288-9)

sites

CERRO SALOMON, Rio

VALENCINA,

Aljarafe;

LA ALGABA; EL MACARENO; LORA DEL RIO;

EL CASAR, El

Coronil

Cadiz);

Western

SEGOVIA,

main

(1961)

shows
that

CABEZO DE LA ESPERANZA and CABEZO DE SAN PEDRO,

EL ACEBUCHAL, Carmona;

the

Schle

burnished

these

ARCOS DE LA FRONTER4; MESAS DE ASTA (Prov.

west-of

Eastern

the

(1972-73).

EL CARAMBOLO, Camas;

CABEZA, Itlica;

in

The

Fernandez

NORA VELHA,

known:

Schubart

LA RABIDA;

Huelva):

Carmona;

is

of

the

60).

144),

and Raddatz

from

(Schubart

A lot

is

wares

Recently,

Huelva-Jerez

the

valley

collections,

figure

Prov.

in

concentrated

comes are

1975a,

1975a,

of

Frontera

and from

Lam. III)

it.

the

which

Carriazo
This

de la

Jerez

1971a,

and from

pattern

wares.

Schubart

origin

60),

Higuera

from

The settlements

oriental

(1975a,

with

Hunsrck-Eifel-Kultur.

claimed

de la

by Rivero

vicinity

Carriazo

and SAN

Sevilla)

burnished

(1963b):

supports

been

have

burnished

(cf.

(eg.

the

1975)

Mata

1973,542ff).

Lam. X and 1969,

the

from

(Ruiz

as coarse

MESAS DE ASTA,

Schubart

with

The local

material

associated

(eg.

and painted

to

questioned

recently

found

83-7)

and

CABEZO DE SAN PEDRO, Huelva

as well

Figures

burnished

Mediterranean

has

from
1945,

Esteve

the

Sevilla)

tart4sica'

pintada

connection

been

burnished,

known

also

pattern

suggested"a

has

ware

and undecorated

it

the

carinations,

CARAMBOLO, Camas (Prov.

At

painted

in

burnished

bowls.

shallow

(Prov.

from

material

1970).

al

PEDRO a finely

the

marked

can be recognised

wares

VALENCINA DE LA CONCEPC16N, Aljarafe

and noted

by highly

characterised

bowls

shallow

burnish:

pattern

of

is

L. B. A.

Andalusian

area:

Tinto

CERRO DE LA
ENTREMALO,
(Prov.

and to
Conc.

Sevilla);
the

north

Campo Maior

and

.19
H

v
cJ

C7

fir,

.4+0

7r

`4t(

4J
4J
M
U-4
0
4rj

00
OM

Oi

H cd
r: 1
01
. -4

rr

I/i

C) 4
ti
4U
'JT U
C!)

15 0.

(Alto

Alentejo)

(Prov.

and MEDELLIN

(Prov.

LA COLINA DE LOS QUEMADOS, Cordoba

(Pray.

Galera

original
sherds

the

of Niebla,

part

and Garrido

are illustrated

that

7th

of

burnished

century

1970,55-6,
with

the

date:

Figure
general

at

ware
ie.

40,
variation

is

LA JOYA,
Lam. XXVI):
of

ware,

Huelva
these

L. B. A.

from the Museum of

11:

Figure

from

(Prov.

listed

bowls

pattern

2 burials,
Huelva)

do not
burnished

they
burnished

and plain

the settlements

so far

Eastern

the

of EL DESEMBARCADERO

patterned

in all

known

burnished

A few pattern

here:

the

upon

enlarged

LOS BERMJALES and from

coarse

to be abundant

appears

Pattern

have

(1925,1926).

company are illustrated

the characteristic

represent

Andalusia:

and CERRO DEL REAL,

to be the site
which Pingel believes
in Pingel's
Some finds
publication.

the Rio Tinto-Patino

ware**

'La Mina'

cave

(1975)

and Orta

by Droop

publications
from

Cordoba)

Eastern

Grandd)"

(1975a)

Pingel

and in

Badajoz);

both

above.

probably

Tomb 9 (Garrido

appear

to

conform

ware. ***

* See: Schubart and Garrido 1967; Blzquez et al 1970; Pingel 1975a;

1970a, 1973; Bonsor 1899; Esteve 1942,
Garrido 1968 and 1975; Carriazo
del Amo 1973; Blanco et al 1969; Luzn and Ruiz Mata 1973;
1945,1969;
Pellicer
and Schle 1966; Carriazo
and Raddatz 1961.
**

***

irregulr,
hand-made grey brown,
1.29cm rim diameter,
with large
impressions
finger
2. c. 28cm rim
quartz particles,
on neck;
3. body sherd of same ware, with incisions;
diameter,
same ware;
5. body
4. body sherd of same ware, broader incisions/impressions;
decoration
sherd of fine grey, burnished ware with burnished
of
6.38cm rim diameter,
Guadalquivir-type;
brown-black-highly
burnished ware, with quartz filler;
7. c. 32cm rim diameter,
same
fine burnished ware as numbers 5 and 6.
The four pattern
burnished
vessels found in Tomb 9 were associated
with alabaster
and bronze vessels,
gold and amber beads of a necklace,
including
an iron knife,
barniz rojo,
amphorae and other pottery
and
burnished
bowls-appear
(figure
be
a scarab.
40,1-2)
pattern
to
-The
(given as 2mm!) shallow bowls with
thin-walled
thickened
rim
slightly
indeterminate
burnishing:
described
by Garrido as 'muy tenue';
and of
nothing more can be learned from the
poor j1"lustrations.

151

3,

4'

11:
Figure
Late Bronze

MUSEUM:
RIO TINTO
Age and Early
Iron Age material..

10 cm

1.5`I

At

SETEFILLA,
secondary

by Bonsor

and Paris)

verzierte

Keramik,

die

abweicht'

(1975a,

144).

dating

instead
in

the

is

settlements

characteristic

z. T.

and Schle

1966,21,

in

Level

of

the

ante

guem by the

red

slip

plate

rim,

is

the

first

half

dated

to

TOSCANOS, Velez

Malaga

1975a,

136ff).

Schubart

Finds
the

with
the

of

(Prov.

burnished

painted

context

specific)

of

559ff;

1973,542ff,

ware
the

Blzquez

in

7th
et

precision

this

CERRO DEL REAL,

a terminus

given

a 4cm broad
in

by parallels

1964,82ff;

and Schubart

the

associated
(but

general

(Carriazo

level

or

with

plate,

treasure

1970,15;

to

14.14;

are

preceding

century

of

EL CARAMBOLOwere

a level

al

1969)

century

from

wares

in

Figure

(Niemeyer

Malaga)

burnished

pattern

7th

L. B. A.;

or precedence

(two)

Meseguer
IV:

use

horizon.

sherds

Sanchez

Ware

great

of

the

of

with

'colonial'

to

not

degrees

varied

burnished

pattern

according

wares

by association

Phoenician

(Pellicer

VIII

very

'GlUttmuster-

Guadalquivir

is

evidence

burnished

- with

investigated

Schema der

burial

the

has recently

Schubart,

to

according

pattern

the

of

Aubet

A (originally

vom einfachen

mainly

the

of

and VII,

found,

Thus,

dated

Sevilla)

Tumulus

the

excavated

wares

The dating

IX/VIII

and has

material

GALERA, level

in

Guadalquivir

the

(Prov.

Rio

burials

excavated

for

del

Lora

1970,43ff;

and Blanco

1959,38,

an excavation

on the

Kukahn

not

etc).

CARMONA, Carriazo

At
exposed
associated

The most
L. B. A.

level
of

the

level

slip

modern
ware

town

in

carried

out

and found

level

4,

pattern

above

level

burnished

wares

'Boquique'

5 with

(1961).

wares

the

red

with

the

of

periphery

and Raddatz

come from

containing
1st
with

findings

significant

half
pattern

the

pattern
of

the

for

the

dating

of

CABEZO DE SAN PEDRO, Huelva,

burnished

8th

burnished

wares
by the

century
material

it must be pointed
* Unfortunately
involved
collection
of material
distinguished,
it
of the levels
of material,
must be questioned.

was given

beginning

where

the

a terminus

Phoenician

(Blazquez

the

et l

plates
1970).

of
first

ante
in

quem

a later

that
the SAN PEDRO 'excavations'
exposed deposits
and the reliability
would appear,
on the basis
of the sorting
out
from

153
J

The conclusion

and generally

in Granada and Huelva,

working

colleagues

by Schubart,

reached

is

by his

accepted

that

'Die Glttmuster-verzierte
Ware ... gehrte also
in die 1. Hlfte
des 8. und in das 7., wenn
nicht sogar in das 10. Jh. v. Chr., und lebt
noch
zusammen mit Drehscheibenware
andererseits
'
bis in das 7. Jh. v. Chr. fort
...
(Schubart

The Eastern

burnish

(Prove

with

characteristic

with

Phoenician

at

in

terms:
language

fact
has

the
even

arrival
been

burnished

the pattern
the L. B. A. (Blanco

of

et al

1969;

The occurrence
of finger-impressed
cordon
the city,
wares in the Huelva area, within

has been

etc,

content

cultural

coarse

and other

Tinto

phase of

replaces

slowly

and which

wares,

Luzon and Ruiz Mata 1973).

Rio

has an initial

which

by what the excavators

have
followed
occupation,
'infiltraci6n'
of people using coarse ware,
as an
incisions
cord applications,
etc, generally
associated

wares and the general

decorated

C6rdoba)

known from the COLINA DE

using

described

carefully

142)

sequence is best

Andalusian

LOS QUEMADOS,C6rdoba
pattern

1975a,

interpreted
of

by Blzquez

Western

European

in

recognised

the

et

people

material

of

al

(1970)

of

Indo-European

'Nivel

5'

in

similar

at

SAN PEDRO!

With

the

including

exception

of

are

said

silver,

pre-Phoenician

contact

using

the

or

within

presumably
no evidence
Guadalquivir
area

(cf.

were still
for

SAN PEDRO, where

to

'level';
settlements

an indigenous

area before
Fernandez

there

is

- nor

for

bronze

distributions
* The different
in
coastal-or
settlements
suggest that the evidence
(1973,376).
diferentes'

for

no evidence
that

industry

fragments,

metal

matter

in

metal

from

in

ie.

5a and 5b',

tombs or cists.

the beginning

Miranda

'Niveles

come from

in megalithic

smelted

working

burials

There

is

the

which

therefore

the Southwestern/

of Phoenician

activities

in

1975).

in hilly
of cist graves,
areas, and
have led del Amo to
riverine
situations
'dos mundos cronol6gicamenta
represents

this

154

The incorporation

of

Western

into

Iberia

the

L. B. A.

Atlantic

system

regional

in Schubart's

The situation
appears

to be somewhat different

context

of Atlantic

Bronze Age Phase II

and has to be viewed within

Iberian

the general

terms of its

and in

Bronze Age developments

the Northwestern

with

relations

'Southwestern'

specific
bronze-

Portuguese

and Central

centres.

working

The emergence of a bronze-working

centre in the Northwest,
probably
in
Argar
B
Bronze
the South and with the 'Southwestern'
contemporary with
has been noted,

Age Phase I,

with

west.
type,

Tanged

axes;

daggers

known,

are

include

one of

began

the

of metallurgy

Atlantic

Copper

points

the

Age

in Galicia

Cuevillas

to

Northwest;

Harbison

has
of

1953).

and northern

Western
Harbison

Portugal

Bujes

a palstave.

with
be used

during

certain

Argaric

1967,

Figure

1) which

the

sword

ie.

emphasised

the

preceded

in

(Prov.

Sarreaus

associated

castings,

seaboard
(eg.

types,

continued

the

she Cabrales

axes:

probably

(cf.

swords

of

da Pena,

was found

Argaric

superior

Lopez

and the

latter

the

bronze-working

eg.

the

Orense).

in

of

(Nocela

Portuguese

and Central

of the North-

connections

3 types

ROUFEIRO hoard

and Palmela

imports

Galicia

identified

one of

period

early

the

Argaric

with

and Barcelos

(Prov.

in

associated

Orense))

this

(1967,1968)

to Harbison's

referencp,

and Atlantic

work on the E. B. A. Mediterranean

Harbison

particular

the

connections

and Northern
describes

in

from

Europe,
the

the late

FORCAS
between
which

beginning

Beaker period:

'It
seems to have been set on its feet'by
influences
coming from the area of the El Argar
culture
and the south and centre of Portugal,
as Lopez Cuevillas
realized,
while the influence
from further
north along the Atlantic
seaboard
into
begins at a later
possibly
stage, continues
the Middle Bronze Age and is felt
even more strongly
'
with the onset of the "Bronce Atlntico".
[Late Bronze Age]

(1967,116-17)

15

The finds
hoard

narrow

of

un-looped

VALDEVIMBRE (Prow.

of

in

palstaves

Cantabria

and the

Len)

'in which a socketed

spearhead,
conical
spear
ferrule
and miniature
anvil
of north-west
European
types are associated
with
a saw, a
flanged
dagger of Argaric
axe and a riveted
affinity'

the beginning

represent
Age during

of the later

'foreign

which

phase of the Northwestern

metalworkers'from

across

the Bay of Biscay

in
have
been
themselves
the copper-mining
establishing
may
(Savory
1968,222-23;
north-west'
also Eiroa 1973-74, eg.
On the

basis

(1948,1949),
of

the

system

economic
Armorican

Briard

(cf.

Burgess

1965,

bivalve

mould casting

The analyses carried

(1913,351-2)
Siret
double-looped

and later
which

palstaves

useful

(ie.

The use of bronze

which

needed no or little

features

in

Iberia

into

centred

in

valleys
and in

contained

development
Northwest

the
the

Western

Southeastern

lead mixes which

are essential

a metal

bronzes,

andthe

bivalve

post-casting

France

in

distinguished

those

for

quoted

by

Northwestern

c. 10% tin.

percentage,

by

fluidity.

of considerable

ie.

a greater

20% lead

on the

14).

is

over

expanding

Britain

of the Northwest

requires

were true

by Savory

particularly

out by Craddock (1977) support

indicating
that the characteristic

some of the lead mixes

technically

85),

Figure

technology

bronze

Age,

and Loire

Figure

10,

Figure

The metalworking

Bronze

65,

Figure

industry

Northwestern

Gironne

the

1968a,

the use of true

of

Atlantic

the

of

peninsula,

(cf.

bronzeworking

incorporation

75).

the

and others,

of the-

areas

as recognised

(1965)

Briard

Iberian

elaborate
the

represents

connection;,

(1951),

MacWhite

most

Atlantic

the

of

Bronze

However,
lead

of

than was

some palstaves).

mould made elaborate

work,

possible.

castings,

Decorative

be - and were - cast;

long forms, such as swords, and
socketed implements such as spearheads or axes, could be produced and
in an 'as cast'
form.
Sheet bronze working was facilitated,.
used virtually
could

156

and leaded

and the use of standard

numbers of identical

large

produce

bronze

made it

also

requiring

objects,

little

very

post=
degree

the range of metal types, their

and consequently
in
form, decoration
sophistication
efficiency
of
and functional
casting

work,

the achievements

superceded

for

The evidence
comes from

centres
Briard's

a range

Final

III)

in hoards

(Bronze

Final

(1965,

Chs.

most

of

II)
XI

the Armorican,

derive

which

and XII).

from

Tongue Sword
A number

indicate

clearly

of this

connections

centres.

bronzeworking

and Carp's

in the Northwest

of bronzework

in particular

Atlantic,

types,

far

working

the Atlantic

with

of metal

traditions

bronze

peninsular

connections

St. -Brieuc-des-Iffs

(Bronze

found

the

of other

to

practicable

of

types

the

area:

PALSTAVES:
the

be related
(Although

(Figure

loops

of

these

palstaves

the

in

peninsula
(1947,

II

or

48)

L. B. A.

France.
618).

Figure

in

palstaves

horizon,

eg.

Spanish

II'

types,
the

Figure

eg.

St. -Brieuc

Some Iberian
Savory

France

ROULLIASSE in

Briard

found

in

Rosnodn

appear

to

have

60,1-5.

is

phase
examples

(1948,1958)

and in

(see

are

palstaves

Saintogne,

Iberia

1965,

65).

Figure
(L. B. A.

the

to

I)

stronger

the

illustrated
the

can

The distribution

limited

are

noted

Britain

in

found

palstaves

Armorica

palstaves

the

during

narrow
in

III

some single-looped

context

type

L. B. A.

to

ribbed,

median

single-looped,

within

associated

with

Armorican

by Carriazo

association

broadly

of

the

Iberian

of

Tongue

Carp's

axe

an end-winged

sickle.

and a socketed

SWORDS:
In the RIO SIL hoard,

Wilburton-St.

sword of general
with

eg. Plate

Burgess's
bronze

* Savory

41),

Broadward

leech

del

pendant.

1968,225;

a hollow-bladed
complex

(Burgess

(Briard

spearhead
spearhead
1968b,

a leaf-shaped

Orense)

was found

affinities*

The hollow-bladed

Lopez Cuevillas

(Prow.

Rio Sil

-Brieuc

M. B. A. basal-looped

a British

1976,

San Esteban

of

1965,197;

the type

31, Figure

spearhead

1955; Almagro,

associated

is

Inv.

Rowlands

found

22,5-7),

in
and a

an 8th-century

Arch.

type.

E. 3 (no. 42)..

17

This

8th century,

but

date,

century

of earlier

indicates

probably

in
hoard
the
the
of
ie. of 10th and"9th
material,

of the deposition

the presence

Atlantic.

of these

date

Almagro's

supports

date of the establishment

the earlier
Savory (1949,134-141,
Figure 4, and

connections.

the finds and occasional

p. 152) has listed
Ponga (Prow. Asturias)
of these leaf-shaped

eg. at SOBREFOZ,

associations,

U- and V-shoulders.

swords with

and western distribution

of these leaf-shaped
noted by Savory (1949,1968,225)
and their Atlantic
origin
(see also Almagro 1966).
questioned

The northern

The most
Tongue

best

type,

the

near

estuary

known
wharf

and c. 100 fragmentary

Savory

237)

are

tip,

marked midrib,

haft

(cf.

Carp's

Briard

general

as well

tended

centre

does appear

of production.

two Carp's

**

in

that

5;

Carp's

Tongue

Savory

holes

in

Arch.
to

the

was left

Almagro

Odiel

1940,

1923,

E. 1 and
300 complete
in

the

Figure

1965,203ff,

ie.

narrowing

blade

with

and a 'fish-tail'

shoulders
feature

instead

Although

of the Spanish

holes on the
of rivet
Savory (1948) noted that

on leaf-shaped

as well

as Carp's

as well

as in Iberia,

the Iberian

to be exceptional

and implies

an indigenous

France

At HIO, Cangas de Morrazo

Tongue swords were associated

2 swords from the

* These include
said to have come from 'Safra,
appear in Almagro (1940, Figure
The same swords
o Portugal)'.
in the
as coming from a 'hoard'

18,

Briard

type,

the use of slots

the

1968,233-5;

The distinctive

rivet

addition

Carp's

the

Huelva,

Inv.

(cf.

straight

plate.

in

more material

swords

Figure

as the hilt

to replace

de Tharsis

recovered,
Tongue

up from

be

cannot

is

Iberia

bibliogrdphy;

claims

1965,203)..

Tongue swords in Atlantic

arrangement

with

deep ricassi,

Tongue swords is

shoulders
slots

the

(1940,

pieces

1949,152-3,

19;

dredged

material

Compania

in

found

sword

the

Carp's

The Iberian

of

the

(1947,797ff)

Carriazo

seabed.

from
of

by Almagro

and published
1975).

L. B. A.

characteristic

swords was

with

(Prov.

spear-heads,

Pontevedra)
sheet

bronze

Museu Etnol6gico
Belem,
Portugues,
Alemtejo'
they
and from 'Alemtejo';
17,8-9)
(Extremaduro
'Alemtejo
from
as
(1975a),
appear in Schubart's
catalogue
Evora area.

** Which Savory (1968,233)

believes
in the southwest
was established
by 'late
from the valleys
but
Tagus',
colonists
Upper
Ebro
the
of
and
located'in
which was almost certainly
the Northwest.

158

vessel(s),

single-looped

and two early

date

socketed

of deposition,
In

ferrules

of
small

Phalerae,

all
in

others
bronze,

arrow-heads,
of

vertical

of

absence

similarities
detail

below.

(1940)

and Inv.

10 simple

or multiple
sheet

pieces

of

5 bronze
of

Among the

swords

in

E. 1,

were

the Balearics,

sword series,

but

unlike

to

hoards

included

is

hoard

90);

cylindrical

2 belt

Briard

or

that

they

hooks

the Italian

are part
swords

n-: ed for

phalerae,

(cf.

helmets

(1965,237)

of

like

those
the

Almagro

Inv.

Schle

by Almagro

78 swords,
2 pin

heads,

perforations,

1969,116),
as

(Almagro

Tongue

type

notes

that

they

some solid

of the Atlantic

are

1975).
hilted
found

also

Carp's

Tongue

Mediterranean

'typiques
* The daggers are notched or with rivet-holes
which are
Bronze Atlantique
(1965,237).
to Briard
espagnol',
according
**

the

greater

(as well

fragments

Eastern

of

as many as 100,

some with

and 4 fibulae

(of

in

as published

pieces**,

Carp's

hooks

(possibly

no

HUELVA too;

62 ferrules,

and c. 100 unidentified

of

in

be considered

will

spear-heads

from

bt

pieces

HUELVA (cf.

14 'buttons'

possibly

and

pieces,

The significance

1975a,

Schubard

- generally

found:

ring

belt

of

and

spearheads

HUELVA hoard,

the

of the HUELVA hoards,

torques,

fibulae),

fragments

This

applies

these

rings,

bronze

of

E. Q.

Cceres),

HUELVA; one large

and multiple

and pieces

also

17 arrowheads,

pieces

examples

of

The contents

and 29 daggers*,

with

in

found

in

(Prov.

Madroflo

Lm. 34,35,37,38).

(1947,797;

Carriazo

parallels

Arch.

which

Arch.

have

saw blade;

Inv.

content

rings

del

possible.

together

those

bronze

also

or lumps,
and cylindrical
perforations
which are found

see especially
of

to

a 7th century

suggests

is

date

hooks,

1951, Lam. XXXV;

'beads'

a bronze

palstaves,

E. 1 -

Arch.

also

some with

HUELVA (Almagro

from

cf.

which
bronze

of

Almagro

was found

sword

resemblance

Iberia;

and a piece

an 8th century

Tongue

striking

and two

E. 9);

Arch.

CABEZO DE ARAYA, Navas

of

a Carp's

of

a piece

but

hoard

the

Inv.

flesh

armrings,

(eg. MacWhite

axes/chisels

1961; Almagro

Schubart

2 bronze

palstaves,

du

Blazquez (1975,415)
de bronce'
claims that 'tortas
cilindricas
from the Coleccion
Calzadilla
came from Extremadura and represent
introduced
by the Phoenicians.
It is nt clear what these
currency
in
found
are like,
nor whether they resemble the cylindrical,
pieces
these 2" hoards.

159

derivation,
for

Hencken (1956,134)

Hencken 1956).

cf.

a date

proposes

the HUELVA material

of some time during the 7th century,

although
that some of its contents were earlier
types; the basis of
'Sicilian'
fibulae,
the
are
which Schule (1969,25ff)
regards

he admits
date

this

as an Eastern

Mediterranean

than Sicilian
-. rather
- type which originated
in the 9th century at the latest.
Almagro (Inv. Arch E. 1) proposes a
date in the 2nd half of the 8th century,
ie. in the period
deposition
during

types were in use.

these

which

in the general

Atlantic

(1952)
Hawkes
and

Tongue horizon;

Carp's

In summary, it

can be said

that

the majority

the presence
date

impose an earlier

proposes

of earlier

material

on the deposition

in

found

of the types

HUELVA and CABEZODE ARAYA were 8th and 7th century

case of RIO SIL,

it

includes

date.

7th century

an early

(1965,237)

Briard

in
the
as
and,

types

be used to

cannot

of the hoard.

SPEARHEADS AND FERRULES:

a large

variety
but

parallels,

these

of
all

There

Age products.

Bronze

the

within

spearheads

from

RIO SIL,

Arch.

E. 1,

Lam. 28,140)

Inv.

bladed

The single
Atlantic
of

(Prov.

in

Santander)

these
type

(cf.

(Prov.

origin

together

and three

Figure
of

34,
the

with

the

the

daggers,

Inv.
is

dated

examples

hooks,

to

CARBARCENO

the

the

regards

of

of

Rosnoen

HUERTA DE ARRIBA hoard

a spearhead,

(Almagro

Arch,

connections

Five

lines,

the

of

Irish

he also

engraved

palstaves

Almagro
hoard

in

found

1965,196).

1968,22405,233).

with

Late

HUELVA (Almagro

specifically

HIO flesh

to

basal-looped

other

cauldrons;

(Savory

rivetted

double-looped

Lam. XIII;

razors,

were

the

Le6n)

two decorated

1965,196)

Briard

Burgos)

armrings
109,

including

razors,

ie.

the
from

are

on the

Middle

(Briard

type
sickle

remarks

as Irish

ie.

spearhead

button

(Prov.

and LOIS

HUELVA lunate-spearhead

lunate

specific

Atlantic

of

imports,

a few

Iberia,

many with

range

of. Wilburton

Savory

found

some material

re

and the

connections.

Iberia,

general

and the

razor

in

found

are

E. 5).
the

8th

1943;
Despite
or

7th

an awl,
MacWhite
the

two
1951,

earlier

century.

i3O

There
B1

are

bronze

Atlantic

(1957),

following

and British

L. B. A.
(p. 160)

staples'

Hawkes

CARBARCENO, cf.
Schubart

(1961)

cauldron

in

has

Pontevedra);

and Northern

in

(Prov.
of

Atlantic

for

the

bronze

vessels

in

10.

CARBRCENO
(Prov.

and A PENEDA, Arcade

other

Irish

HfO and

at

Figure

map,

class

riding

Iberia

Northern

parallels

Lehn)

- all

within

of Iberia

regions

of the British

combine some elements

that

closer

bronze

sheet

distribution

and Smith's

LOIS

in

the

and Smith

'ring-handles

with

found

as a series

as well

the Northwest

cauldrons

to

by Hawkes

The characteristic

are

recognised

from

finds

as distinguished

(1930).

Leeds

can be related

CAULDRONS, which

cauldrons,

round-based

bronze

cast

bronze

also

- which appear to
He suggests
and buckets.

cauldrons

centre of bronze sheet

may have been an'indigenous
(1961,50)
the Northwest
as proposed by Hawkes (1952):
there

production

.f

'El

ha debido
de Carbrceno
caldero
ser fabricado
del Bronce Final
del
atlantico
por broncistas
de un modelo prototipico
de Espafia,
noroeste
importado
de Irlanda.
Se situaria
hacia
el final
del siglo
VII. '

(pp. 110-111)

it
and
than

therefore
the

from

material

Iberian/Atlantic

imports,

to the imported

of the L. B. A.

The content

indication
some
Iberia

within

of the date
the Atlantic

In Western
replaced
L. B. A. III

briefly

France

broad bladed

There are no winged

regional

and Britain,

Bexley

the Northwest

of content,

we have a

developments
Atlantic

as general
bronze

can

which

products

production

integration

of the greatest

palstaves

in Armorica,

illustrates

of the indigenous

production

Burgos).

indigenous

as well

bronze

sheet

in terms

and also
types

of
(Prov.

here

connections:

seaboard

number of Atlantic

phase

HUERTA DE ARRIBA

described

The material

be related

a later

represents

gives

us

of Northwest

network.

socketed

during

the Carp's

Heath tradition

axes known in Iberia

axes and end winged

in

axes

Tongue Complex (ie.

Southeastern

and only. a few socketed

Britain).
axes

1948).
(some of which have the later
(as
by
savory
square socket feature)
noted
indigenous'
This would imply that the large double-looped
an
which was
palstave

IG 1

from the smaller

development
and MacWhite)

Tongue

Complex,

series

in

Tongue

Complex

of

the

L. B. A.
elements

harnessing

1968a,

Burgess

horse

harnessing

indicate

Iberia:

the

elaborate

are
in

found

'bugles'

in

found

Iberia,

cast

noticeably,

1965,

no obvious

range
the

most

(Briard

fact,

In

fretwork,

and,

plaques,

the

13).

Figure

a horse-riding

decorative

classic

open

Figures

complexes

and although

HUELVA and CABEZO DE ARAYA,

axe

Carp's

the

the

btonze

including

material

were

and phalerae

for

decorated

Armorican

the

of

Carp's

the

of

period

many of
in

found

not

the

bronze

Northwestern

of

beginning

the

arm and neckrings,

material

75-84;

during

Furthermore,
are

hollow-cast

ended

before

III.

and ornaments,

razors

have

median
can be said

It

axes.

socketed
repertoire

by Savory

Armorican

the

of

the

of

and certainly

late

bronze

and British

to

appear

would

production

equivalent

domination

Armorican

the

that

French

and the

axes

winged

functional

was the

(as recognised

palstaves

of

some rings
do not

they

they may h,,.oe been used

found in the
the golden tutuli

complex of material:
as were perhaps

purposes

Southwest.

There
Loire

a number

are

with

connection
to

appears

(Burgess

tradition
shaped

be more

swords

has

features

of

Iberia.

8):

been

briefly

the

the

example
of

characteristic
1968a,

which

For

the

for

than

type

sword
the

Wilburton
leaf-

U-shouldered

these

but

above,

an Armorican/

U-shouldered

St. -Brieuc

evidence

noted

indicate

distinctly

(1940

see Almagro

and

decorated
details.
The
Carp's
Tongue
swords
with
more
blades,
to
are considered
cf. HUELVA (Almagro Inv. Arch. E. 1 Lam. 2,5-8)
(1965,
by
Carp's
Tongue
Briard
be an early"development
the
within
series
.
205); these swords with engraved lines along the midrib have the distinctfor

1966,143ff)

ive

it
is
the
and
shoulders,
slots on
began in Iberia
that their
production

Iberian

suggest

the Carp's

Tongue swords are never

Iberia,

they

(1965,237
socketed

Briard

Tongue sword series.

associated

are in Brittany,

and Figure

2 loops

axe with

The PEN-AR-PRAT

73,4);

(Briard

1965,211)

which;

content

of

the

many of

another

as will

one was found

stage within
Carp's

although

in

palstaves

at PEN-AR-PRAT, Le Folgogt,

was found

large

that

notes

to

possible

at an early

double-looped

with

(211nmm long)

palstave

also

therefore

Finisthre

at ANGERS.

at SAINTE-SUZANNE, Mayenne (p. 211).

revealed

a high

be shown below,.

double-looped

palstaves

tin

content

corresponds
in

the

with

20% -

the

Northwest.

1')

Briard

in Carp's

found
(Briard

Savory notes

analyses)

in Iberia,

Baixa)

eg. at
Tongue

Carp's

of

swords

but

palstaves:

and single-looped

of Stuttgart

the association

and ERVEDAL (Beira

Pontevedra)

cakes

of some copper

origin

(on the basis

Tongue hoards

1965,47).

HIO (Prov.

Iberian

the possible

notes

also

'On the other

hand neither
the remaining
elements
in the carp's
tongue sword complex of France,
nor
West Alpine
types are
winged axes or many other
in
if
the Iberian
at
all,
represented,
well
indication
This
good
provides
a
of
peninsula.
industry
Iberian
Atlantic
this
the horizon
on which
it
impact
from
the
resulted
of
originated
...
'B. ' upon Biscayan
France,
but before
Hallstatt
tongue sword
the development
carp's
of the full
'
there.
complex

(1948,60)
The beginning

(1965,239)

Briard

240),
Tongue

Complex
to

according

are

elements
Armorican

into

1959)

Kossack

must

more like

suggested

(1967)

the

(1957)

(1963,

Butler

continuation

contemporary

is

century

C (which

Carp's

of

began

c. 720,,
Tongue

Late

Carp's

with

the-6th

century

The Carp's

Tongue tradition

now appears
'continuing
types
and
many
17),

The examples
connection,
ie.

Tongue swords were

the French swords (1965., 237),

influence

to be represented

France

1968a,

than

swords

the Armorican

was overemphasising

(Burgess

Carp's

(and
the
only complete)
comparison on
most elaborate
Tongue swords in France from the Loire valley
and he

his

example of Carp's

1974,210).

the Iberian

that

English

the Southern

he was basing

phase,

and Smith

be recognised.

part

8th

axe series.

When Briard

Iberian

the

Hallstatt

early

in

probably

also

Hawkes

and Cowen

elements

in

Complex

Tongue

and following

accepted

generally

Carp's

the

of

TBronze

given

here

particularly
Final

III.

old

therefore
during

the

The overwhelming

Burgess
and Western

Britain

Southern

industries

cross-Channel

one dominated

neither

would

in

by bronzeworking

the centuries

in which

(cf.

on Britain

sharing

connections...

the other.

the

substantiate

Tongue

early-Carp's
feature.

Armorican/

of

this

complex
phase

of

'

163

bronze-working

Armorican

is

and the distribution

range of products

in production,

the enormous increase

of

the bronze

the

work:

'Derivd
de Saint-Brieuc-des-Iffs,
partiellement
le groupe de l'dpde
en langue de carpe est
important
et quantitativement
qualitativement
(plus
de 60 d6p6ts,
dont certains
contiennent
I1 est le
et debris).
plus de 500 instruments
des types et aussi
t4moin d'une
stabilisation
d'une production
des circuits
en sdrie
attestant
de fabrication
et d'dcoulement
au
parfaitement
de nombreux
dchanges
point,
que permettent
'
les
d'Europe.
toutes
commerciaux
avec
r4gions

(Briard

there

At the same time,

Southeastern

England

is

The increased

(Burgess

bronze

that

the period
eg. 281-2)

1968a),

Atlantic

and Central

connections

in Denmark).

corresponds

Hawkes (1952,103)

and Sanders

of the expansion of Central

into
(and population)
B, influence

Hallstatt

boundary

of the traditional

Elements

Europe.

not

amid Scandinavia

seaboard

of

Urnfield

incursions).

As Briard

between

metalworking,

incorporated
into
bracelets,
were
axes
and
winged
(eg. Butler
1963,240),
which supports
repertoire
(but

production

of prosperity

Atlantic

on the

(1948,156-9),

and a breakdown

France

Norther. L France,

in

as the period

recognise

Northern

in bronze

V was a time

production

Savory

Urnfield,

European Late

increase

a similar

1963, eg. 229; Montelius

(Butler

with
(1957,

1965,294)

the Carp's

as

such

Tongue

the case for

Urnfield

notes:

'Les rapports
avec les Champs d'Urnes sont
les nombreux
complexes; plus qu'une invasion,
ddj
import4s
le
comme
notaii
suggrent,
objets
W. Kimmig ... des relations
commerciales
actives
dans la zone de contacts
que
particulierement
fut l'embouchure
de la Loire qui connut a. cette
'
dpoque une prospdritd
jamais
encore
atteinte.

(1965,238)
The intensive
Northern
Butler

peripheries
remarks

European
merely

interaction

trade

peripheral

that

between

during

Hallstatt

'Northern

influence

Central

...

phenomenon'

Europe

and its

for

B were such that

Europe was, of course,

and the East-West
(1963,228);

Western

under

[Atlantic]

and

Montelius

V,

heavy Central
trade

was a

164

relationship

between

and Northern

peripheries

But this
its

Western

indications

of
(cf.

elements

Hallstatt

1968a).

Burgess

The exact

in detail,

examined

but

industries

B, the bronze

Hallstatt

had been boosted

exploitation

and consumption

C (ie.

of". Hallstatt

re-oriented
ie.

the

mid

8th

the

7th,

Greeks

were

century,
Etruscans

were

of the Adriatic

by the end of

a re-orientation

of production

over

communication

routes

in

result

the disruption

Northern

and Western

expected

to occur

Central

of bronze

heavy

tools

In Atlantic

in

on the borders

of

were

their

Southern

south,
by the

France

Greeks

during
head

the

at

This

to satisfy

would,

links

regional

predictably,
the

with

can be

of dislocation

and signs

economic

system,

Hallstatt

C in

economy.

technology

in a decline

had been required

were being
for

in order

economic

the former

of iron

have resulted

in general,

in

the south.

from the new regional

that

to

Po valley,

the

of the established

and weapons which

Europe

were

Europe

Mediterranean

significance

areas

Europe would

quantity

partners

the development

of

This would have involved

the 7th century.
and trade in raw metals as well as control

peripheral

which were excluded

Secondly,

in

of emerging

the demands of new trading

peripheries

of the Atlantic

Central

of

Central

the

and Greeks

established

During

scale

directly

opportunities

and Etruscans

changing

with

Europe must be considered

economies

within

operating

the

as of bronze production
Two features
of the beginning

in Central

C the

new trading

towards

with

and Western

developments
the
to
understand
subsequent
we are
bronze industries
regional
and their
organisation.
Hallstatt

clearly

as well

end 8th century)

during

to be

peripheries.

if

Firstly:

has yet

the increasing

of both

Europe.

Central

quite

in

as cited

we are dealing

that

in raw metals,

within

relations

contrasts

isolated
interpreted

have

and others

on the Northern

as a consequence

and trade

Coles

C: the

represent

areas

Europe and its

between Central

relations

economic

these

of these

nature

core area and

many authorities

which

the evidence
This implies

B situation.

Hallstatt

in

(Hawkes,

etc.

raiding,

of

European

was to change in Hallstatt

C connections

COURT ST. ETIENNE)

indicative
as

the Central

during
replaced

example

during

in demand for
Hallstatt
by iron

in"Armorica,

the vast

B for

producing

counterparts.
based
economies

105
)

on bronze
(a)

(b)

decline

distribution

within

availability

of raw metals

thereby
in

having

had

basis

on the

therefore

to

part

of

with

Northwestern

Iberia

have

involved

the

since
to

copper

the

bronze

centres

but

tin,

the

their

Complex

phase

on the
major

At

too.

basis

rivers,

shipment

became

which

copper

or

the

of

this

time,

small

relays

with

the

hoards

that

there
of

source

along

probable

here

L. B. A.

the

imply

would

and the

Armorican

hoards

Tongue

suggested

stage,

not

As Briard

Carp's

major

Central

certainly

65 and 85)

of

reaching

from

there.

is

copper

stage,

Northwest,

the

the

which

indirectly

It

production.

later

certainly

most

this

at

this

would

The relation

for

Figures
at

and

the

Armorica.

of most

communication

system

during

developed

that

situation

Iberia

towards

awaiting

raw
trade

coastal
the

was

coast

and

collections

representing

metalworking/distributing

use could_no

metals.

of

the

(1965,295,

area

Tongue

In Armorica,

materials

Loire

of maritime

by way of

centres.

industry

island
and

coastal

in

ores

the

and products,

resources,

few

organised

metalwork

tin

there'are

only

was probably

the

during

regional

would

ie,

the

not

in

III

Armorica,

Carp's

the

Final

from

a re-orientation

of

to obtain

flourished

supplies

Northwest

the

role
of

to

is

of

that,

and the

crucial

inland

partners,

resources

possible

the

Armorica

metals:

trading
difficult

had

also

support

noted,

during

as silver

St. -Brieuc-des-Iffs

access
It

European

Bronze

during

renowned.
to

was supplied

location

as well

a single

of

procurement

e'.

Armorican

is

Northwest

the

doubly

that

part

Central

their

reorientate
century,

in

of bronze

being

of
to

access

8th

enough

to Southern

industries

bronze

Atlantic

the

century,

Europe,

bronze

the peripheries.

Thus

have

for

or raw metals

the components

making

and their

and tin

of copper

have been supplied

could

by:

decreasing
Europe and therefore
in the dependent peripheries;
and

Central

surpluses,

and gold,

has

in exploitation

the probable

the bronze

8th

would have been threatened

production

longer

and from
As noted

the need to sustain

high

bronze

depend on. the Central-European

the 8th century
above,

would

supplies

local

of raw

on Iberian
Tongue
in.
Crp's
the
cakes

probably

one of the copper

production

for

have relied

166
0

was shown to be of Iberian

material
large

Tongue hoards.

in Carp's
independent
Bay of

the

Biscay

economic
within

Central

part

the

of

and the
*,

sphere

the

of

revolution'

of

influences

from

or

phase

Butler

mid

the

immigrant

8th

century

areas

into

connected

despite
- whether

early

C has been

noted

(1965,239)

following

the

the
B,

Briard
that

occurring

Hallstatt

with

Hallstatt

around

a-single

Although

centuries.

notes

of an

transformations

(1963,240),

century,

7th

mid

major.

with

(1968a)

Burgess
the

is

the

seaboard

and 6th

horizon

later

(1957),

and Smith

the

7th

the

Tongue

Carp's

Cowen (1967,416).

trade

in

linking

network
Atlantic

from

1965,47

the development

stimulated

northern

separate

Europe

contemporeneity
Hawkes

This

and commercial

economic

debris

as casting

cakes as well

copper

and 225);
included
are frequently

(Briard

type

apparent

resulting

the

the

and
'industrial

Hallstatt
from

by

confrontation,

smithy:

'Everywhere
must have
the range
few. of the
of Hallstatt
(p. 26)

industrial
traditions
the existing
basically
for
undisturbed,
continued
is small,
and
material
of Hallstatt
hoards show any great degree
relevant
'
influence.

final
with
the
that
characterise
sockets
square
axes is
in
Carp's
Tongue
Armorica
B.
L.
A.
the
appear whilst
material
phase of
in
found
later
have
been
in
but
even
and
use,
were mainly produced
still
The socketed

association
282).
axes:

with

Briard's

characteristic
Figure

212 in Brittany,

79 hoards,

containing

Iron

Age material

(Briard

1965,275,

109 shows the amazing number of hoards of socketed

further
(1965,242)
22,100
a
with
containing
axes
10,400

axes known from Manche and Mayenne.

Most

in Lopez Cuevillas
listed
* The few socketed axes found in the Northwest,
between the two areas continued
(1955), indicate
that the connections
into the period in which socketed axes with square sockets had become
dominant:
'siendo de notar que la mayor parte se localizan
en
la costa o en sus proximidades
de las
y que varias
como ocurre en una de-Hio y en otra de Rotiz,
piezas,
aparace ei tubo cuadrado, *tan commun en Breta a... '
(Lopez Cuevillas
1955,238)
type;
But, the HIO socketed axes/chisels
fact a. much earlier
are-in
development
and the Portuguese socketed axes appear to be an indigenous
type, having two loops (of which 4 finds are mentioned
of the Atlantic
by MacWhite 1951,72,
Figure 18).

167

hoards,
ground

in layers in
of axes, were deposited
Briard has distinguished
a stone (p. 243).

with

and covered

of Axes, on the basis of length and weight,

have differing
metal content and be the products
types

working

The large

centres.

variety

for
used
moulds were

clay

recognisable
from

the

made up exclusively

significant
(especially

in addition

that

(1965,282

to the pure

Trdhou and Couville)

lead has traces

of silver

contain

and Figure

lead

which

axes,

that
are

of hoards
105).
It is
types

axes of other
20% lead.

more than

'(The

lead. )

Breton

characterise

bronze

types

of the contents

to

appear

to Briard

and regional

production

and inland

areas

also

of distinct

of axes suggests

on the basis

Brittany

within

the coastal

their

which

'La

des d4p0ts
de haches douille,
multiplicite
des ddp6ts
en gros les deux tiers
qui reprdsentent
pose encore de nombreux
recueillia
en Bretagne,
de la hacke-monnai
que la thgorie
problmes
ne
l'hypothbse
On peut avancer
suffit
pas a resoudre.
dune
brusque
d'artisanats
fondeurs,
prolif9ration
des d4p6ts
dans toute
la Bretagne
ce que 1'6tendue
brusquement
les
venant
accroftre
peut cnfirmer,
h une dpoque oil cet alliage
de bronze
stocks
va
industries
les
du fer.
Les
etre
supplantd
par
haches douille
le premier
prdsenteraient
alors
industrielle
surproduction
en Armorique.
cas 'une
des gisements
On peut aussi
que l'dpuisement
penser
la difficult6
de s'approvisionner
d'dtain,
en cuivre
fabriquer
teneur
des alliages
conduisirent
donnant
de mauvaise
en plomb,
anormale
un metal
le discr4dit
qui jeta
qualitd
sur un commerce qui
d'un commerce 1'echelon
eu 1'honneur
avait
pourtant
'
europden.

(Briard
These hoards
in

can be seen to represent

the Western

periphery

up of the former
The extraordinary

This

in

of

castings

been. used as ingots;

of

in content,

subsequently,

distribution

and/or

the 3 constituents
and probably
'bronzes'
weight,

'bronze'

B.
A.
L.
of

was less

etc.

centres.

the smelting

which

production

and the break-

7th and 6th centuries

whose composition

the production

of bronze

the disturbance

production

in raw metals

and due to the variation

utilised.

the late

combinations

to produce
resulted

in

coastal-based

was due to shortages

scrap

1965,294)

down of

competently

were often
were unlikely

the axes were. disposed.

of,

controlled.

unusable
fo have
rather

than

1s8

L. B. A. developments

The Armorican

The beginning

evolution.

dominance

Armorican
during

an early

were significantly

former

on the latter

Eiroa's

of

exploitation

in

tin

III)

th(.

best

are

Lopez

situations.

and riverine

coastal

and Northwestern

dependence

that

palstaves

(MacWhite's

Iberia
Bronce

It

of the

raw metals.

double-looped

Iberian

Northwestern

III;

Atlantico
in

in

due to an increasing

essential

production
above.

between Armorica

the relations
altered

for

The distinctive
L. B. A.

that

bronze

has been discussed

III

in

and the decline

connections
of Northwestern

the content

of Bronze Final

part

Iberia

the

of Armorican

over

been proposed

has also

bronze

Iberian

of the Northwestern

to the understanding
are relevant
industry,
its inception
and subsequent

and Santa
known

from

Cuevillas

characterise
Bronce

Olalla's
the

noted

found

hoards
that

the

Northwest

habia, provocado
desde los comienzos
del
...
industrial
Bronce un fuerte
movimiento
y
comercial,
que se nos revela
en el gran nmero
de hachas,
sobre todo de ta16n aqui encontradas,
ye en la, situaci6n
costera,
o muy proxima
a la
de los grandes
totalidad
costa de la casi
dep6sitos
registrados,
que nos indica
que los
de bronce
objetos
se concentraban
en los lugares
en que el trfico
era is s frecuente
y vivo y
que su exportaci6n
se realizaba
por via
'
maritima.

(1955,13)

The distribution
(1927),
is

c. 300 palstaves
only

(1955),

L6pez Cuevillas

shown in Figure

12.

Monteagudo

When del

20% had one,

'calaic

the main

sided

blade,

plain

loops;

its

distribution

extending

as published

Castillo

by del

(1951)

Ldpez

Castillo

(1973-74),

and Eiroa

published

in 1927,

7 hoards

were known; by 1951, Monteagudo

4 had no loops,

He defined

hoards,

these

of

or with

to the Duero,

knew of c. 700, of which

and 80% had two loops (Monteagudo 1951).

type,

with

one narrow

was within
and including

a short,
or 3 broad

ancient
part

more or less
ribs,

'Galleicia',

usually
ie.

straight
having

Galicia

of Ldon and Asturias.

2
and

One of"

1'_1I,STAVG I, RJ)S
I

SAMIE IRA

3
4
5
6
7

PARADELA
SINES
TREMOEDO (CAMBADOS)
SAN JI .A?i 01; I, ACAO
I" Vl1
PASTORIZA
(minor)

8
9
LO
11
12
13

o CD

(n?a jor)

DEP,

MUINO DA GRANZA
VILAR DF, MOUROS
VIATODOS
GANFEI,
VILAFRIA
ARNElVON

1_.
TI? 1!()11\1\'!
)S OF ATLANTIC
LOCAL. IRON, /Flo, ORK:

HIO

R10

c
d

CABEZO DE ARAYA
SOURE

e
f

ARGAN IL
PRAGANCA

HUELVA

AND

SIL

OF
1)TSTRIBUTION
CENTRAL PORTUGUESE
TYPES

'mot

\
,.,

\\

Q-

R
DO

SAL

Nye

1`

EVORA
inourzA

`, `

Figure
main
work.

II

12:
Distribution
Late
Age
Bronze

of
bronze-

170

the Monteagudo's
,

the Estremeno. type

type

by Savory

Portuguese

Central

Although
finds

of

recognised

from

palstaves
(Prov.

is

here

emphasis

our

La Guardia

is
the flat-backed
(1949) and MacWhite (1951).

sub-types*

on hoards,

some from

Galicia,
(del

Pontevedra)

there

are

many single

(1954)

Monteagudo

1927).

Castillo

STA TECLA,

eg.

settlements,

'steatite'
and
clay,
moulds
of
or bronze, for palstaves
many
notes
flat
Eiroa '(1973-74) notes that not
axes have been found in castros,
that

only

but

palstaves

daggers,

swords,

beads,

spearheads,

flat

axes and a

axes are known to have been found in stone cists,

with
tombs during the later
that replaced
the megalithic
tumuli,

few socketed

or

without

Bronze

From this

Age.

is

so little

known

period.

It

especially

those

occupying

dominance,

when control

increasingly
was
have

castros
evidence
but

NEIXON,

Noya

casting

double

Siret
which

were

lead

content

Granada)

dated

settlement

some have

to

access

being
been

of

be shown

will

zones for

suitable

strategic

the

to

or

its

interior

rather

Age occupation,

(Prov.

La

Corufia),

where

(1913)

has published

either

true

bronzes

(pp. 351-2):

and DIEZMA

(Prov.

was found

Figure

two double-looped
Granada)

in
eg.

(Figure

coastal

during

which

in

the Northwest

to

Frankenstein

1971),

STA TECLA;

and Castro

mould

125,1-3),

or

palstaves

from

palstaves

had

are

for
1975).

Cortina

double-looped

125,2-3),

L. B. A.,

the

Northwestern

the

(De Blas

of

or

and settlement

bronze

a tripartite

some analyses
(cf.

to

by any reference

than

pre-Iron

axes

regard

So far

of

socketed

castros,

into

network

signs

looped

the

zones

(discussed

content

many of

occupied

important.

by location

major

have

been

bronze

the

with

ore-rich

were

that

that

unfortunate
to

positions

to the regional

drawn

is

It

corresponding

be predicted

here

we are dealing

that

society.

settlements

can only

access

over

and using
the

about

production

riverine

we can be sure

alone,

bronze-producing

a truly

with

evidence

c. 10-15%

BAZA (Prov.
noted

as

identified
* Monteagudo (1951) also correctly
type with
an 'onubense'
3 ribs on the blade (p. 10) which is one of Schubart's
'Minas. de
Huelva' palstaves,
Taf. 52,516.
It only has one loop and does not
Northwestern
Nor are-any
-appear to be a characteristic
product.
known for it from Iberia.
parallels

171'

85.29%

having

6.85%

copper,

One from

respectively.
no post-casting

'en bronze
126,1)

and for

that

copper,

11.95% tin,

which

(Prov.

ALMEDINILLA

work, -was

plombeux'

and 89,43%

tin;

the

one of

Siret

copper

and 10.22%

C6rdoba)

(? ) which

many double-looped

he gives

the metallurgical

and 6.83% lead.

showed

palstaves

illustrates
and

recognised,

(in

Figure

as 69.06%

content

The others

tin,

type come from

of this

- or can be assumed to come from - the Northwest:

show no signs
they

attached:
content

of post-casting
contain

work;

a fairly

sometimes

10% tin,

standard

from 60.68% copper

varies

in most cases they

is still.
the casting-cup
but

27.80% lead

with

the copper

to lead

to 75.80% copper with

13.60% lead.

But the analyses of some double-looped

palstaves
published
by Eiroa (1973-74,83)
give another combination
of the three major
'bronze':
B.
L.
A..
the
of
components

Origin

double-looped

of

Cu

Sn

Pb

Zn

47.2

36.3

5.2

2.5

No. 2

50.3

28

7.1

0.6

No. 3

63

21.7

2.6

1.2

27

48.2

8.3

palstave

No. 1

No.

and

unknown

No. 5

Samieira

he had analysed

The obje^ts
here

are

from

Granada,

13 together

on Figure

reproduced

and some of

the

leaded

identify

We can therefore

illustrated-on

are

three

the standard tin-bronze,

palstaves:
COROPO(presumably in the Northwest)
is

then there
27.80% (into
could

a group with

be included);

analyses
noted

a drop

and their

the high

by-which

reliability

lead
it

and tin

with

the

he gives

L9m. 6;

the

true

bronze

palstaves

basic

components

2 finds

cf.

cited

lead

by del

content,

content

is

for

content
'similar

suspect
of

examples
by Siret.

identified

(1927,23-4);

from 13.60% to
by del

by a high

in the copper

quoted

bronze

Castillo

varying

characterised

those

of the double-looped.
from Granada, and one from

from MONFORTEanalysed

the palstaves

with

and correlated
series,

2 palstaves

which

corresponding

high

with

his

tin

content

known from Eiroa's

are only
several

Castillo

reasons.

the SAMIEIRA double-looped

tendency'

observed

the SAMIEIRA hoard

an earlier

in

has

Eiroa

palstave

the. Armorican

date within

the

I1

jf

1
10

ii 1f

20107
10156
10145

1--_

10157

__-

2Jt36

2345
6

.
z:
;
.
Y!

.,.._.
"::
.,;.,i

1.

?'
'

10
y:

Double--looped
13:
by Siret
Figure
analysed
and Eiroa.
palstaves,
1913, Fig.
1913, Fig.
2.
125,2,
BAZA, Prov.
Siret,
1.
Siret,
Granada;
1913, Fig.
125,4,
3.
Siret,
SOT0IAYOR, Galicia;
Granada;
DIEZNA, Prov.
4.

Siret

1913,

Fig.

5,

MONFORTE DE LEMUS,
7.
Eiroa
Galicia;

and 10.

8.9.
Not

to

scale.

Eiroa

126,1,
Galicia;
1973-74,

1973-74,

ALMEDINILLA,
6.
Siret
Lm.

6,5,

LAm.

6,1,2

Cordoba

(? );

5.

Siret

1913,

12
Fig.

126,6,
Fig.
MONFORTE DE LEM1
SA`iTEIRA,
Prov.
Pontevedra;
1913,

and 3,

unknown

provenance,

Gal. ici,

173

double-looped

than

series

palstave

high

those with

tin

content

and

considerations
chronology
claims that typological
support this relative
(1973-74,84-86).
Unfortunately,
he regards the high-tin
content of
the Armorican
high

western

Bronze Age products

as comparable with the Northobjects,
which are of course leaded L. B. A. bronzes.

Middle
tin

any demonstration

Nor does he offer

he envisages.

that

the palstaves

of Northwestern

content

Breton

the analysed
ie.

Brandivy

axe with

254ff).

The high-tin
in

these

24.32% tin

71.72% copper,

his

cite

8.5% lead,

the decrease

in the British

out by Craddock*

carried

Museum have the high

reported

by Eiro.

Nor is

palstaves

include

6 standard

a high

content

zinc

copper

and a
1965,

from

Iberian

content
Double-looped

recorded.

17 leaded

tin-bronzes,

differs

on A, Iantic

tin/low

more than

(Briard

and 0.30% lead

group of Northwestern
palstaves
of copper in the alloy.

Of

source,

of 11) revealed

21,5% tin,

70% copper,

a Maure axe with

None of the analyses

bronzes

but does not

axes, only 2 (out

palstaves

socketed

20% tin:

succession
of
of the typological
(1965,31)
Jully
to 30% tin
refers

bronzes.

They

indicate

the greater

lead

'Iberian'
4
357,
the
the
reaches
palstaves
analysis
of
of
(up
4.17)
little
have
to
or no lead content.
axes

reliability

of

Siret's

Although

analyses.

the

content

trunnion

Perhaps

the method of deposition

bank of the Ria de Vigo

on the north
Eiroa as 'el

hallazgo

of some correlation

the Armorican

hoards.

probably

about

5 superimposed
of varying

sizes

condition,

only

upon each other,

and,

de todos'

like

- of which

been preserved
and covered

the contents

10 were broken

(Eiroa

by

(1973-74,76)

gives us
with
palstaves

there

were originally

found
were
by a slab.

of other

from Poyo,

described

Pontevedra),

of the double-looped

The palstaves
having

the SAMIEIRA hoard

(Prov.

ms espectacular

an indication

175,152

of

hoards,

in

layers

of

The axes were

were in as-cast

1973-74,76-77).

* These analyses
(1977).
by Dr. Craddock
I should
are to be published
like
Unfortunately
them available
to thank him for making
to me now.
for the B. M. -objects
this-information
to be studied
reached me too late
included
in detail
here.
and

174

The large

to represent

appears
palstaves,
in Armorica during
for

of objects

the Early

be regarded

entire

Atlantic

in as-cast

bronze

trade
relays

the coast,

along

for

is

in Armorica

did

in

the Northwest

7th century

metal-work

the

not occur

is

for

that

industry,

traders

observed

by the beginning

of Iberia.

seaboard

dealing

of the existence
its

with

later

and reorientation.

of

of a full

supplies
are

(cf.

1973,253,

connections

between

But since

areas.
(with-the
would

with

of supply

Thus,
for

its

had to stimulate
critical

1935;

Lopez
to

references
They

are

Northwestern

need for

The source

Northwestern
own bronze
a flow

the

nor

of copper

in

in Asturias),
relations

was not

industry

or for
lead

Pliny

reason

for

bronze

production

the bronze
for

these

industries

crucial
source

demand and

any external
Iberia

the

the Northwest

a self-sufficient

from within

1970;

Posidonius,

Atlantic

are found

Iberia

Allan

as the

given
and the

copper

(and later

of

Northwest

the

of

1953;

accounts

lead

on reliable

resources

frequently

of supplies

copper

ultimately,

to meet its

too).

used by the Northwestern

is proposed here, the' Southwestern

copper rich
'Southwest'.
It can be shown that the 'Southwest'

it

stages

as was characteristic

Cuevillas

Iberia

copper

of a little

tin

have depended on external

therefore

supplies.

depended,
The

neither

exception

technology,

and lead.

Davies

and Strabo).

Elder

bronze

and L. B. A.

tin

copper;

well-known

Muhly
the

M. B. A.

Atlantic
of

of

The adoption
the

of the

by Phoenicians,

and transported

before

to
it

some time:

the crisis

to examine the basis

necessary

bronze

long-distance

since

collected

on the Western

to be used

or upstream,

here

suggested

was being

intermediaries

Northwestern

The hoards

form.

had existed

It

it

the collection

or collection
on which the
had been based, ie. collection
of materials

was soon to be taken up.

However,

ie.

Tongue horizon,

Carp's

The opportunities
there.
or distributed
in an 'entrepreneurial'
intervene
role

and their

the phenomenon observed

scale

as a form of storage

in short

transport

on a smaller

20 and 175

between

containing

by sea, 'often

transport

should
for

hoards,

number of these

bronze
area,

industry

mainly

was,

Schubart's

depended on the North-

175

bronze-working
for
finished
centres
west
products
and had no bronze-working
tradition
of its own.
lacked

the technical

from Phase I)
situation

the tin

and also

during

observed

of finished

in bronze

skills

ores

Thus,

for

required

the

evident

the bronze

dependence

type

metalwork
'Southwest'

(as blatantly

working

ie.

Phase I,

of Atlantic

The

alloy.

supplies

on external

the Tagus indigenous

the
the
exploitation
of
copper,
and
absence
metal
of any
of
in Phase II.
It can be suggested
types, would appear to be replicated
it

that

was by controlling

skills

important

also
in

in

dominance

to note
ie.

Ultimately

and connected

forward

been put

supplier

of copper, as well
Carp's
to the later

bronze
standard
ie.

Carp's

Carp's

copper
of their

resources

Tongue material

external

trading

have acted
bronze

Briard

This

as

industries,

would be

the standard

1965,225)

from HUELVA (Almagro

and the
1940,85),

7th centuries.
industries

bronzeworking

within

in Galicia,

(cf.

the

subsequent t6
industries.
It has

may ultimately

palstaves

Atlantic

occurred

to the other Atlantic

in Armorica.
Tongue industry
bronze

working

orig. .n, and that

as tin,

8th or even early

The Northwestern

only

is

It

of bronze
through

of the Northwestern

Tongue swords in Armorica

bronze

the late

supply

to maintain

of copper.

stages

European

the Northwest

that

of the standard

the period

the earliest

copper

the expansion

with

already

notably

and the technological

were able

the suppliers

of continental

on the Southwestern

reliance

industries

with

during

that

resources

some copper may have been obtained

the Northwest,

connections,

tin

bronze

the relations

towards

- possibly

the vital

the Northwestern

that

their

and orientation

products,

Iberia

to meet their

own requirements

The feasibility

partners.

to find

had therefore

and those

of the development

bronze metallurgy
in Northwestern
Iberia
and accomplished
of a flourishing
dependent on sources of copper from further
must always have been critically
south,

and quite

soon on sources

of lead

too.

'El metal
de la Compaia

de estos
fu6 analizado
objetos
por
de Tharsis,
Minera
quimico
-Arag6n,
y ha proporcionado
la siguiente
10.54 de
89.38 de cobre,
composici6n
para las espadas:
de otros
Esta
estaflo
y 0.065 de antimonio,
sin rastro
metales.
la misma para todos los objetos.
S61o
aleaci6n
es aproximadamente
los punales
'
ofrecen
una aleaci6n
algo ms rica
en-estafto.

* Almagro'(1940,85):

(He cites a publication

17-18,1923,
p. 226. )

by Albelda,
__

Revue Archeologique
'

Seme serie,

17 6

is

It

here

argued

distribution

more

general

been

controlled

from

and tin

technology

that

than
the

to

access
tin,

copper

see Figure

Northwest

by command of

The particularities

ores.

7,

could
the

are

which

resources,

of

have

always

bronzeworking

of this

can

relationship

by a number of interesting
features
with
associated
'Southwestern'
Bronze
the imports of bronze metalwork in Schubart's
it can be said that bronze finds are very
In general,
Age Phase II.
be substantiated

'Southwest',

in the

scarce

distribution.
in

This

tools.

rarely

of bronzework
which

to satisfy
could

contents
Schubart

1971,

grave

type

forms,

ie.

Phase

and very

categories

do not constitute
instead,
the imports

needs;
high

status

found

the bronzework

the use
are all

as had the

meaning,

Phase I.

II

than

Figure

4).

and pottery

'bottles',

that

imports

these

take-on

potentially

has noted,

As Schubart
in

that

utilitarian

during

daggers

Argaric

to note

of weapon or ornament

implies

the Northwestern

when compared with

interesting

also

is mainly

'Southwest'

the

items

is

It

especially

there
in

Phase

Phase
ie.

fewer

are

II

(see

I
is

open bowls

some with

ribbing

metal
for

defined

example
mainly
high

with
which

finds

is

among grave
the

schema:

on the

carinations,
thought

to

basis

of

closed
be due to

by stratigraphic
eg.
observations,
- and controlled
(Baixo
138ff).
Ourique
Alentejo)(eg.
Schubart 1964,1975a,
ATALAIA,
at
daggers occur in graves during Phase II:
In fact,
only riveted

a metal

prototype

'Fr das Fortleben

der Nietdolch Form bis in die
jngere Bronzezeit
bieten Grab 1 von Medarra
(Taf. 55) und Belmeque (Taf. 59) eindeutige
Belege.
Weiter kommen Nietdoche
zusammen mit rillenKeramik der Santa Vit6ria-Stufe
auf
verzierter
mehreren Graberfeldern
vor. '
(Schubart 1975a, 75)

The isolated
it,

are essentially

necessarily

bronze
types

Northwestern

finds

from the

'Southwestern'

that were current

products:

in

area,

the Northwest;

or just

beyond

but were not

177

PALSTAVES:

only

one from
two

in or on the peripheries

3 have been found

are

SERRA DA CAVEIRA,
said

and 517)

Conc.
'MINAS

come from

to

and are

less

like

the

(Baixo

Grandola

DE HUELVA'

'Southwest':

of the

(Taf. 52,424);

Alentejo)

(prov.

(Taf. 52,516

Huelva)

Northwestern

characteristic

(1951)
had noted the palstave
Monteagudo
eg.
'onubense'
from his 'calaico'
type, distinct

palstaves,

(Taf. 52,516)

as of
- type.

- northern

SICKLES: *

two 'Central
(cf.

Portuguese'

MacWhite

type

1951,76ff,

Conc. Santiago

sickles
22,23)

Figure

do'Cacem (Baixo

with

blade

ribbed

were found at SOBRALDE VARZEA,

(Schubart 1975a. Taf. 52,421

Alentejo)

'Sobral
1951
2
de Varzca')
Lam.
XXXV,
MacWhite
=
(Baixo Alentejo)
(Schubart Taf. 52,337
Mdrtola

and from MMRTOLA, Conc.

22,

= MacWhite Figure

'Mostola').

1,

RAZOR (? ):

HUERTA DE ARRIBA

(Schubart
from

CALDAS DE MONCHIQUE, Conc.

the
(Taf,

instrument

tanged
the

describes

Schubart

1975a,

10,46)

(Prov.

91).

the
if

as a razor,
Burgos)

Another

CABEZO DE ARRAYA, Navas

CALDAS DE MONCHIQUE find

base

and thick

is

thick
del

another

HUERTA DE ARRIBA decorated

not

date:

cf.

Briard

1965,

of

razors.
Figure

(which

or

7th

Cceres).

hybrid

forms,

are

general

of

in

found

those

razor/arrow-head

(Prov.
these

8th

the

of

tanged

Madrofto

to

related

hoard,

(Algarve)

Monchique

century
is

known

Perhaps
distinct
Rosnogn

the
from,
type

53).

* Schubart (1975a, 92) notes new finds of sickles

in Central
Portugal,
from SAO MARTINHO, Conc. Rio Maior (Ribatejo)
and COLES DE SAMUEL,
Conc.. Soure (Beira Litoral).
The 6 sickles
findplace
from the latter
Portuguese
flat-backed
were associated
with a characteristic
palstave
The association
and 4 socketed axes.
of these socketed axes does not
in
date for the sickles,
support his proposed 10th-century
since even
Somerset, from where he derives
11th
they
the
a t.
of
century,
,
(cf. Burgess
to be used until
the 8th or even 7th centuries
continued
1974). " The same is probably
1963,69).
(cf. Butler
true of Scandinavia

178

TRUNNION AXES:
One is

as an isolated

known,

find,

SANTA BARBARA DE PADRES, Conc.

is

from

known

(Baixo
the

Sado area,

the

(Schubart,

Alentejo)

'Evora'

'Sintra'

or

from
Castro

now in

area,

another
do Sal

Alccer

Conc.

he mentions

from

find

another
in

collection

a private

from

viz.

Alentejo);

CASTELEJOS,

68-69:

1975a,

(Baixo

Verde

from

viz.

'Southwest',

the

Lisbon).

SPEARHEADS:
few

Very

Algarve,

in

found

are

found

were

spearheads

'Southwest'

the

and PORTIMO, Conc. Portimo

the EVORA area (Taf. 52,472);

at

(Schubart

1975a,

PORTELAS, Conc.

(Taf. 7,77);

another

and an exceptional

in

90):

the

Lagos

(Taf.

7,30)

stray

find

comes from

spearhead

with

solid

from
blade
BORRAZEIROS,
SERRA
DE
decorated
comes
ovoid
and
cast midrib
(Taf. 56,410c).
It is similar
to those
Conc. Moura (Baixo Alentejo)
(Almagro
(Prow.
hoard,
Coristanco
La
Corufa)
DE
ALCAYAN
LAGUNA
LA
of the
Inv. Arch. E. 10 Lm. l, 1-3).
'It

SWORDS:

find

The only
of

the

within

NOSSA SENHORA DA COLA,. Conc.

87, Taf. 53,324;

ie.

sword,

Viana

there

from near
(Baixo

Ourique

it

1959):

are indications

Age castro

the Iron

Alentejo)

(Schubart1975.

notching
original

riveting

a worn example of a Carp's Tongue

of ricassi
and it would appear that the

plate

of bronze

known from the Castro

sword blades

with

of GIRALDO, Conc. Evora

'Southwestern'

prominent
(Alto

mid-rib

Alentejo)

(see Schubart

the

are
on the

1975a, Taf. 37,

border

of the

483).

by Almagro 1940,
There are two leaf-shaped
swords (illustrated
(Extremadura
from 'Alemtejo
17,8-9;
and Savory
o Portugal)';

Figure

1949,152
probably

a,

is

damage'to
was for re-use following
(as found on HUELVA swords, too).
arrangement

of the rivet

Two fragments

is

'Southwest'

cultural

area

Schubart
to
provenances)
gives similarly
vague
which, according
(1975a,
(Alto
'hoard'
in
from
Evora
Alentejo)
the
area
a
come

87, Taf. 53,467,468).

Two swords of characteristic
Conc. - Moura (according
Taf. 53,410

and 410a;

come from"SAFARA,
1975a,
1951,
MacWhite
1-2;
Schubart
Lam.
XX,
to
and
"5
6,
19,
Almagro
1940,
gives
Figure
although
and
Carp's

Tongue type

179

the

as

the

GIRALDO,

shows

from this

find

the short
(Figure

it

87)

hilted

have

and in

addition

HUELVA (eg.

from

swords

(Prov.
from
ALCON9TAR
one

sword,

'Southwestern'

comparative

of

formed

which

slabs

described

(Prov.

showing

the

instead

of
I,

Phase
of

the

the

ranking

in

come from

graves

in

slabs

the

These

the

burials

must

by possession
of

this

has

in

(Schubart

type,

of

a bronze

and thirdly,

weapon,
the

the

graves
during

and construction
and he regards
social

of

clearly

are

bronzes

than

rather
recognition

and secondly

extreme

slabs

recognised

weapons

the

slabs

objects't

degree

depictions

firstly

having

decorated

in

165-6);

a greater

bronze

in

contents

1975a,
of

imply

the

1943).

decorated

these

As Schubart

that

57,3).

metal

found

visible

fact

there

as covering

are

of

solid

relief

of

the

that

Schubart

is known from

ie.

and that

depictions

status;

form

the

indicative
as

the

fortunate

we are

remember

weapons.

(eg.

Badajoz)(Almagro

and axes

is

one of

from ELVAS

1966, Figure

structure,

halberds,

ATALAIA

at

II.

elite

of

rarity

of

the

familiarity
of

the

objects.

distribution

generally

to

bronze

graves

Phase

Almagro

relief

important

differentiation

bronzework

Almagro

burial

swords,

actual

achieved

bronze

of

decorated

included

status
with

the

central

indicators
are

use

status

relief

is

is

It

57,4-10),

Figure

II,

in

metalwork

for

U-shoulders,

with

the

of

do not

above

the

part
It

cists.

stone

for

evidence

(1966).

parallels

Age Phase

Bronze

another

with

HUELVA hoard

(Almagro

Cceres)

MONTIJO, 8 km downstream. from Mdrida

For

together

the

1966,

Almagro

of a leaf-shaped

find

Another

in

Balearic

the

SAFARA

EVORA and the

ricassi.

parallels

to

14

Figure

Tongue features,

Carp's

general

has deep rectangular

swords

(Portugal)').

by Almagro

mentioned

with

these

of

37 and 53,

Tafel

area,

sword/daggers

All
1975a,

Schbart's

general

58,2);

(sic,

o Extremadura

NOSSA SENHORA DA COLA, the

from

taken

swords,

is

'Alemtejo

location

(1966)

distinguished

corresponds
(1966 Figure

carvings

to that

the

of Schubart's

1) and Schubart

on the slabs-depict,

described

'Alemtejano'

as an 'anchor'-like

group

'Southwestern'

(1975a Karte
when intact,
object

of slabs,

33)

Figure

area:
15.

whose
cf.
The

is
a sword and what
(,'idols'
to
according

ISO

Image removed due to third party copyright

37,483:
Swords from the 'Southwest'
(Schubart
14:
1975a, Tafel
Figure
53,324
Tafel
NOSSA SE'vliO A DA COLA, 467 and 468 EVORA, 410 and 410a
GIPAL00;
SA111t:') ;.ind ELVAS ((Alrnagro 1966,1'i
Not to scale.
;. 58, na. '') .

Image removed due to third party copyright

0 4J

arc

V)

ol
d . fl
Cd 'C
"nT

+..
o

to 'C7 'O
11 m
-

}4

C) v

CL) v

4J

4.1

o 'a
4J
v)
.p
., -4 v
+
V)

1)

4-1

U1 't7
i C)

cd

4-1

! cd
er -

ED

wy

Cd

rn

182

1966,135).

Almagro

is possible

It

that

these

'anchors'

are scabbards

connected with - the winged

- but not necessarily
C chapes found in Atlantic
Europe, eg. DEFESA, Cone. Santiago

chapes like

with

Hallstatt

de Cacem (Baixo
arrangement

(Almagro's

Alentejo)

of the functional

these may be representations

that

Some depict

sword and scabbard.

de Cadem (Baixo

Santiago
hafted,
Beja

flat

or simple,
(Baixo

Alentejo)
16. *

9) Figure

Figure

grouping

suggests

of belt,

eg. ESTELA DE ABELA, Cone.

halberds,

Alentejo)

The consistent

to the sword and 'anchor'

band horizontal

of a plain

16, p. 58).

Figure

(Almagro

Figure

19, p. 64) and others

Cone.

eg. ESTELA DE ASSENTO, Sta Vitoria,

(Almagro Figure 31), and TRIGARE I (Almagro
axes,

Figure

17 (Schubart

1975a,

Karte

17) shows the

(see
finds
Figure
dominance of representations'of
swords over
of swords
Schubart 1975a, Tafel
16** (representations)
and Figure 14 (swords, after
37 and 53, and Almagro
in

The situation
imports

bronze
to

items

of

high

of a more elite
their

use.

to political
ores,

1966).

the

and their
status

stratum

indicating

that

can be summarised

representations

of society

in

scarce

coincides

this

area

that

with

as follows:
and are
the

controls

limited-

development
t

access

to

developments

connected
appear to be closely
intensive
the
and
more
exploitation
of copper

these

over

- are

This

categories.

Furthermore,
control

'Southwest'

new sources

of power,

based on wealth

and converted

* No attempt has been made here to deal fully

with the complexities
1968;
has
1966
been
This
done
by
Almagro
the
and
of
slabs.
and variation
Schubart 1975a makes some useful
to the new
comments and refers
finds;
Savory (1968,211)
these slabs to be of E. B. A.
considers
in view of Schubart's
date, which is not acceptable,
especially
'Southwestern'
his
in
the
recogmaterial,
of
re-analysis
particular
'Early
Bronze Age'
of the long period of use of essentially
nition
in the graves.
Schubart notes:
metal types, such as daggers,
ist
'Das Fehlen von Nietdolchen
den
kein
Stelen
des
Alentejo.
auf
bis in diese Zeit,
Beleg gegen ein Fortleben
da die charakteristischen
dargestellt
Grabbeigaben auf den Stelen ohnehen nicht
sind und
in Grbern vorkommen. '
Dinge nicht
umgekehrt die dargestellten
(1975a, 75).
in Figure 16 are the slabs from: 1 TRIGAXES I,
** The representations
Beja;
2 ABELA, Santiago de Caccm; 3 ASSENTO,. Santa Vitoria,
Beja;
4 DEI'ESA, Santiago de Caoem. No. 4 is c. 1.16 x 0.65 m.

"`

183

1
3

`tc

'mot

"

Ir

/m

Yf

,_

f
I

'v !yf

3r

Figure

16:

Alen: tejano

Examples
type

of

own

Almagro's

slabs.

(Almagro
1966: 1 Fig.
9;
3 Fig.
31;
4 Fig.
1.6)

Fig.

1.9;

r.

rr

18 /It

Image removed due to third party copyright

Distribution
of swords,
rep? _esctitatior.
in Phase
'Southwestern'
II
the
new cemeteries
of
(Taken
from
Schubart
1975a,
28)
Karte
Fivure

17:

s of
Bronze

swords,
Age.

and

185

into

items,

prestige

bronze

access

to

carved

on slabs

or

bronze

bronze

came to

products
Iberia,

in

eg.

there

are

in

(Algarve)

has been

It

'Southwest'

order

may have
deal
In

been
the

with

that

relations
found

vessels;

sees

external

the

copper

in

had dominated

Phase
the

carved

slabs
this

of

the

in

importance

economic
the

metal

organisation

'Southwest'

that

resources

copper

population
he does

and exchange,

his

and

Although

local

the

the

connection

I.

the

of

of

Phase

not

It.

(Southeastern)
argument

prototype

on the glass
for the ribbed

Eastern

of, ultimately
we cannot

that

Phase

Mediterranean
basing

I,

No::; hwest

the

of

in

copper

of

are

clay!

from

an element

putative

With

relations

to

extraction

or

continuity

and

that

and VAGAROSA: they

exploitation

appearing

Alentejo)

'Southwest'

the

made of

had benefitted

already

(Baixo

CALDAS DE MONCHIQUE

ALCARIA
are

in,

SANCHORREJA,

at

Moura

of

directed

population

in

the

the

been

recognised

inspiration.

Atlantic

pendants

had

area

of

that.

relations

ATALAIA

the

of

found

pendants

In

a copper

of

scarcity

hoard,

17).

Karte

from

and suggested

he regards

(Mycenaean)
the

in

1969a,

here

specialised

leech

RIO SIL

necropoli

II

the

the

of

the

representations

possession

AZOUCADA, Conc,

rank,

eg. 70)

he proposes

fact,

beads

its

'Southwest'

the

the

of

assert

(1975a,

Schubart
in

Phase

by

that

extent

that

But,

copper.

over

indication

given

leech

proposed

element
to

cist

the

status

century

both

these

during

a certain

8th

the

Schle

stone

because

exceptional

in

the

is

area

two finds:

only

on the

Alentejo),

1955;

Cuevillas

control
to

Another

this

ALCACER DO SAL (Alto

(L6pez

take

signified.
in

from

was limited

products

weapon

Western

derived

were

agree,
as far

Mediterranean

especially
less

as, he

significant:

'Abgesehen von leichter

austauschbaren
Metallformen
Beziehungen
sind die kulturelle
bestimmten
zwischen diesem stark atlantische
'
Raum und dem Arbeitsgebiet
geringer.

(1975a, 160)

* The possible
use of these leech pendants in 6th or even 5th century
is suggested by finds from MONTEDE A-DO MEALHA.
Ourique:
contexts
-NOVA,
is
they come from a disturbed
area of graves and their
context
precise
(Alves Dias et al 1970).
uncertain
00
_

18

Schubart
the

contents
in

implements

is

general

in

use

when the use of iron

land,

difficult

to accept,

the hoard
type

hinter-

This

superfluous.

1969a) dates

Schle

'Alemtejano'

the

and therefore

9th and possibly

bronze
Huelva

the

objects

he (like

since

that

of

including

bronze

made these

especially

to the 10th,

a collection

Southwest,

the

(1960),

Maluquer

represent

or 8th centuries

to the'9th

slabs

following

HUELVA hoard

the

of

believe,

to

appears

even 11th centuries,

eg.

'Es ist
deutlich,
dass die Formenwelt
der
des Alentejo-Type
Reliefplatten
einem
der vor demjenigen
Zeithorizont
entspricht,
des Huelva-Horizontes
ist,
dessen
anzusetzen
in. das 9. bzw. das 8. Jahrhundert
Datierung
bereits
oben behandelt
wurde. '

(1975a, 108)
But

is

there

certainly

by the 9th or 8th centuries;

'Southwest'
does not support
the
It

important

is

in

working
I'

to

the

the

HUELVA hoard

note

the

similar

Huelva

was very

metal

however,

suggest

Zusammenhang

mit

(p. 70)

is

which

In general,

connect

Western

Iberia

is

and its

the

suggested

here

use in

among the

during

'Southwestern'

that

the

'Bronce

in

does,

Schubart

'Southwest'

', im

verbundenen

Handel...

in

trunnion
bronze

'

Sardinia.

axes and,
finds in

in
the south,
copper
of
to some extent
was intercepted

the exploitation

We have already

pattern-burnished

burnished

Schubart

quantities.
bronze=

even

Amo 1975).

Bronze Age with

populations.

the

area.

where

palstaves,

the Northwest,

MANGANCHE, near

Evora

great

pre-Phoenician

1975),
del

in

91).

of Tagus style

wares

'Southwest'

the

MONTE SA IDDA hoard

'Southwestern'

by the Sado estuary-Tagus

presence

use

dem damit

und

'razor',

the

of

reached

by the

that

(1975a,

ultimate

palstaves

exemplified

the

absence

1975;

Erzgewinnung

he notes

sickles

It

that

was in

Fernandez

(Garrido

scarce

der

(eg.

area

in

using

in the
and the paucity
of metal-finds
his view that this was where material
of

in

represented

sort

iron

for

no evidence

mines

has

of

Aljustrel,

indigenous
noted

Phase

II-are

that

and

the

a number
of

of

the

the

the settlement

appearance
in

materials

north

in

wares

noted

the

castros

cemeteries
riginl

of

at

patternof

the

established
centres,

ie.

_.

187
0

'Es scheint
II das
so, als ob in der Stufe
durch charakteristische
bezeichnete
Grabfunde
der Sudwest-Bronzezeit
Gebiet
nach Norden bis
in die Nhe von Evora ausgedehnt
wird,
whrend
insbesonder
das Ostalgarve
andere Bereiche,
bisher
keine
haben
Funde dieser
Stufe
geliefert
Entwicklung
oder an dieser
spter
nicht
mehr
'
teilnehmen.

(p. 168)

On the map, Figure I7, it is clear that the new cemeteries

of Phase II
in
in the Western
the Western extremity
situated
are
of the peninsula,
ie. towards Evora
Algarve,
or in the northern
part of Baixo Alentejo,
and the Sado/Tagus

both

We have

stressed

Phase,

and Phase

do Sal

_I
area,
at

do Sal,

trunnion

(cf.

the

found

axe,

belong

In general,
within

flat-backed

paistaves,

all

type

identified

Figure

Phase

by Schubart

II

them

Portugal:

21 - showing

S0 MARTINHO,

tutuli

to

with

bronze

pairs

E. B. A.

types

of

ends

of

7 golden

perforations
(Savory

94).
date.

appear

Portuguese

eg. MacWhite's

Alccer

their

a chain

(1975a,

be of

Conc.

thickened

with

Alcdcer

the

to be
sickles,

socketed double-looped
axes (1951, Figure 23,
,
'Porto do Mos' type daggers, of which 7 finds,
and Savory's

and north

1968, Figure

From

Age in

CASTELEJOS,

the

during

material

Bronze

6 golden

believes

Central

exceptional

armring

and XXV,

a number of specialised

distributed

17-19)

to

68)

Figure

golden

Iberia).

with

ie.

Sado,

the

Lm. IX
in

to

(1968,208ff,

along

of. the

of

'Southwestern'

the

of

and also

together

considered

Figures

II

mouth

distribution

spirals

distribution

the

1951,76-77

MacWhite

Atlantic

are

area.

of

the Tagus,

74E and 83).

by MacWhite

are shown in his

This

appears tobe
too (1951,80).
*

Figure

83 (Savory

the Southwestern
Also,

ferrules

dagger
and

* It is very difficult
location
to determine
the exact
of MacWhite's
is
finds
find
described
the
Monte
when
same
as coming from 'Serrado
(Figure
19) and 'Serra
Junto'
de Monte Junto'
(p. 68).
As in the'case'
described.
the
of the confusion
over the origin
of the swords,
abovef
is not MacWhite's
fault
but appears
from the 'fondos
to derive
MacWhite
1951,. 80).
secretisimos'
of the M. E. P., Belem (cf.
4

are more common in Estremadura

spear-heads
(Schubart 1975a,

the

of

south

Mondego

and a double-looped

sickle

ring-socketed
Figure

78c and 78d,

for

sickle

Atlantic

type

of

'BOCAS'.

come from
in

sickles
and at

Mondego

with

and north

the

to

copper

distribution

basis

of

its

in

ores

the

be able

to

find

of

(Ribatejo);
6 sickles

where

The production
a later

of

location

south

and

secure

of

these

Portuguese

the

the

were
has

distinctive

development,

axes in France

ie.

double-looped

palstave

(1968,

77) shows some overlap

Figure
areas,

ie.

and the double-looped

Portugal.

that

the double-looped
socketed

palstave

could

by means of

the

the

as
be
a

flat-backed
palstaves.

axe may have

socketed

and used here

between

in
the

centre

the

the

interior;

and flat-backed

with

in

the

can be proposed

for

daggers

was produced

ores

particular,

produced

double-looped

and Britain

in

involvement

production

contemporary

an

existence

tin

of

ores

In

suggested

sickles,

Its

through

easily

of

the

Northwest

the
bronze

products

ie.

12.

the

of

products

lead

the

supplies

to

south

between

materials.

an independent

91),

the

See Figure

to

as Schubart

mould,

(1975a,

palstaves

Central

(1951,80)

Rio Maior

types,

may represent

and lead

copper

The-initial

valve

Portuguese

intermediate

upon which

established.

of both

and

socketed

recent

Litoral),

1968,225

and a characteristic

tradition.

and transport

transportation

socketed

the

mentions

(Beira

axes

Sado,

the

of

therefore

would

been

92)

Soure

Central

of

bronze-working

can be related

single

said

with

other

by MacWhite

SAO MARTINHO, Conc,

at

4 socketed

concentration

independent

the

Portugal

(Savory
The only

types).

is

(1975a,

together

palstave

two

Iberia

Litoral)

a hoard,

palstave.

This

it

from

COLES DE SAMUEL, Conc.

flat-backed

north,

first

the

Schubart

Central

associated

were

(Beira

in

was found

paistave

ARGANIL

at

'Southwest'

the

flat-backed

Portuguese

A Central
just

90 and Anm. '454).

than in

dominance

instead

the Northwest.

of

of

the large
Savory

the Mondego and the Minho

area in

axe and flat-backed

the Northwest,

palstave

area of

P, 8j ,

189

Significantly,
density

gold

of

Sado coastal

areas

show the

Karte

3)

in

is

be noted

Tagus/Sado

Tagus-

the

on Blance's

that

Northwestern

and the

gold

greatest

ie.

and M, B. A.

also

of

the

(Blance

sources

1971,

7.

Central

this

of

Portuguese

are

origins

Eastern

of

bow,

D-shaped

area are

(Prov.

with

the coastal

access

to the finest

centres,

probably

occurs.

The reason

was presumably

in

in fact,

is

along

the Northwest

due to its

suggested

an element

here

that

industries
the. Central

Madroho

are exceptional.
in contact

viz.

Evora

- but

the coastal

both

would

with

metalworking

where alluvial
with

to
Yet,

of population

Atlantic

to which

not

'Southwest'.

routes,

and Estremadura

deposits,

bronze

the

is

have access

tradition

area was in contact

lead

del

although

the inland

indicating

(1914,

Atlantic

area

above,

in

of Atlantic

with

combine

themselves

of the indigenous

why this

to

area,

found

to that

Nuraghic

the

Extremadura

not

that

by Taramelli

appear

this

'fibulae'

possible

a figure

mentioned

did

goldwork

products

and Northwestern
It

of

bronzework,

- are found,

manufacture

access.

the inhabitants

outstanding

Iberian

stelae

shield
1962),

the
also

cf.
eg.

depiction

the

V.-notched

CABEZO DE ARAYA, Navas

zone and at points

and the Guadian,

is

do not

Atlantic

and Coles

illustrated

and the two swords,

situation,

a-similar

bows,

Guadiana,

the

the

and Eastern

Northern

Portuguese

on these

it

bows,

is

helmet,

So far,

that

appear

1950

origin:

D-shaped

carry

the

Similarly,

represent

a horned

hoard

Cdcares)

would

'fibulae'

and even

although
Hencken

Mediterranean

many bronzes:

have

to

(cf.

18.

(which

stelae

swords,

hand,

and

many Northern

Mediterranean.

Eastern

sometimes

elements.

include
the

other

development

The engravings

and Eastern
known

helmets,

the

wearing

33).

Figure

horned

D-shaped

which

statuettes

monuments)

Central

or

these

some of

burial

European
in

on these

representations

On the

and wagons.

was a Western

are

of

as the

such

people

its

the

that

be parts

to

elements,

in

should

concentration

the hinterland

known

well

appear

it:

E. B. A.

the

sources,

area

illustrated
defined,
type of engraved stelae,
here - Figure
by Almagro (1966); one is illustrated

discussed

It

It

includes

'Extremadura'

the

of

Savory's

68).

greatest

See Figure

Directly

It

(Figure

and silver

Portuguese

in

ornaments

zone

gold

map of

Central

the

gold
zone

the Central

have had to maintain

Portuguese

Tagus/Sado
-

190

191

area

played

with

the

in

Southwestern

Northern

with

the

an important

copper;

Ireland

Atlantic

role

in

distributing

and the
the

-indicate

(MacWhite

sphere

Coles has suggested

two flat-backed

extent

this

of

1951,68

as it

lead,

this

did
found

palstaves

involvement

area's

17).

and Figure

that

"fibulas
'The three types, Kourion-Megiddo
de
influences
V-notched
cauldron
and
codo",
shields,
leading
to the Class A Atlantic
must
production
in the
have reached the Western Mediterranean
8th century'
(1962,159)

from where a route

by the
from

along

through

4 'Sicilian'

Hengistbury

Atlantic

the Sicilian

Southern

shaft-hole
Head;

Iberia

France
found

axes

a second

and across

route

in

through

Western
the

substantiate)

France,

Straits

the Bay of Biscay

axe from Orense would

is

to the Atlantic

is

suggested
and one

of

Gibraltar

to Britain

(which

also

proposed:

'The"other
through
the Straits
route
and around
is also well
documented,
the Iberian
peninsula
from the hoard dredged
up in the Ria
primarily
de Huelva which contains
Irish
things
among other
Atlantic
carp's-tongue
spearheads,
swords and
fibulae
The Huelva
type.
of Kourion-Megiddo
hoard shows that
connections
were in existence
between Britain-Ireland
time,
and Iberia
at this
for
knowledge
A cauldrons
the
and notched
and
could be transmitted
northwards
shields
along the
for Class B
The influences
Atlantic
route.
unconnected
seem to be a later
cauldrons
and perhaps
to the north
the shaftcarried
with
event,
possibly
hole axes and elbow-fibulae
from Sicily,
the
along
But the two cannot
be completely
route.
other
because finds
divorced,
the main routes
occur.
off
is,
in addition
Spain there
From north-western
to
Class B cauldrons,
the Hio and Carbrceno
now a
axe, and from Castelnau-le-Lez
near
shaft-hole
in south-west
France
Montpellier
there
apparently
V-notched
the characteristic
comes an estela
with
But
shield,
spear and wheels
carved
upon it.
however.
these Mediterranean
connections
were
transferred
to the Atlantic
the knowledge
route,

19Aw

for

V-notched
shield
Britain-Ireland
in all
probability

the
reached
'Iberia,.

without
much doubt
from south-western
Class A cauldron
with

ideas. '
(Coles

1962,159-60)

is

The same conclusion

by Hawkes (1969),

reached

Mediterranean/Iberian/Atlantic

Let

us now try

and lead

the Southwest

distinctive

and later

the Tagus,

of

that

significant

the major

Central

area

1971,

Figure

3; Almagro

1951,

Figure

21),

areas.

a tributary

of

ingots
also

ware,

finds

known in Britain

and b),

of

not

inland

Both the
and it

resources

the
the

gold

far

torques

and Western

probably
comes

is

from Moura.
of a type
France

8th

south

It

(Hawkes

Portuguese
century

of

the

includes

commonly found
(Almagro

are

(MacWhite

bracelets

of

from

collars

Central

along

on sites

products.

Northwestern,

Badajoz)

the Guadiana,

Morena was

of the 9th to 7th centuries

hoard,

An exceptional

and terminals

the

from

of copper

found

cf.

as

known from their

bronze

Iberia:

in

is

above

copper

the Sierra

area,

had gold

1974a

Gorbea

especially

which

centres

Atlantic

of

for

centre

edge of

distinctive

gold

BODONAL DE LA SIERRA'(Prov.

but

has been proposed

bronze industries
had

the Tagus-Sado

from. its

and the Tagus-Sado

Northwest

Guadiana

it

the distribution

the northern

burnished

pattern

in

role

frc2,

by the inhabitants

the

routes:

the Armorican

an intermediary

as tin;

played

these

come to depend on the Northwestern

increasingly
well

to people

the 8th century

during

that

gold

of the 8th,

to the second half

relations

Eastern

these

7th centuries.

early

from

who dates

and
from

date,
river

Ardila,

pieces

of

in Ireland,

Gorbea 1974c). *

(1965,150)
has commented on the difficulty
Briard
the
of dating
jewellery
the M. B. A. and L. B. A. in Armorica.
of
gold
manufacture
within
The same obviously
in addition,
to Iberia:
applies
the problem of the
in hoards. of material
deposition
which might have been manufactured
imported
his been
hoard is'deposi'ted
than*the
or
- some time earlier
noted in the case of collections
of bronzework and obviously
applies
to the goldwork too.
_

1.93

Del Amo (1973)

has commented on the noticeable

Guadiana-Tagus
tart4sicos',
of the 'jarros
which was either
anticipated

distribution
by or

contemporary

pattern

burnished

ware

(Prow.

Badajoz).

MEDELLfN

There
south

its

Atlantic

possibly

to more

probably

reaching
from

estuary
to

the

the

of

along

the

Southwestern

for

any bronze

the
the

viz.

Guadiana,

at

production

is

the

It

Central

fed the elaborate

Portuguese

sustained

its

the

Moura

region

intermediary,

own growth

- at

the

of

sent

1968,
evidence

northward;

Southwest

the

Alcdcer

prior

available

to

do
there

and the

17)

and

coast,

from

Figure

there

from

the

to

Moura

the Iberian

and gold

exploitation

Northwestern

and supplied

Northwest

Tagus

the

area
be

could
suggests.

is

the

that

no evidence

establishment

of Spain.

entered

with

the

The lead

river.

Valenti
the

from

from

copper

(and

westward

do Sal

on the South coast

Thus, when the Phoenicians

of copper, lead
the orientation
Atlantic.

Sado to

All

being
in

the

and then

(Vile

same route.

routes

along

Alccer

reaches

by which

and ultimately

to

centres)

Guadiana

copper

the Phoenicians

Portugal

coast

Badajoz

'soporte'

as the

such

be two main

to

northerly

the

south

directed

of

the

Guadalquivir

characteristic

partners,

and along

the

of

forms,

- and even

Central

reaching
trading

area;

occurrence

therefore

appear
is

the

Sal

the

with

bronze

raw metals.
its Atlantic

trading

network,

was essentially
industry,.
and its
The Northwest
partners

with

tin

and

copper. **

left
bank
from a hill-top
* Unfortunately
the
the finds,
on
settlement
been
have
found in situ,
Guadiana,
but were recovered
not
the
of
during the excavation
Amo mentions that
.
Del
of a Roman theatre
burnished
levels
in
lowest
Almagro Gorbea found pattern
the
of
ware
his excavations
too.
at Medellin
River de la Higuera has published
Guadalquivir
similar
from in and around the BOQUIQUEcave (1972-73).
**

(1969)

style

wares

interpretation
based
the
on
of the L. B. A. in Iberia
'Tartessian'
bronze-working
the
existence
of
southwestern
centre,
the Northwest
somewhat surprisingly
attributes
a 'contribucin
with
in Atlantic
this
would
minima'
relations
of the 8th and 7th centuries:
Ora_Maritima.
his interpretation
the
appear. to vindicate
some aspect-of
of
Hawkes's

194

is

It
early

part

regional

here

suggested
7th,

the

of

coast,

of
in

particularly

metal

involvement

in

terms

of

the

examine

in

Sardinia

began

systems,
during

By the late
in

Armorica

domination

of

in

the

of

phase

- can
flow

looped
that

to the Phoenicians.

palstaves

they

IDDA hoard

and their

continued
confirms

the

of

(1962)

in

of

phase

an early

'linking-up'

and Hawkes

Atlantic

of
(1969)

hoards

believe

to be of use,
it.

be related

by Phoenicians
bronze

in

the

to
the

production

south
centre

due to the attraction

The as-cast
occurrence

we have observed

the crisis
part

Northwestern

the 7th and 6th can however be expected

resources

that

centuries

century.

copper
the

of

is

the

with

and 7th

of

It

century.

Atlantic

8th

6th century,

axe hoards

Iberian

the

late

7th

evidence

MONTE SA IDDA and FORRAXI NIOI

Coles

8th

the

7th or early

The survival

Spain.

a later
that

we have

as an indicator

and the
of

the

Atlantic

the

From ALCCER DO SAL

area.

the

the

or

existing

along

by the

of

of

the

Litoral),

centres

HUELVA hoard,

as evidence

Iberia

via

systems

activity,

and Mediterranean

coastal

century,

by operating

(Beira

re-integration

regional

Phoenician

this

these

Phoenician

Mediterranean
we must

in

tapping

were

Portuguese

da Foz

8th

the

end of

supplies

Central

the

and SANTA OLAYA, Figueira

their

Phoenicians

the

organisation

by the

that

state

in hoards

and their

of

the large

of

increasing
of
into

the tin

double-

implies
the
along
coast
presence in the MONTE SA

195
0

in Iberia

The Phoenicians

B-

Phoenician

The Western

Phoenician

Western

issue:

Tartessos

has therefore

by S. Bochart

'Phaleg

of

identified
were

Movers (1856) who saw the Phoenicians

1st millenium.

early
at

in

faction

Phoenician
the

Beloch

and Mycenae,

Troy

in

Following

expansion

westward

Meyer's

the

(eg.

more reasonable

the

1913,1

(1931,

II

Phoenicians
all

periods
by
held
were

at virtually
views

part

2,

presence

and anti-

pro-Greek
supremacy'

part

and primacy
and XII).

Chs. VII

2. Ch. II,

90-105)*

heeded
dispute has been carried
and the 19th-century
on ever
not
(1934,1942,1953),
(1958,1964,1966),
Carpenter
Garcia y Bellido
(1953),
1961),

(1955)

rrdzouls

Bosch-Gimpera,

(1968,1969,1975),
in the West,
with

'Wir

(1972)

foundation

and others

an early

promoting

expansion

since.

and Albright

Bisi

date,

(1970),

were

Forrer
(1941,

Blzquez

Phoenician

primacy

to correspond

dates.

(1972),

the arguments of the former faction

are
to show the inaccuracy
calculaof the ancient
authors'

by Niemeyer

based on attempts
in
tions,
usually

Niemeyer

and in particular,

the traditional

As noted

and others supporting

(1952), Cintas (1950,1970),

Beloch;

in the

people

of Phoenician

refutal
'cultural

over

the publication

'civilised'

represent

Beloch

views

world

The

too.

and the

which

the most extreme

Reinach's

argument

following

as the only

came to

Tarshish

to have begun with

(1972),

to Niemeyer

According

time.

of the biblical

the Mediterranean

throughout

here

discussed

Chanaan' in 1646,

...

by the'Tarshish/

been dominated

to be briefly

can be said

Greek Tartessos

Classical

have always

studies

the identification

over

controversy

of

it

sphere

terms of generations,

backed up by the absence of

kommen also zu dem Ergebnisse

Z dass Hellenen
zeimlich
und Phoeniker
in
in
das
Mittelmeer
Sicilien,
Auf
gleichzeitig
westliche
gelangt
sind.
in
Italien,
Sudkuste
die
die
Hellenen
an der keltischen
waren
ersten;
die Phoeniker...
in Tartessos
Libyen,
Da nun die
auf Sardinien,
des Westens nicht
Kolonisation
Jahrhundert
griechische
vor dem VIII.
begonnen-hat,
Kolonisation
so wird auch der Beginn der phoenikischen
frher
'
(Meyer 1931, II
nicht
wesentlich
angesetzt
werden durfen.
2, Ch. II,
253).
part

19

evidence

archaeological

for

Phoenician

Those who argue for

to 'perishable
refer

the Western Mediterranean.

foundation-dates

traditional

Phoenician

of small

presence

in

activities

trading

in

the 12th century

of the

the acceptance

or the
material',
indigenous
within

communities

for
for
the
the
evidence
explanation
absence of material
as
settlements
1967).
(cf.
initial
foundations
Berchem
the Phoenicians'
van
western
expansion,
of an early date of Phoenician
an arch-proponent
inscriptions,
including
NORA
if
Sardinian
the
the
that
even
recognised
GADES
date*,
foundation
dates
UTICA
9th
the
and
of
century
are
stone,
of

Albright,

are

c. 100 years

probably

In Part

The persistent

attempts

Greek

writers

Fontes

Hispaniae

1969),

Maluquer

with

to Tartessos,
Antiquae,

The earliest
IV,

152,

account

in the context

or

the

of the establishment

of

'Tartessos'.

'Tarshish'.

of

and occident,

the similarity

of

the

to

in

by Blzquez

by

the
(1968,

(1941,1948,1952).

are from Herodotus,

in particular,

of a colony

of Tarshish'

can be found

referred

y Bellido

'Tarshish'

The many references

Tartessians,

to Tartessos

of Ionian,

'ships

of the orient,

scholars

briefly

and Garcia

to

the meaning or location

word

more

references

to the

are a consequence

Greek

the

(1970c)

of

by serious

in Iberia

Tarshish

'Tarshish'

word

as well

references

as the. references

interpretations

and the various

(1941).

high

3, the Old Testament

I A, section

have been discussed,

to locate

too

The Histories

Saurian history

and the

by Thera:

'...

bound for Egypt,

under the
a Samian vessel
Colaeus
their
resumed
command of a man called
...
Easterly
(from Platea]...
winds,
voyage to Egypt
however,
there,
them from getting
and
prevented
they were driven
continued
so long that
away to
through
the westward
the Pillars
right
of Heracles
by a piece
they
until
of more than human luck,
in
had
Tartessus.
This
making
succeeded
place
been exploited,
not at that period
and the consethe Samian merchants,
quence was that
on their
home, made a greater
return
cargo
profit
on their
'
than any Greeks
...

* This date is not

Guido 1963,193;

1964,219;
Boardman
accepted by most authorities,
eg.
Carpenter-1966;
but see Nieneyer 1972, with references.

197.

Part

of

and

the

the

profit

episode

marked,

between

friendship

the

account

of

traders

has been

Phoenician'

the

engraved

the

of

ie.

millenium,
8th

and 7th

this

thesis,

(1972)

of
their

combs among the

found

tradition

accept

In a passage dealing
(I,
163):
writes

engraved

Southern
(1975);

it.

together

ivory

Iberia.
but

Aubet

Iberia
is

with

Saurian

of

in

the

has

1974b),

Samos

the

evidence

represented

Tckholm
(eg.

of

Heraeum

as convincing
in

Herodotus'

'Western

of

this,

the

of

astuteness

the

Hera,

of

and Thera.

in

Spain,

temple

beginning

finds

ivory-carvers
of

in

point

recent

in

Cyrene

the

identification

She regards

Phoenician

by point

the

the

and the

an alliance

ivory

finds

'The

of

of

century

and others

people

basis

ivories

engraved

establishment

of

(1966).

by Freyer-Schauenburg
evidence

and the

establishment

Herodotus,

to

according

Samians

in

to make a dedication

was used

late
by

of
2nd
the

disputed
Niemeyer

with

the Phocaean/Persian

conflict,

Herodotus

Phocaeans

Greeks to make long

were the first
it was they who showed the way to the
sea voyages;
Adriatic,
Tyrrhenia,
Iberia,
They
and Tartessus.
in deep, broad-beamed
used to sail'not
merchant
but in fifty-oared
When they went
vessels
galleys.
to Tartessus
they made themselves
to
agreeable
Arganthonius,
the King,
the place
who had ruled

for eighty years, and lived

to be a hundred and twenty.
Indeed, this person took such a fancy to them that he
asked them to quit Ionia permanently
and settle
wherever they liked on his land; the Phocaeans,
however, refused the offer,
whereupon the king, hearing
in their
that the Median power was on the increase
part
gave them money to build
of the world,
a wall round
And he must have given a great deal, for
their
town.
the wall at Phocaea is of pretty
extent,
considerable
and constructed
of large stone blocks well fitted
together. '
(Translated

by A. de Selincourt,

Penguin

Classics)

* There are many questions

to
one could raise as to the value of trying
locate this 'virgin
to which a merchant ship was 'blown'
the
market'
length of the Mediterranean;
the credibility
of *an-account by merchants
with a profitable
cargo; and even the importance
to Herodotus of the
details
of this voyage within
the context
of Samian history.

198

The fallacy

is now generally

colonisation
of

the account,

and Carchedonians
to the battle
boosted

recognised.
as the context

especially

and competition

expansion

in Greek long-distance

of Phocaean leadership

with

Central

of"Alalia:

of both

the morale

Mediterranean

166),

leading

up

would have
Phocaeans in the 6th
backer

barbarian

and Western

'Tyrrhenians

powers,
(I,

them'

of a wealthy

Easterh

and

We can also question

the rest
is Phocaean
of its narration

made common cause against

-tales

trade

century.

This
for

(1972,

example Schulten

Guadalquivir

of many fabulous

has been the foundation

account

valley

eg. p. 13, and 1955) suggested

elaborations,
that in the

flourished:

there

'...
das Tars-. i: isch, derdie Silberstadt
Tartessos,
die wohl um 1200 v. C. von den Tyrsenern aus
Bibel,
Kleinasien
gegrndet wurde, ganz Andalusien
beherrschte
Tartessos
Gegenstck

Durch
und bis 500 v. C. bestand.
das westliche
wurde das Baetistal
die am Unterlauf
Reichen,
zu den uralten

des Euphrat

und Tigris

und des Nils

entstanden...

'

(p. 196) *
(1953)
Bellido
y
'confederacy
Tartessian
Garcia

describes

the extent of what he envisages as a

'En
que
city-states':
sums una extensi6n
of

la
de
la
que
provincia
algo
mayor
a
ser
vendria
(p.
158).
la
region actual andaluza'
que

romana Baetica

y an

Tarshish with the

The presumed identification
of the biblical
(eg. Bonsor 1899,10;
1969;
Jully
Meyer 1931,96;
Greek. Tartessos
Garrido

1975) has been denounced by Tckholm

admirably

* Pericot.
referring
**

demonstrates

the fallacy

of

(1965,1969,1975)

the correlations**

(1969) reminds of the extent of

to his comparison of Tartessos

who

based on

'romanticism'
Schulten's
with Atlantis.

in

first
Since Bochart
the Tarshish/Tartessos
proposed
correlation,.
have been attempts
in Spain in
there
to establish
the Phoenicians
Iberia
the 11th and 10th centuries
and regard
of much
as the source
kings'
Assyrian
of Solomon's
as the later
- as well
-. treasures.
The views
Garbini,
Niemeyer
of Cintas,
and others.
are summarised

by Tckholm

(1975,

see note-1,

p. 41).

199

in

to Tarshish

references

inscriptions

Essarhaddon's
building

his

of

Testament,

the-Old
(ie.

as a source

Tckholm"notes

palace).

and to
area

of

'Tarsisi'

in

material

for

the

that

in der Tat nichts

darber
wir
ob
wissen,
...
die Phnizier
davon
Spanien
oder einen Teil
Tarsis
dass die Griechennannten:
wir wissen
nur,
es Tartessos
nannten. '

(1975,48)

there

excavations
(eg.
la

1972,

tradicional

the'city

espanola'

frequently

been
ie.

Tartessos,

in

the

estuary

has revived

the location

he believes

that

to have

been

in

routes

from

Rio

Tintc,

Tharsis,

the

Tinto

to

area

is

difficult.

of

the

Tinto

is

still

to

Huelva;

the

in a strong
Tartessos'.
Maluquer
trade
culture
el

lejano

(1970c,
the

mining
more

For

element

Carriazo

recognizes

establishment

Celtic

representa
the

river

of

the

'empire'

Phoenicians

of

that

Cadiz

is

in

Sevilla

the

city

Tartessos.

believe

'kingdom

of

influences.
the evidence

for

of the Los Millares

Tartessos

aislada

was the

was closely
in

along

identification

him

the

unlikely

there

the

una monarquia

and Greeks

is

(1973,45ff)

the time

403);.

of Huelva:

natural

Luz6n's

'empire'

'Tartessos

the

to

with

(1962)

hinterland,

and orientalizing

from

(1969b,

the

Tinto

1970),

the evolution

Mediterranean

the. evolution
of

in

Luzon

and from

and Carriazo

of the Tartessian

51ff).

Rio

(eg.

rivers.

Huelva

supports

Cintas

for

since

and believes

(1969b and 1970c)

indigenous

and

from

route

location

de metales'

the

Huelva,

to the north

to Niebla,

(1969,1975)

nearby.

'

in

areas

easily

mountain

be found

oeste...
69);

the

river

(1970c,

and Tinto

valley

Tartessos

the eastern

with

of

Guadalquivir

as'the

sees the origin

the

de comercio

Blzquez

Both Maluquer

off

'centro

led

etc,

by Garcia

in the hills

the

tesis

discussed
coast

de'

'la

to

(as

appropriate

Odiel

the

Sanldcar

Jerdz

near

according

of Tartessos

important

the

situated

communication

of

most

to be nearer

de Hasta',

is

Saltes,

of

as the

regarded

or

Trtessos

of

The island

1953,161).

Bellido

'Mesa

HASTA REGIA,

of

it

he believed

MESAS DE ASTA,

Roman town

the

on the Coto de Dona Ana, but when

Tartessos

were unsuccessful,

Mapa II).

Frontera,

has

'located'

first

Schulten

the

West.

en

Guadalquivir

connected

with

He envisages

2,o0
0

the kingdom of Tartesss

bien

mnarquico

carcter

e industrial'

agricula,

actividad

rica

'sociedad

as an urbanised

estratificada
politica
'estructura
an

with

definida'.

con
de

Furthermore,

'El

divino
de su monarquia perece
caracter
un centro sagrado para la corte que fuera

requerir
capaz

de irradiar
que se la

territorioeri el amplio
su influencia
Tal panorama require
ciertaatribuye.
que
y en ella
un templo o palacio,
mente una ciudad
cobijara
su realeza'

(1969b,

Thus,

a city

are
Rio

Tinto

area,
(eg.

workings
1970;
in

areas
is

it

the

are

ores

in

with

and Luz6n

1975).

its

or

of

exploitation
Ages,

'The

that
of

inferior;
as
unlikely,

Almerian

various
its

the Huelva

* Unsuccessful

area

and other
copper

of

merit
that

(contra

Huelva

that
in

copper

Maluquer

had

of

Roman times

to work
(eg.

in

always
the

lay

exploitation

1960; Garrido

in

the

of

1976,112

by the

was the

because

quantity.
main

in

Arabs

metallurgy,
its

the

with

connection

been,

copper

those

than

Muhly

copper

complicated

involve-

Phoenician

easy

notes,

sources

1962).

Luz6n

on CERRO SALOMON which

Andalusia

(1967,56ff)

elements

great

therefore,

Eastern

to

The nature

less

by the

red

according

extraction.
them

and

and others):

coloured

indirect

or

ancient

Luzon

Tharsis

is

the

many mining

one of

ferrico'

direct

makes

Checkland

is

In

to

Blanco,

recognised

silver

of

1969;

which

Huelva).

attributed

La Zarza,

river

with

those

even

(like

activities

with

are

Tinto

('sulfato

source

hinterland

Huelva

Rio

Tinto

the

associated

references).

quantities

of

concerned

West,

Middle

of

slag

of

correlations'

(Prov.

Tinto

and Luzon

Huelva

metallurgical

only
the

further

Blanco

of

unequivocably

ment

1967;

source

The pre-Roman

tons

million

hinterland

content

mineral

are

c. 15-20
Ben Dor

the

Tarshish/Tartessos

recent

CE11,
R0 SALOM6N, Rio

the

Blanco

also

of

mainstays

from

finds

the

Ruiz

the

to be located....

has yet

or temple

a palace

with

One of

403-6)

of

minor

regarded
'*

attraction

and Orta, 1975,

the

It

is
of

and many others).

in-the
16th and-17th
attempts
were made by the Spaniards
AD to revive
but
in
the exploitation
Huelva
centuries
the
area,
of ores
in the. 18th
technology
even when advanced mining
there
was applied
difficulties-were"still
century,
considerable
encountered.

20

as has

Instead,

been

significant

ore

exploitation

to

the

silver.

pre-date

Phoenician

detail

Before

for

there,

Phoenician

enterprise

exploitation

(see

it

linking

of

Phoenician

activity

of

production

centres

resources

Gibraltar

to

the-Black

'Probus'

source

by

be discussed

of

gold

the

Atlantic

it

of

by the

Western

exploitation
stage

establishment
involvement

a brief

makes

sphere,

a second

the

with

proposed

the

The proposed

sphere

is

trading

and that

ivory

and even

created

- was part

coast.

of

explanation

But,

corresponding

trading

or

1972).

centuries,

south

settlements,

silver,

essentially

silver

Iberia,

presence

in Iberia

the usual

entered

Sea were

of

consideration

1934,53ff).

favoured

4th century

for

There

favour

others
narrative
it

by Pytheas
was also

from

shores
benefit

of

as to

79) on which Avienus

A Greek

Schulten
Punic

a Roman

Avienus,

is no consensus

have survived.

by some (eg.

(1966,199ff):

the

(line

des auteurs'

extraite

1953; Hawkes 1969);

by Carpenter

be-described

to

Festus

Mediterranean

the

which

of the poem that

is

periplus

in

AD,

century

(Bertholet

703 lines

by Rufus

was a poem written

ancienne

The late

1969).

appear

dated

will

Phoenician

terms

sphere

on the

4th

proconsul

y Bellido

not

unavoidable.

the

Massaliot)

century

evidence

Niemeyer

and 7th

Atlantic

the

of

based the

(as

of

on CERRO SALOMIN associated

that

in

particular
in

The Ora Maritima

certain
the '.autoritd

1975;

8th

in

Ora Maritima

the

does

substantial

initially

late

local

for

is

Iberia

Tckholm

of

of

7th

This

be noted

should
in

the

in

hinterland

structures

above).

a Mediterranean

in

Phoenicians

the

the

establishing

Phoenicians

with

Phoenicians

their
it

'factories'

the

in

the evidence

considering

that

Huelva

the

beginning

the

below.

and the reasons

here

in

Rio-Tinto,

at

extraction

see references

slag:

in greater

in

found

material

the

with

observed

1972,110ff;

accounts
is

(specifically

(eg.

regarded

Garcia
Bldzquez

as Avienus'

used by Diodorus

Siculus

and others.
In fact,
Atlantic

the surviving

lines

and the Levantine

coasts

the-promontory
taken

called

Oestrymnis

up by many classical

the poem deal mainly with the

The challenge. to identify
of Iberia.
of

and the

scholars

islands

of Oestrymnides.

and prehistorians.

has been-

9I')

The two most common viewpoints,

can be summarised
in. Armorica:
the Oestrimnides

Cuevillas,

by Hawkes and Lopez

locates
Hawkes (eg. 1969,1971)

as presented

as follows:
in the late

he proposes
7th and 6th centuries
bronze
the 'important
and 'Tartessos',

between Armorica
connections
in
the Southwest':
centre
working
close

'...

este mismo Tartessos ha enviado sus mercantes

mas all de un gran golfo hasta las Oestrimnides,
hasta Armrica,
vecinos
cuyos habitantes,
es decir,
la
de
de Irlanda
de los Hierni
de
los
Albiones
y
futura
Bretana,
traficaban
en barcos de cuero por
sobre todo en plomo y estano...
su cuenta y eran ricos,
#Que notable
indicaci6n
la carencia
de cualquier
...
de. relaciones
comerciales
con Galicia!
(p. 195)

of Carthaginian

the decline

following

that

He proposes

involvement

in

this

of Tartessos,
area in the 5th

and the beginning

century,

Galicia

was

by Himilco:

'discovered'

'Dentro

de la Peninsula
de este modo halllar
una
de metales
tierra
cobre
casi nueva,
con oro,
plomo,
Luego empieza la. leyenda
ye sobre todo estaflo...
del estano
de la islas
y se instaura
el comercio
de oro con influencia
en los adornos
que se refleja
'
ibero-pnico...
del estilo

(p. 197)

The evidence

described

the Northwest

clearly

of Galicia

its
and

Lopez Cuevillas
Hawkes,
believing

locate

above for

the L. B. A. bronze
Hawkes' view

contradicts

metal

the late

in

centre
'discovery'

resources.

represents

the Oestrimnides

in the existence

of

production

those

Schulten
who, unlike
(eg. Monteagudo 1954).

authors

in Galicia

of Tarshish/Tartessos

in

the Southwest,

and
Whilst
Lopez

furthest
from the inhabitants
regards Galicia
as their
venture:
'los
Oestrimnios',
Galicia,
the Tartessians
about the
would have learnt
of
further
ie. Armorica and Britain.
The
to the north,
territories
took
:
(1953). *
Carthaginians
this
trade route from the Tartessians.
over
Cuevillas

(1969) even derives

* Jully
Southern British
and, Armorican pottery
the
'textual
La Tene date from Carthaginian
basis
the
wares on
of
the
for
tin trade.
evidence'

of

203

Early
in

found

the writings

'Lo peor de todo es que confunde

(v. 85,269,427)
despite
Malaka'
es posible
el

viejo

oro

(1966,206ff)
fact

are to be
(1972, ll], ff):

account

and even Schulten

Tartessos
which

con Gades, y Mainake con

Schulten believes
that 'Por fortuna,

interpolaciones

de teles

a la

y sacar

luz

puro'!

The debate

in

la escoria

quitar

of Avienus'

of the reliability
of Meyer (1931,97)

criticisms

has recently

that

represent

(1973)

supports

location

of

the

the

been enlivened

'tin

islands'

the place

teed

by Carpenter's

novel

not have produced

tin

where exchanges

Carpenter

in

regarding

exchanges

for

Cornish

the

for

tin

view
but may
Muhly

took place.

'Oestrymnic

Isles'

as the

tin:

`...
the voyage to Cornwall
was made by the
inhabitanr3
themselves;
they brought
of the islands
the tin from Cornwall
to the Tin Islands,
to
there
forthe
be exchanged
by foreign
goods brought
traders,
namely pottery,
salt
and vessels
of bronze.
into
From the Tin Islands
the goods were brought
the Mediterranean:

islands
Tartessians
bourne
to the Oestrymnid
Once used to traffic.
Folk from Carthage too
folk that dwelt
-Frequented
once these waters,
and strove between the Pillars
of Hercules. '
(P. 267)*

It

would be unwise

to get

involved

in

the endless

and ultimately

debate

on the use of texts to locate the legendary Oestrimnides

Let us note, instead,
that there is archaeological
and Cassiterides.
sterile

evidence

from Spain

the Atlantic
highly

coastal

stratified

and Portugal
zone.

indigenous

There

of Phoenician

and Punic

is no evidence

society

for

- monarchic,

activities

in

an urbanised,

imperial

or anything

is
it
that there ever will
be.
Even Garca y Bellido
unlikely
else - and
'el
"polis"
that
de Tartessos
problems de la ubicaci6n
noted
esta en la
misma situacion

en que lo dejaron

los

antiguos

veinte

siglos

ha'

(1953,163).

lines
* Ora Maritima
113-116,
by Carpenter
translated
(1966,207)..
bibliography
Muhly gives
for ancient
an extensive
to the
references
Tin Islands
in the notes. to Chapter'V.
and their
recent
evaluation
The references
to the objects
traded
Geography
are from Strabo,
(Muhly 1973, Ch. V, note 53).
5,11
III,

204

and Carthaginians

The Phoenicians
not

and their

colonisers,,

is known from--the

secret

deliberately

concern

keeping

with

this

area

their.

rather

ship

than be followed

traders,

were

routes

of the Carthaginian

account

on the rocks,

wrecked

in

active

and contacts

that

was
to its source

area by a Greek ship. *

Avienus'

refers

poem also

to Himilco's

of. the Atlantic

account

ocean:

de commercer
1'habitude
Tartessiens
avaient
les
de
des
limites
Oestrynmides;
colons
mA-me
aux
des
les
de Carthage
gens
rdpendus
autour
et

'Les

d'Hercule

Colonnes

ces regions.

visitaient

luiqui rapporte
avoir
navigation
que
cette
affirme
m@me expdrimentd
Von

si
peut les traverser
en
peine
c'est
le
Ainsi
ne
nul
souffle
propulse
mois.
quatre
de
l'eau
cette
mer paresseuse
semble
navire,
fond
du
I1
ajoute
que
montent
une
engourdie.
d'algues
le
qui souvent
retiennent
multitude
dit-il,
la mer
bateau
ndanmoins
comme une haie;

peine une mince couche

est sans profondeur,
le sol;
des animaux matins
d'eau
toujours
recouvre
les
entre
nagent
et lh, des monstres
circulent'ga
'
inertes.
lents
trainent
et
qui
se
navires

Fortunately,

still

if

Himilcon

(lines

translated

marine

less

effort

by a Roman official,
but

are unknown,
in
lines
the
as
The Western

Iberia,

fenicio

by Bertholet

on attempting

were spent

who had himself

never

above - sometimes

Mediterranean

sphere,
del

context

of a Western
was first

extremo

of

be better
a poem

the West, whose sources

foundations

Phoenician

but

dispassionate
deceptive.

deliberately

sphere

by Tarradell
which

these

to the ground

sometimes

Phoenician

defined

occidente'

to pin
visited

can be seen to bq disparate,

quoted

1934)

has been expended in finding

and windless
It would
shores.

effort

monsters

and the existence

the Carthaginian
a 'circulo

113-129,

no scholastic

waters,

shallow

Le Carthaginois

included

separate

in

from

(1960,260)

as

the Western

* References to support this view can be found in the writings*of

from classical
Diodorus' (V, 20 and V. 35); but quotations
can
writings
be chosen to support virtually
any view of early Greek and Phoenician
enterprise.

205
p

Mediterranean

and Atlantic

believes

this

that

by Carthaginian
the

until

value,
to

Phoenicians.
like

Important
Phoenician

from

progress

1960b,

Iberian

and Not_h African

sphere

in Iberia.

Within

he sees a continuity
by Tarradell

suggested
found in Carthage

these

of

centuries

he therefore
'Tartessian
the

were to be expected

and later

the context
but

of

this

relevant

jewellery
Phoenicians'or

the

the two

since

the Mediterranean
extension.

Punic

activities,

thesis,

the existence

only

Phoenician

this

Western

of

jewellery

in
particular
silver
products
On the basis
and knives.
sickles

the graves

amphorae,

between

(1969b,
176)
by
Tangier
Ponsich
the
area
are
of
said
'indigenes
The grave goods
grounds of
phdnicisds'.

iron

5th

Western

this

and must be noted.

jewellery,

or

attraction

main

(1968).

the interconnections

Phoenician

that

and high

'personal

Alicante)

identifying

the

following
Moroccan
study of
material:
1968), Jodin (1966), and Ponsich

which

can be examined,

important

to be the burial

appear

as the

possessed

(Prov.

of the Phoenician

the context

The necropoli
include

East,

the

low bulk

their

of the same geographical

unit:
its
Atlantic
by Braudel 1972,108)
and

in Iberia
is

areas,

to

connections

He regards

part

are essentially
Channel (as defined
areas

activities

due

- was unaffected

Iberia.

Southern

VILLENA

1969b and 1971) have revealed

as observed

Mediterranean

he maintains,

the increased

(1959,1952,1960a,

is
area

Eastern

to

(1969a,

This

its

has been made in

sphere with

Tarradell

region

which,

chiefs,

known

that

Iberian

transportation

Local

(1968)

Tarradell

the

of

Iberia

of

for

suitable

treasures',

and retained

resources

were

the

- particularly

Roman occupation

of

metal

precious

area

expansion

period

foundations.

Phoenician

Punic

for

them
in

colonists'.
questions
and iron

pre-date
production

by

Iberian

as to
the

centres,

as possible
Tangier

the

the

local

types

of certain

not

It would
sphere.
in the late 6th
the establishment

basis

intermediaries,

(Ponsich
for

evidence
area.

In

of

acquisition

population,

for

mainly

foodstuffs

transporting

regards

with

had been

- which

Moroccan/Iberian

this

necropoli

Iberia

- and the existence

and others

distinguish

of

ie.

of relations

- some gold
in
found
the
pottery
of

this

whether

the

1969b,

the

manufacture
181;

presence,

of

way Ponsi"ch
of Phoenician
obtained
from
"

1969a):

avoids

206

(1970b)

Culican

forms of

characteristic.

(1976)

Maass-Lindemann
for

tripods

the Western

North

African

Malaga)

in Carthage

have counterparts

- which

of

and Schubart

the Western

CHORRERAS (Prow.

at

distribution

bottles;

and oil

have noted

found

some material

Iberia

has observed

and
parallels
in

- -and elsewhere

and the Central

Mediterranean

in
Western
to the characteristic
particular
applies
spheres:
The nature of the
Phoenician
urns and amphorae (see Lindemann 1974).
during the period of early Phoenician
Iberian-African
connections
this

colonisation
(as suggested
for

reason

for

Braudel

Sea,
of

were
or

his

up by the

the

Channel

The Mediterranean

Matifou,

near Algiers,

(Braudel

1972,108).

trading

posts

incorporated

traders

who skirted,

AD Mediterranean

in

the Ist

the

world,

BC would

millenium

environmental

these

and even

aft,
into

Jodin's

defined
in

as the area of

the West and a line

This

was the main sphere

quite

grounds

predictably,

the. Carthaginian
and Ponsich's

for

political

in

the East

This

enterprise
posts,

where staging

Phoenicians

found.

between Cape

of Phoenician

8th and 7th centuries,

and burial

the Mediterranean

resident

in

the

sphere was later

- as well

as economic

research has revealed

an early
this
in
Phoenician
presence
widespread
area as well as Atlantic
by more intensive
Punic
as far as MOGADOR,which was followed
system.

They

defined

Braudel

to Cabo de. la Nao, near Valencia,

the Far West in the late

centres

is

of Gibralter

the Straits

production

16th-century

intensity

the

(1972,108ff).

confines

Although

Tyrrhenian

the
by

large-scale

of

basins.

factors.

technological

in

their

within

Adriatic,

the

with

Mediterranean

distinguished

are

Saharas'.
of

the

by the same gross

have been constrained

between

Aegean,

and communication

of navigation

nature

was the

probably

the Mediterranean

of

and Western

activities

'maritime

analysis

seas'

Channel,

communication

the

for

the

Mediterranean

maritime

crossed,

which

gold

Harden 1948) may be one of the material

Ionian

the

including

seas',

connected

units

ie.

Saharas',

and the

the

1929,83)

'narrow

th_

contrasts

'narrow

(cf.

voyage

the use of West African

interrelationship.

bases of this

The

by Gsell

Carthage

Hanno's

'maritime

to be elucidated:

has yet

and fairly
Morocco,
involvement

207

in

the

A feature

area.

iberique

With

9th

2nd millenium

des

entre

1'9poque

at

KOUASS is

Sud de la

its

p4ninsule

(Ponsich

phgnicienne'

with

corresponding
200-year

for

Phoenician

of

proposed

for

in

'factories

intensity;

(1972)

'Western
a

were established

North

Africa

8th century

Barreca

constantly
(1965)

MONTE SIRAI,

Sardinia,

is

the

dated,
Albright

at

(1966)

Phoenician

10th centuries,

commercial

in

the

8th

interrupted

that

interpretation
Albright

in

that

represents
to

the

the

and date
(1941)

compared

and 4th

commercial
centuries

we now have from

Iberia

the earliest

represent
Spanish

in
colonies
(1970),
Bisi

to stretch

the West into

type
in

the evidence

for

the 9th or even

the ancient

of

the'NORA
the

with

Phoenician

construction

of

by the

centuries

He, like

century

without

5th

that

an oriental
9th

evidence

west.

to vindicate

attempting

claims

latest,

presence

(1968)

in Southern

existing

try

questions

Tarradell

the

foundations

and others,

rightly

main

the evidence

Mediterranean.

do Sal;

century,

associated

the

the

GADIR and the

and 7th

in
in

competition

6th

the

relations,

and towns',

from already

Brea

were

Alccer

to

(1975).

west

phenomenon: he believes

or the Central

(1965),

of

of

7th century

Phoenician'

sites

the

has suggested

8th and early

late

for

proposed

centres

Tackholm

foundation

the

phase

Greek

Carthage.

of

of

al

GADIR and CARTHAGE), penetrating

is

foundation

Niemeyer

colonial

coast

followed

of

major

and the

between

greater

the

viajes

is

colonisation'

of

beginning

'fabulosos

as C6rdoba

west,

beginning

the

inscriptions:

for

the

of

relations

Barreca

date

establishments

in

foundations

of

which

a 'pre-colonial'

recognised

'true

phases.

various
(1962,43ff):

the

prospections,

hegemony

interval

the

of

by Pellicer

proposed

decline,

of

the

identification

the

in

as far

a period

phase,

period

century

Iberia

of

third

the

le

phase

centuries,

(9th

interior

late

rent

exist

with

a second

7th

to

established

the

qui

has been

de Tarsis';

with

centre

Iberia,

to

activity

late

the

the

production

Tanger

rdgion_de

respect

Phoenician

pals

the-Punic

234).

1969a,

in

la

et

'liens

the

of

confirmation

of

the
of

defences

structure

Sardinia,
and other

thereby

authors.

at
which
supporting

Sardinian

NORA and BOSA inscriptions

208

from

Sardinia

that

the similarity

the Honeyman inscription

with

from Cyprus

and decided

'...

that
the Phoenicians
proves
conclusively
were
erecting
monumental
stone inscriptions
at No
than the third
and Bosa in Sardinia
not later
B. C. and probably
half
quarter
of the 9th century
It stands
to reason
that
the
century
earlier.
.afirst
in Sardinia
settlements
must go back several
to the middle
generations,
century
or
of the loth
'
even somewhat earlier.

(p. 15, my italics)

Barreca.
the

evidence

the

emergence

to

support

from

inscriptions

fact,

earliest

in

and the
in

are

assumed
from

sanctuary

existed

According

or

8th

in

Sardinia.

from which no material

is earlier
at Carthage,
(cf. Demargne 1951 and Culican 1961).
8th century
The example of MOTYA should

curb

some of

these

8th

the

to

in

than

precinct
the

In

(1971,35-6),
found

those

considered

century

dated

Harden

to
like

SULCIS are

at

9th

THARROS and SULCIS is

(1963, ' 195-201).

the

have

is

repertoire

Thus,

to

addition
fortifications,

MONTE SIRAI

Nuraghic

the

to

in

chronology:

prototypes.

material

by Guido

stelae

Albright's

figures

Phoenician

to

settlements

the

century

the

oZ bronze

be related

Phoenician

the

and Bisi

recent

the

Tanit

the end of

tendencies

sufficient
evidence - the establishment
- without
of Phoenician
in
Although
from MOTYA
the West.
the earliest
trading
posts
material
(Isserlin
is 8th century
et al 1956; 1958,1970),
of
and the occupation
the site may have begun in the late 8th century,
the Tophet began to
to update

be used in

the 7th,

MOTYA only

flourished

Plat

Taylor

et al

and 7th century

ephemeral
the earliest
- tell

'Stage

the period
in

the 6th and early.

1974,84ff).

date
1'

datable

when the fortifications

found

were built,
(Isserlin,
5th centuries

The few finds

together

(pp. 53,73)

material
us much about the 'life'

with

should
does not

of Greek pottery

Etruscan
therefore
- at least

of the settlement.

wares

in

of

and
Du
8th

the rather

not be overemphasised:
in

the case of MOTYA

209

0..

interpretation

Niemeyer's
is

Iberia
long
of

very

for

chronology

The first

category

in

evidence

the

re-establishing

basis

two categories

of

2nd millenium

phase

of

of Iberia.

and the people

consists

towards

a late

proposes

settlement

On the

expansion.

(1972)

between Phoenicians

contact

trend

recent

Phoenician

Niemeyer

material,

this

much within

Phoenician

the

of

ivories

of engraved

in tombs in

found

(which will
be discussed below) and have been attributed
in
(1966) to Phoenician
Iberia
by Freyer-Schauenburg
workshops established
:d
is
from
based on the finds
in the late 2nd millenium:
this attribution
cep,
the ivory,
Samos and the technique used in decorating
viz.
engraving,
the Southwest

had been replaced

she maintains

which
objects

She dates
does

than combs) in

(other

to

attempt

not

Phoenician

(1971)

Winter
dates

regards

to

them

the

the

in

existed

(1941)

known. ' Albright

for

account

workshops

the early

the

ivories

them as

'of

actual

8th

and 7th

in Phoenicia.

of the

7th century

in

the

and of

dates

late

half

c. 500 years

Iberia,

to

ivory
on

decoration

1st millenium

to the first

find..,

the-IL--rian

by relief

which

which

Phoenician

or

8th

are

century;
and

manufacture'

by comparisons

century

proposed

no products

9th

the

and

recent

with

7th century date for

in Cyprus and Nimrud. * Freyer-Schauenburg's
is supported by Aubet's
iconographic
ivories
the
the Iberian
analysis
of
(cf.
ivories
Aubet
1971a).
has
Western
Tckholm
argued
of
content
ivory
date
2nd
Phoenician
the
the
of
millenium
establishment
of
against
finds

workshops
(a)

the fact
in

(b)

that

the East,
is

engraving
ivories

(c)

in the West on the basis

(d)

we do not know much about

eg. none are found
used as well

independent

category

some relief

carving

an argument
late

ie.

ivory
of
is

24,50,127;

found

decoration

1st millenium

combs

on 1st millenium
not be regarded

combs should

as an

objects;

ivories

on some Iberian

(cf.

Bonsor

and 1928,10,12-23);

can be made against

2nd to the early

early

in graves;

as relief

known from Assyria,

1899 Figures

of:

continuity

1st millenium

* Only the summary of Winter's-paper

in

technique

on'the

tradition

from the

of comb-making,

Iberian-ivories

in

is published..

210

that

combs have

Spanish

MEGIDDO have

only

2 rows

teeth,

of

the

whereas

one.

(eg. 1971b) and Niemeyer

Aubet

But,

combs from

most

(1972)

Freyer-Schauenburg's

support

argument.
The second
the

category

2nd millenium

eastern

Niemeyer

that

material

of

is

connection

the

L. B. A.

for

as evidence

cites
pattern

in southern and western Iberia,

for which Schubart
(1969a,
30ff) have proposed an eastern origin:
Schle
and
found

burnished

ware

'So mag also auch diese Technik

der handgefertigten
Glttmuster-Keramik
wie die der Elfenbeine
mit
frher
Darstellung
auf die iberische
geritzter
Faktoreigrndung
Halbinsel
gekommen sein,
als'die
etwa von Toscanos,
nach den wc:i: igen chronologischen
Anhaltspunkten
Jahrtausends.
gegen Ende des zweiten

(Niemeyer

Niemeyer
transmission
'movement
L. B. A.

of
of

in

Eastern

this

Near

East,

the

were

trait
(cf.

populations'

the

'

1972,43)

Phoenicians

that

suggests

(1967)

and Garrido

too

in

Pellicer

intermediaries

the

the

following

period

1962,42)

in

at

the

the

end of

the

when,

`Durch

ihre eigene Tradition

wie durch die
Lage an einer der Nahtstellen
geographische
zwischen Vorderen Orient und der Mittelmeerwelt
fr
hervorragend
eine Vermittlerrolle
sie
waren
'
ausgerstet.

(p. 44)
is

There

just

no convincing
(or rather

to send the Phoenicians

based,

decorating
finish
different

and since

technique

regularly
periods

the peninsula

(which

applied

is hardly

to all

and places

to support

thesis

the use of pattern

his

fine

remarkable

in Iberia,
hypothesis.

does not

burnish

ware),
there

Niemeyer's

attempt

to the Far West in

Canaanites)

Since Freyer-Schauenburg's

12th century.
soundly

to support

evidence

is

appear

a fairly

when burnishing

the
to be

general
is

the

found

to recur

in

is no real

evidence

from

and is

211

The L. B. A.
an ideal

the

elements

we have

of

the

the

Phoenicians,

with

ornaments,
for an indigenous

of

illusory

the

is

manipulation

Atlantic

oriented
in

involvement
by the

here

proposed

Phoenician
were

'Tartessos'

of

major

of

of

'luxury'
bronze

the

phase of contact

bronze

weapons and

The absence of any evidence

been

late

existing

Iberian

- preceded
to

of

the

centuries,

in

order

the

first

phase,

a second
Iberia.

has been emphasised

fixed

to

comparable
in

the

with

in

firmly

Central

Mediterranean,

century

trade

This

the

greater

of

second

intensify

sphere
to

the

phase
in

eyes

is

which
-

centred

the
in

is
the

other
North

represented
8th

late

to

create

recognisable,

Phoenician
Africa

- which

activities

network

clearly

of

Phoenician

commercial

Atlantic

the

phase

networks

established

and extend

- and connected

8th

phase

'factories'

new Atlantic-Western'Mediterranean

spheres

the initial

an initial

the

and commitment

in

established

that

functioning

7th

and early

is
and

concept

centre

has

society,

beholders..

certain

It

gleam

and was

and beyond

within

north.

bronze-working

contained

L. B. A.

the

essentially

from further

southern

in

Iberia,

or during

items,

required

' Furthermore,

trade.

example
areas.

before

luxury

these

were obtained

and

source

has been shown that

It

for

considerably

gains

resources

status

In

the

presented

existed'that

local

an elite

above,

and

and riverine

items.

and their

centres

strategies

over

of

'luxury'

of

as outlined

infra-structure

control

existence

L. B. A. varied

production

economic

to maritime

oriented

supplies

system,

A local

specialised

observed

requiring

the

merchants.

predominantly

in

for

opportunity

by Phoenician

trading

regional

trading
and the

islands.

(1970b)
* Maluquer
us with
presents
an imaginative
of a
reconstruction
feudal
lords
in contact
world
of courts,
and craftsmen,
and hence
with
influenced
by the 'burguesia
rica'
of the colonial
expressing
cities,
in imitations
'the
their
wealth
of
powerful
classes'
of the homeland
in the formation
de
which resulted
of a 'burguesia
colonial
o criolla
(pp. 99=100).
Tarradell
nuevos ricos'
als. o-envisages
a L. B. A. society
in which wealthy
'caudillos'
like
that
treasures,
of
possess
personal
VILLENA (1968).

2 12

The Atlantic
dealt

the

discussed
for

need

became

the

for

new outlets
main

metal

supplies
aspect

(1963,229)

by Butler

during

networks

of

an interesting

But

above.

with

L. B. A.

orientation

is

Danish

suppliers

of

the

Central

Montelius

VI

(ie.

the

Northern

the

of

here.

relevant

European
7th

Atlantic
It

concerns

Prussian

when East

amber

has been

and products

sources
and their

centres

trade

century):

'One

imagine
in traffic
increase
can well
a great
in
the
this
sea
on
open
period,
when, as the
Northern
razors
and rock carvings
show, the ship
in the Baltic
had become an object
of adoration
area. '

(Butler

Butler
British

but

in

Ireland-are

Extremadura

type

direct

for
with

in
stelae.

jewellery

type

oriental
in

GAIO graves

the

as its

as well

cemeteries,

Sardinia,

together

indicate

with

trade

in southwestern

its

maintained

that

it

regional
peninsula

items,

known
This,

1969a);

system,
following

from

per

in

(Sines,

not
the

in

the

Danish

carved
evidence
of

amber

Huelva,

LA JOYA

and the

Guadalquivir
in

hoard

this

connection

and

amber was the Phoenician

The Phoenicians
it

on the

FORRAXI NIOI

do support

that

as shields,

association
in

the

reaching

convincing

Alentejo),

bronzes,
for

ie.

graves

Alto

occurrence

is

but

indigenous

such

Iberia,

se,

contacts,

network.

technological

retained

northern

Northerners

distributed

to the Central

the amber

Mediterranean,

as

below.

6th century

Schle

of

Atlantic

The L. B. A. Northwestern

cf.

for

Spain and carried

be described

or early

fact

no evidence

the new outlet

that

Atlantic

oriented

will

evidence

Iberian-Scandinavian

cemetery,

also

the

of

is

there

that

notes

Isles,

he seeks

1963,. 229)

competence

(as exemplified
also

its

bronzeworking

and despite
its

as late

appears

torcs

from

antenna
this

of economic

significance,

the increasing

use of

introduction

Whereas the Scandinavian

shields
represented
on the stelae:
only
of notches found (Coles 1962).

to have

as the end of

by the Galician

the many golden

position

centre

in the south

iron

the 7th
daggers,

area suggest
albeit

in a new

throughout

the

by the Phoenicians.

have U-shaped notches,

in Ireland
are shields

V-notches. are
with both types

213

Although

the

phase

give

an early
does

Schle
It
at

form
the

date

to

in

transportation

of

intervention

fibulae

of

confirm

it.

of

Eastern

or

of

9th

Neither

network,

for

the

represents
ie.

contents,
but

derivation

Mediterranean

accumulated

the. current

collection

traders;

came to

had been

that

this

can the

centuries.

probably

But

an

be used - as
8th

early

or

material

specialist

and Evans

Daniel

the

relays.

Central

not

of the knee fibulae

Atlantic

Phoenician

necessarily

deposition.

to

short

does

its

origin

the

represents

this

a collection

within

points

contents

horizon,

for

hoard

this

represents

obviously
various

date

the 9th century

for

evidence

Tongue

8th century

HUELVA hoard

the

of

Carp's

the

of

early

majority

not

the

manufacture,

conclusion:

a similar

'The close
links
Europe may well

between
the coasts
of Atlantic
by the
have been fostered
and it is no
of Phoenician-traders,
activities
bronzes
by
that
cargo
carried
a
of
a ship
accident
[the ninth
century]
which
period
or eighth
of this
included,
in
harbour
have
Huelva
as
should
sank
"carp's
tongue"
a spearhead
as
swords,
of
well
fibulae
derived
from a
Irish
type and stilted
in the Levant
type which seems to have originated
in the tenth
B. C. '
century

(1967,55)

But,

according

'Este

d6posito

los
nos prueba
que entonces
de Rio Tinto
alimentaban,
y Tharsis
de este hallazgo,
una industria
de un pueblo
de origen
propia,

yacimientos
en la epoca
metalurgica
europeo':

it

ie,

but

were operating

in

metals

Provence,
the

paucity

recuperating'

tautological,

of

in

collected
bronze

bronze

there

since
in

the

weapons,

the

Maluquer

Catalan

of

scrap

in Catalonia/

bronze:

Urnfields

implements

forward

puts

Greek and Etruscan merchants

in order to
in the 8th century

were no raw materials

form

of European

that

argument

the Western Mediterranean

which,

were

of and predominance
'Celtic
invasion'.
the
of

part

a complicated,

obtain

in Huelva

the arrival

represents

populations,

(1975):

Almagro

to

etc.

since
to

use

this
the
in

resulted
Greeks.

their

in

were

own centres.

214
%

His

were

records,

which

are

(1966,1970a).

record
for

example

is

'Southwest',

the

in

intervened

Thus

the Atlantic.

MARMOLEJO (Prov.
1966,

in

bronzework

themselves,

bronze

desired

double-looped

palstaves,

and published

by Siret
including

Southwest

discussed

above,

with

the

'Southwestern'

I A) in

Part

increasing
and

transport

demand for

or resource

exploitation.

low
in

trading

the output

two

(Prov.

- have

Granada)
in

the

been
associated

1975a).

trade

in metals
that

strategy,

commodities

they

of indigenous

They then used these

has been

by providing

Mediterranean:

certain

the

with

metalwork

(Schubart

the Atlantic

production

The 3 found

example

II

been

availability

its

Iberia

13.

and other

the Eastern

and came to monopolise

production
centres

(in

have

BAZA and DIEZMA

swords

Phoenician

could

illustrates

619)

'onubense'

in

Almagro

invest

Figure

Jadn),

(Cf.

value,

southern

Figure

Age Phase

intervention

a characteristic

demonstrated

to

125);

the

19,

having
of

found

sword/daggers

Almeria)

high

come from

Figure

Bronze

The Phoenician
represents

to

with

rare

BAEZA (Prov.

the

elites

anomolous

together

were

Phoenicians

the

9) Figure

(1947,

Carriazo

the

of Huelva.

bronzes

Sevilla),

and

the

provided

(1913,

too:

HUELVA cargo

short

(Prov.

and without

said

Southwest

the

and Atlantic

who recognised

weapons.

archaeological

the hinterland

before

based

network.

56,3,4

South,

have

could

in

and TABERNAS (Prov.

Figure

the

the

and characteristic

by Phoenicians

distributed
of

trade

Cordoba)

58,1;

Figure

that

proposes

PALMA DEL RIO

at

to

is

century

by the

applied

as Southeast,

as well

ie.

South,

the

is

8th

the

supported

northwestern

few palstaves

the

not

88)

in

Iberia

of material

that

proposed

in

argument

(1975a,

the collection

it

Here,

This

Schubart

represents

in

Greeks

assumption

on literary

in

that

stimulated

production

resources

or

products:
(a)

to gain

areas;

other
(b)

for

access

materials

or else
in distant

the exploitation

of new resources

used it

discrete
economically
- and therefore
from the increased
thereby benefitting
value of raw
from their
and products
at some distance
sources.

exchange

regions,

to or initiate

in

,. .r

Atlantic
19:
from
types of short
Figure
swords and daggers
(Almagro, 1966:
1.
Iberia.
Fig.
58,1,
PALMA DEL RIO, Crdoba;
Southern
56,3,
3.
BAEZA, Jaen;
Fig.
56,4,
Fig.
2.
MAIZ-f0LEJO, Cordoba;
56,9,
TABERNAS, Almeria)
Fig.
4.

216

is

It

Northwest

the
to

the

to

in

in

Bosch-Gimpera

the

in

Mallorca

(finicis

grecs)
(1932b,

1'Occident'

sword,
chisels

of

the

like

ie.

'bracelets',
5 thick

in

the

their

latter

Sardinia

there

bronze

de

metall

and LAS
solid-hilted

Iriv.

solid

diameter,

and

1; and E. 8,

E. 7, Lm. l,

Arch.

heavy

the

contains

c. 6cm interior

rings,

was

el

the

also

and

historics

Mallorca,

contain

the

orientals

a Espanya

LLOSETA,

the

in

occurrence

colonitzadors

of

by

MONTE SA IDDA - and some strange

(Almagro

axes

ie.

and Sardinia.

found

that

Baleares)

HUELVA;

heavy cast
flat

butted

in

access

was put

Balearics

the

a cercar

(Prov.

found

those

que els

The hoards

found

type

gain

interested,

material

of

a venir

Mallorca

Campos,

SALINAS,

from

and suggested

228).

to

and

bronzework

Atlantic

association

comencin

South

the

from

Huelva.

this

'abans

the

of

bronzework

used

particularly

by finds

the

consequence

were
of

to which

noted

Iberia

Western

they

illustrated

is

Phoenicians

in

relations

which

use

Phoenicians

the

hinterland

the

The second

that

establish

resources
ores

silver

here

suggested

Lm. 1,1-4).

linking

Material
of

has

Sardinia

looped

the contents
been

also

(cf.

axe

socketed

IDDA and many Iberian

SABINA,
has

Isla

four

E. 12 Lm. l,

of

the

are
form

distinctive

thought
of

to

be too

ingot.

type

were

crucible

(Prov.

to

of

have

trunnion

been
axes

this

to

a hoard

LA

at

G6mez (1973)
in

together

with

LA SABINA,

cf.

axes,

in

as*found

associated

functional
in

in

buried

Baleares),

trunnion

MONTE SA

(according

Fernandez
found

a single-

ingot

found

all

palstaves

type

thin

were

those

with
(cf.

axe

Hispnico'

Baleares).

Formentera

The flat

which

and may represent

hoard

casting
show

a
seams

base.

and an unfinished
According

(Prov.

Balearic

a trunnion

Final

1-3)

double-looped

SANT FRANCESC XAVIER,

Formentera:

of

and a piano-convex

'Bronce

the

de Formentera

published

island

MONTE SA IDDA);

of

Arch.

Inv.

Almagro,

hoards

on the

parallels);

hoards

HfO and other

found

of Northwestern

to

probably
fragments

Fernandez
intended
and

ingots,

(1974),
for

the

smelting.
as well

trunnion

axes

of

the

LAS SALINAS

The LA SABINA hoard

as a poorly

cast

socketed

contained
axe

and

21.7

a trunnion

This

axe.

Atlantic

bronzework

en route

for

in

Balearic

islands

the

by Phoenician

area

and in

Balearic,

Atlantic

of

into

Mediterranean,

Iberian,

The Southern
distribution

the

introduced
was
Central

the

from

evidence

is

16th century AD, when ships

ie. the Balearics
by the islands',
the

the

known

route

from Spain

sailing

carriers

indicated

route

that

Sardinia.

particular

Sardinian

metalwork

indicates

by the
been

have

to

used

'sailed

to Italy

Sardinia:

and southern

sea in the sixteenth

century
was an immensity
few
had
a
man's efforts
only conquered
of water;
direct
of
ports
routes,
and tiny
margins,
coastal
Great stretches
of the sea were as empty
call.
Shipping
only along
was active
as the Sahara.
in those days was a
Navigation
the coastline.
just
in
following
the
the
as
shore-line,
matter
of
days of water
transport,
crab-wise
moving
earliest
islands
"from
from rock to rock,
to
promontories
This was
to promontories".
and from islands
The word
the open sea...
avoiding
costeggiare,
itineraries
to
the
that
springs
mind as one studies
di navigare
which are from
or Arti
of the period,
beginning
to end a description
route,
of the coastal
'
is the humble word "tramping".

'The

(Braudel

Avienus'

account

Marseille

Roman 'tramping';
distances

regular
Africa,

North
type

Atlantic

of

of

one day's

sailing

Sardinian

The

bringing

traders

the

for

evidence
of

the

coast

of

products

southeastern

the

is

presence

Atlantic

as
and

pre-Roman
Punic

small

another

Spain

and along

indicates

in providing

the Phoenician
as-some

as well

Atlantic
the

was high.

typological

trading
Central

role

network

of

bronze

and stray

within

of

on the

apart

known from a number of hoards

the

of

(1950),

by Cintas

as observed

many versions

foundation

and the

as far

coast

settlements

western

coast

example

of

of

this

navigation.

of

around

and Mediterranean

a compilation

represents

possibly
at

the

of

1972,103-4)

finds

Mediterranean,

the

demand

the

on the

ie.

Sardinia,

high
Sicily

- by

island

'tramping'

route

island.

with
innovations,

for

specialist

industry

Sardinia

and technological
when

long-distance

is

The evidence

the raw materials,

in
obtained

quality

bronzework

and Central

Italy,

218

Guido
the

and
113)

'The

that

notes

metalworking

resulted

in

the

development

of

in

their

design.

These

massive
century.

Copper

working

8th

century;

in

the

imported

from

axes),

winged

flat-backed
in

found
hoards,

FORRAXI NIOI

the

that

notes

there

introduced

Phoenician

the

industry

bronze
external

source

Full

Nuraghic

of

There

are

rough

looped

palstaves,

It

in addition

7th

bronzework:
swords
later
Italian

in
than

hoards

is
as

the hoard

found;

is

exceptional
Guido
which

in

precede

Sardinian

the

for

to

the

need

and

the

large

(Guido

an

quantity

of

Decimoputzu

FORRAXI NIOI.

of

iron,

It

the HUELVA hoard

swords

and that
(1956).

scrap
double-

1963,164).

bronzework,

Italian
ie.

(Nuragus).

copper,

cassiterite

a flake

of gold

and amber beads

(Cagliari)

is

dated

contained

features

typological

of

Iberian

from FORRAXI NIOI

production,

their

quantities

some include

for

Hencken has suggested

tongue

large

which

and probably

hanmier, a piece

on the basis

carp's

are

in

of Atlantic

to raw materials

century,

quality

MONTE ARRUBIU (Sarrok)

The MONTE SA IDDA hoard,

the

hoards

ingots
and

an admixture

and lead, a small

(Guido 1963,165).

are

bronzeworking.

the most important

contained

high

the

are

swords,

role

due

established

(ie.

palstaves,

ingots

copper

and/or

have

to

contents.

The Phoenician

certainly

founder's

eg.

among their

axes

of

to maintain

period

castings

metal,

One of

tin

also

imports

the

metalwork.

was almost
of

double-looped

These

by

probably

appear

and MONTE SA IDDA hoards.

axes,

have

Rhone valley

the

8th

the

to

were

tongue

many hoards

are

ores

and carp's

can be dated

which

or

in

began

implements

even

became more

thought

also

silver

Iberian

and trunnion

palstaves

is

trade
(1963,

which

developments

Bronze

mainland

Phoenician

security'

he,

nurs

area

(151ff).

characteristic

whereas

greater

the

Iglesiente

and the

Italian

the

for

called

Barbagia

the

by Phoenicians

exploited

been

in

from

resulting

of

and complex

first

wealth

development

which

begun

greater

that

the swords

of
it

usually

a conbination

of

the carp's

tongue

should

be dated

are related

to the

to

to

219

The hoard

was originally
and illustrated

discussed

are

that

show

many were

better

cast

looped

and flat-backed

and
In

fact,

44)

deep

the

products

of

bronzes,

there

hoard

is

in

found

Atlantic

The

introduction

to

Sardinia

in

in

Southern

Iberia.

Iberia,

7th

of

value
spheres

transport

connecting

their

promoting

could

just

the

Sicilian,

only

the

centres,

but

the

setting
to

Sardinian

enterprise.
supply

supply

of

up of
the

Phoenician

illustrated
the

of
1),

Figure

the

in

their

was part

as in

Sardinia

and by

in

favour

The
was

a network

which

producing
oriental

the

distinct

economies

indigenous

for

in

Mediterranean.

of

workshops

enterprise

differences

Eastern

demand

Phoenician

activities

existing

to

and raw materials

Phoenicians

the

and Etruscan
It

piece;

attachment

of
in

was,

which

raw materials

increasing

part

rates

in

did

as they

mouth

bronzes

Atlantic

of

exchange

The

etc.

especially

own trading

advantage

and create

not

jewellery,

take

bronze

Litoral).

bronzes

of

for

involved

type

these

of

1966,

western

of

fragments

handle

was an important

century

a Phoenician

essentially

(Beira

industry,

exchange,
up of

da Foz

an indigenous

commodities
of

Cuadrado

' The production

and used

providing

(cf.

and supply

the

'brasero'

the

resembles

the

pieces

and a possible
the

Figure

probably

to

fragment,

One of

and scrap.

Iberia

essentially

encouraged

rings

and are

addition

figurine

series.

1921,

including

types,

a bronze

ingots

daggers
In

swords,

tongue

(Taramelli

industry.

'eastern'

tongue

carp's

the

as double-

such

carp's

antenna

horse-harnessing

90)

axes,

publication

Some of

types,

some weapons

Galician

(1963,

Guido

castings.

Iberian

the

of

of

SANTA OLAYA, Figueira

at

from

handles,

(Figure

by Taramelli

eg.

a series

rough

some finds

Taramelli's

and Atlantic

bronze

northwestern

piano-convex

chisels,

the

in

trunnion

ricassi
of

includes

also

type

round

decorated

with

Iberian

of

derived

features

resemble

simply

palstaves,

and daggers
the

vessels

are

or

(1921);

(1932a),

Gimpera

The illustrations

mis-cast

objects

swords

by Bosch

(1956).

and Hencken

167ff)

by Taramelli

published

production
Phoenician
trinkets,

* There is also evidence

for Northern
Italian
European
and even Central
bronzework
Etruria
in the context
reaching
and Sicily,
of Greek-Etruscan,
Phoenician,
8th century
(cf.
Hencken
and probably
-relations
of the late
1955,1958;
for the interconnections
IB
see Part
of Greek and Phoenician
in, the Central
Mediterranean
in this
traders
period).

2 ^0

and which

jewellery

ising'

significant

also

were

silver

jewellery,

of

distinct

production

and

forms

distinctive

(1973a)

as Culican

are

is

it

best

that

the

The distinctive

Carthaginian

(see

the

West

6th

century

1929,74),

Gsell

contexts

The high

value

finds

in

Iberia.

of

gold

is

indicated

Phoenician

jewellery

finds

are

of

and dominated

from

Iberia.

objects
are

fact

of

7th

silver

the

of

century
foil

gold

or

and even

skill

many 7th

that

with

in

degree

the

reached

- never

rare

when

covering

1973a).

(Culican

have

clearly

bronze

pendants
one

to

source'

this

shape

that

suppose

(Culican

'The

1973a,

they

pendants

are

commonly-found

pendants

are

the

U-shaped

amongst
were

38).
in
type

and suspension:

at

PITHECUSAE and in

is

thought

likely

the

West,

by Culican:

eg.

the

of

large

introduced

to
that

notes

Etruria.

The other

(as

from

known

VEIL

this
end

of

'Another

small

would

a Phoenician

from

amber

versions

these

of
derived

Phoenician

and

made

silvered

jewellery

LA ALISEDA,
the

of

important

THARROS,
ring

pendant

scarabs

Phoenician-or
but

of

Italy

mounting

an Eastern

which

pendants,

numbers

Carmona,

and CUMAE);

type

bulla

Etruscan

archaic

He also

CARTHAGE and RACHGOUN, and from

scarab

presence

jewellery

Etruscan

of

prototypes,

Phoenicians.
of

types

certain

Phoenician

Western

by the

silver

identified

has

Culican

swivel

ie.

and

copper

Cagliari;

Museum at
date,

eggs

by the

Spain.

except

century

- and other

and silver,

which,

Phoenician,

Eastern

6th

of

in

of

earring

contexts

and ostrich

jewellers,

lead

are

centred

Phoenician

of

in all

spheres

distribution

by the

'ball-and-cage'

the

razors

to have been

and Western

CARTHAGE and THARROS and the

Moroccan

and the Greek

appear

dominated

Phoenician

was no longer

sphere

sphere

suggested

has been found

notes,
from

possible

Western

the

like

Etruria

'

is

trade

jewellery,

known

trading

Carthaginian

and Western Mediterranean

Cypriot
They

of

'oriental-

Etruscan

evolving

reaching

and amber.

of

The existence
Phoenician

commodities

Phoenician

from the Western

and gold

the

centres.

production

The two most important

colonies

in

stimuli

is

found

Syrian
link

with

with

origin

is

Etruria

the

at

wire?

(1973a,

silver

plaited

of

Carmona

appearance

40;

[CRUZ DEL NEGRO] of

Bonsor

1899,

beads'

found

in gold

Sicily

and Etruria.

cf.

a small

chain

76-90,

Figures

'

no. 13).

The 'barrel-shaped
are known in

in Carthage,

silver

punched decoration

with

medallions

although

prototypes,

tubular

are also

Canaanite

only

in CRUZ DEL NEGRO

The Etruscan
to Phoenician

attributed

and Punic

silver

are known (Culican

parallels

1973a).

imports,

up by Etruscan

taken

hands

jewellery

as of

as well
of

Western

necklaces,

pins,

Greek

graves

'This

does

Greek

Greek

not

is

It

jewellery

and

or

how much ethnic

jewellery

Western

Phoenician

network

was not

reached

the

Central

* Although
the
be Danish-by
associated

only

this

within

Mediterranean

origin
of the
the
analysis,.
hoenician
with

frequently

in

has

use

the

supply

the

and possibly

in

of

silver

century

Etruria:
by the

Etruria
to

it'

do with

into

the
silver

7th

the

Western

Western

Phoenician

was eventually

Amber

Southwest

that

silver

had

of

in

noted

into

form

part

in

of

ties

production

amber.

in

found

the

and silver

gold

was introduced

silver

its

of

(1958)

were

he had predicted

of

least

- at

commercial

Phoenician

supply
used

or

that

for

(and which

was introduced

production

raw metal

been

but

graves

The supply

with

silver

here

proposed

with

were

corresponding

us whether

Associated
the

and rings

tell

Etruscan

Hencken

traders.

Syracuse,

the

have

to

and possibly

prototypes,

workshops

(1958)).

appears

spirals

and Etruscan

way into

their

and silver

Phoenician,

at

commerce

(p. 268).

gold

Phoenician

the

be recognisable

eventually

would

found

only

not

which

identified

has

Culican

Thus,

supplied

and gold,

obtained

from

but

most

appears

the

Aegean

the

there

too.

was

Atlantic
to

have

too. *

has not been proved

amber used in Etruria
to.
finds
Iberia,
within
southwestern
and those
imports
in Etruria,
make an Atlantic
origin

Oej
in the 7th century.
logically
By the 6th century,
the contacts
by the Greek and Etruscan centres
established
Mediterranean
of the Central
Europe north of the Alps (to*be dealt with in Part III)
with Central
independent
would have involved
access to a source of amber as well as
(such as metals).
other resources

222

Gsell

noted:

'Vers

le

des marchands
VIIIe
pheniciens
siecle,
dans 1'Archipel
des parures
en
colportaient
Von
ambre, et
peut se demander si ce n'etait
introduisaient
pas eux qui aux ixe-VIIe
siecles,
dans 1'Italie
l'ambre
y
ces objets
centrale:
disparait
at y
apparait
avec les faiences
dont l'importation
et les verroteries
egyptiennes
etait
due aux Pheniciens.
Nous avons meme
le supposer
raisons
quelques
que ceux-ci
des scarabees,
travaillaient;
des figurines
des singes
titre
leur
representant
peuvent
attribues
Comment se le procuraientsans invraisemblance.
ils?
C'est
Quoi qu'il
ce que nous ignorons...
elle. est assez rare dans les sepultures
en soit,
(eile
Vest
de Carthage
moins dans la Sardaigne).
le commerce de 1'ambre
L'industrie,
et sans doute
guere dans. la ville
ne se developpE"rent
africaine.
des perles,
des disques,
On ya
des
receuilli
'
un scarabee.
pendeloques,

(p. 104)

A source

of

trade

the

of

As it

this

amber

7th

had been
of

Its

'1969).

type

of

granulated

in

Greece

7th

century

clearly
that

goldwork

the

Aegean

style

the result

inlay

small

context

quantities

of

by finds

imports

of Phoenician
derived

silver

Etruria

the

from

at

the

that

1973a,

late

Amber was possibly

8th century

contexts

mastered
of

(in

46)

an early
and was

Ile also

and technology.

notes

have been found

at VEIL and NARCE; the amber finds

in
-

time

CUMAE, VEIL

medallions

appearance

facies

archaic

(Culican

the

who cites
a Phoenician

where

was not

'typical

was

to were. from NARCE and VETULONIA.

very

that

with

on the mainland

(1973a),

In

and REGOLINI-GALASSI

amber and Phoenician

mid 7th century

technique

amber.

Higgins

be associated

both

Culican

setting.

Danish

(cf.

times
to

appears

jewellery

oriented

amber was a highly

Geometric

to

for

new outlet

ARTEMIS SHRINE,

as indicated

context)

the

according

-a

ivory

jewellery',

Aegean,

had an amber

pendant

- with

in

from

KHANIALE TEKKE and the

of

Etruscan

in

and islands,

swivel

the

Phoenician

the

where

became

jewellery

Greek

of Phoenician

1969)
from

finds

L. B. A.

the

re-appearance

the introduction
(Higgins

in

Atlantic,

the

probably

century

component

valued

was in

Gsell

already
in Etruria

in

referred

used - in
and

Gf!

ie.

Campania,

in

CUMAE, referred

intensive

connections

Archaeological

of

within

production

centres,

in

having

addition

to

(Andalusian)

copper

Blazquez

by current

ores

in

were
that

have

south,

been

where

to-provide

the

The Phoenicians

for

for

in

the

south,

distribution

sphere

can be
and

there

the exploitation

of southern

areas

(eg.

this

by Garrido

is

- the Phoenicians

tin.

main interest

production

the Huelva

and gold
was proposed

the

Phoenician

only

network

1975; Luzon and Ruiz Mata

a moot point,

which may be resolved

the area. *

The Phoenicians'
establishing

in

bronze

products

Southern

would

established

demand for

summary

if they had
also for bronze production,
(Copper exploitation
has been proposed in

1975)); but

work in

tin
it

exchanges.

not

in

resources

the Western

of
but

ores,

the Cordoba and Huelva

1973;

the

the technology

to Northwestern

access

local

Northwestern

the rest

have provided

could

in

stimulated

procuring

as within

as well

use

centres

trading

Secondly,

were

and Greek

a brief

Iberia:

out

of

III.

copper,

was carried

or'factories,

Part

Atlantic

desirable

century

and Etruscan

enterprise

of-the

system.

This

for

in

bronzework,

particularly

required
with

credited

tapping

exchange

Iberia.

encouraged

in

6th

the

establishment

Provence,

Phoenician

amber,

of

pre-Hellenic

by Etruscan

Europe

Phoenicians

century:

exploitation

commodities

for

the

this

Central
from

in

the

with

be discussed

will

firstly,

within

obtainable
the

8th

late

operating

proposed-above;

involved,

the

or

evidence

As has been
Iberia

Western

(These

Italy.

from

eg.

sphere

connected

with
in

established

Northern

Phoenician

and was probably

with

bows,

enlarged

(1958).

Western

the

of

coincides

in

with

by Hencken

to

The decline

traders

fibulae

the

centres

hinterland.

in

there,
In order

the south,

and the main reason

was the exploitation

to organise

* 4th or 3rd. nilleniutt

surface working of copper ores
area has been noted in recent surveys by Rothenberg
Institute
' 1976).
of Archaeology,

of

for

the silver

this"exploitation,

in the Rio Tinto

(lecture
at the

relations

had

hinterland

of

secure
the

of

contracted;

or

in

specialists
these
and

20 shows

A)

the

and

industries

had

activity
8th
(i)

(ii)

Phoenician

dates

there

Iberia

on the

Atlantic

coast

Huelva-Ayamonte

area.

Mediterranean

for

fresh

water

zones

of

Algarrobo

rivers

Zafarraya

with

the

'Campifia'

and

Schubart

route

into

Phoenician.
rivers,
the

for

in

II

Part
13).

Figure

1962,
the

of

archaeological

expansion

westward

centres

be dated

a series

Blazquez's

Phoenician

is

and

Phoenician

of

than

earlier

'Alcores'

communication

as elements

but

to

at
with

a single

facilitate

late

the

the

Sierras

the

Guadalquivir

the

Guadalhorce

mouths
interior

the
But,

it

and
of

the
is

is

Phoenician

which

purely
important

were

the

Algarrobo

to

have

regard

whose

Velez

the

Alhama

to

with
and

de

Puerto

the

In

unlikely

complex,

of

valley

smaller

important

Niebla-

and Tejada
(cf.

valley

Guadalquivir.
of

the

between

zone
Velez

the

and

communication

beyond

the

in

rivers

river

of

Adra

cemeteries

by the

of

the

of

The coastal

Similarly,

location.
of

mouths

areas

reaches

ie.

and

the

at

between

Andalusia,

settlements

supplies

hinterland

middle

of

Western

Andalusia.

foundations

choice

of

found

1969,121).
the

of

connected

the

Andalusia,

coast

coast,

are

character

interior

be viewed.

and despite

Iberia,

cannot

which

in

changed

be two main

to

appear

area;

the

ments

historical

Iberia

centuries:

On the

of

in

of

CERRO SAN CRISTOBAL

the

radically

activities

Mlaga

only

quite

of

terms

of

south

1974,

by Pellicer

Granada)

have

the

in

finds

(Prov.

Mediterranean

not

the

(Schubart

contact

spectacular

on the

Phoenician

in

establishments

in

is

It

(described

southern

7th

and

be ensured.

maintenance

sequences

Phoenician

in

the

regional

of

1968,22ff),

for

be attracted

to

indigenous

excavations

(cf.

had

a workforce

to

riverine

maritime,

must

and surveys

attempt

with

populations

necropolis,

to verify

areas

indigenous

Almunecar

of

the

populations

the

with
the

the

foodstuffs

diverse

Phoenician

indigenous

with

areas;
of

the

picture

source

production

horizon

Following

and

and the

relations

Figure

the

to

that

projects
their

the-factories

access

and overland

be established

to

is

to

Niemeyer

a natural

case

of

and Verde
been
these

functioning

the

basis

establishwas

9A

industrial
metres,
(Prov.

the

case

the

along

and Algarrobo.
indigenous

see Figure

coast,

shows

which

in

the sites

mapa VI)

1972,

(see

Maenuba

interpretation
his

the

flagon,

slip

The results

and 1976.

TOSCANOS are
(Niemeyer
(1972,

1969,

(The

running

cutting
there

is

ditch

was located

it

is

located

Beilage
layout

and

extent

agricultural

through

it.

for

several

phases of

to have curved sharply

in Trench 12. A 'fortificatory'

walls

use

the
of

it
built

in

side

of
1

Lindemann

et

al

the

railway

the settlement

A steep-sided
1972, Abb. 3 Taf. 20b);

et al

the ditch

Trench

of

construction.

on top of

levels

and

site

been located

Niemeyer

was largely

trenches

function

(Pellicer,

Schubart,

of

it
as
was not
is not
this ditch

to the northeast

has only

1964

area.

in 1967,1971,1973

plan

the

Vdlez

Rio

1969;

On the Southwestern

thought

Dry stone

of

(1958)

de AvilSs

section

14 (See Lindemann

in Trench

demonstrated;

and

he

D. A. I.

the prehistoric

the

Schulten's

findings

the

of

of

Roman town

lff).

the

seasons

eastern

7)

by

excavations

of

colony

the

the

and

in

and Schubart

the

main

attention

Greek

of

supported

by further

present

evidence

conclusively
metres.

Mar

and Schubart

by the

dictated

del

in

has

1969,

coast

be found

Torre

summarised

Madrid,

by Fernndez

to

clearly

Abb. 3).

been

the excavation

of

here.

was the

was part

south

was

1969) were followed

the

to

Schulten's

of

Schubart

published

1966; Niemeyer

and Schubart

and

of CERRODEL PERON and

former

what

of

Velez

the

of

mouths

Institut,

and

not

and Maass-

be referred

will

c. 6km

only

establishments

Toscanos

the

of

is

del Mar area at the mouth of

the

Niemeyer

have

The TOSCANOS and other

and Pellicer

Algarrobo

Schubart
the

at

The sites

of

geography

indication

first

Niemeyer

which

that

in

excavations

A red

excavations.
gave

sites

from

as 800

as little

M.11aga)

were the focus

hill

small

references
of

from

the

the

rivers.

who thought
the

and that

claimed

(taken

the Torre

CERRODEL MAR on the lower Vdlez

of

21

cemeteries

or

and the Algarrobo

the Velez,

Nainake,

(Prov.

1961, the Deutsches Archaeologisches

been investigating

is

them

Phoenician

the

22 shows

Figure
settlements

Since

(eg.

between

and probably

advantages

CHORRERAS and MORRO DE MEZQUITILLA,

of

Abb. l),

1976,

Lindemann

specific

and TOSCANOS, ydlez-Malaga

Mdlaga);

further

their

The distance

activities.
in

have

each

and would

compelementary

of

for
fill

of 6.
be
to
seen
are

a length

Figure

21:

the rivers
Abb.
1976,

The
Velez
1)

distribution
and

Algarrobo.

of

Phoenician
sites
on
(Taken
from
Schubart

between
coast
and Maass-Lindemann

the

228
lu

Q-)

ry

^.

..

\1

..

/,

'L. t

'y11`,

3
0
Ii

D
1dJ

v
u

' >Q

Il_f

/"

Ia
a

\iryO!
j,.

Y..

/
`

CSK
;
"-

'f
^r

"" 41,

vl

1,

fr

J Z3

/'

/.

" ;,.

<(

."t

L
"
11J

d
-j

LIJ

z7

QQ

"v
cV
a

CL

2 29

to

be defences

in

this

over

this

wall

cutting

through

use of

of

IV a to IV f.

of its

during

robbing
A possible
brick

entrance

(1975).

Niemeyer

between

deposit

the

report

of

house,

located

Its

length

Trench
storey
and it
vessels

appeared
contained

of

land.

construction

wares
material

as well

the

of

et

Near
as for

1972,135-6):

al

levels,

they

but

the eastern

of
floor

level

the

area

of

2 different

Eastern

c. ll

of

could

the

storey

horizon',

ie.

(1972)

notes

storehouse,

levels,
for

wide.

be

not

cutting,

"cdmplex

type
of

with
in

located

The lower
plastered

were

smashed
the

large

which

he

to

the

related
the

store-

metres

building.
walls

or

located
was

aisle

its

the

in

by the railway

the

parallels

storehouse.

'Magazin',

this

of

Niemeyer

rubble.

investigated

were

was destroyed

'destruction
a

the

mud-

a circular

building

partitions,

entrances-on

and

been

may have

Phoenician

cutting.

internal

in

of

The

part

for

form

settlement

15 metres,

than

the

had

what

the

northwestern

sherds

' He draws

and

by Bakker

Auffllschicht'.

storey

evidence

as having

describes
of

the

have

amphorae

the

of

(Lindemann

the building

and much mud-brick

quantity

the

to

in

railway

below

in

of

a mud-

season;

proposed

indications

located

1973

the

is

foundation

stone

more

metres

1 and 10/11

in

was located

wall

15, a lower

2.70

at

the slope

(Bau C) was a 3-aisled

Much of

in Trench

a floor

with

the

was probably

investigated.
but

to vary

fundleere

1964

Levels

north:

appear

this

along

in

from

construction

arrangements

trenches

number

of

the CERRODEL

were

bzw.

The internal

its

to

erection

deposits

the

and

mainly

the

from

trenches,

two

with

'fundarme
a

and II,

Trench

of

blocks

and hand-made

structure

and.

limestone

the

settlement

pre-Phoenician
brick

In

Niemeyer

of

on the

superstructure

and was

due to
to which the blocks still
stand varies
the period of Roman occupation
of the site.

and since
in

site

for

trench

settlement

a block-built

of

section

eastern

I/II

the

of

the

of

considered

not

are

edge

form

the

foundation

was built

and the height

land,

the

I,

the

side

accumulated

wall

The wall

PENN; the details

the

Levels

these

c. 70 metres.

of

the

of

the

in

southwestern

illustrate

7)

Beilage
excavation

period

is

a distance

the

shows

which

the

trenches

the

III:

use of

fortification

along

(1969,

Schubart

Level

of

a different

The main

extended

in

located

wall

indicate

but

phase.

which

wall

block-built

by the

intersected

of

block

smaller

slope
wall

2.30

buildings,

1969;

Schubart

and

A general
in

given

ie.

bands

body

the

with

closed

and lamps,

colour

with

handles

bowls

(see

Niemeyer

giving

grey

wares.

The proportion

different

areas

Lindemann

et

red

and levels

of

in

recovered

from

then

on they

115)

that

the

impressions,
has

western

since

their
of

q)

slip

ware,

mainly

wide-mouthed

Pellicer

jars

ware

1969);

ware

is

surface

to

said

local

and
and

and smoothed

A possible
be a 7th

6th

or

in

vary

form of
(cf.

on open bowls

stripes

could

polychrone,

contrasting

mainly

and polychrome

p,

ware,

and shoulder,

yellow

painted

coarse

c. 8% is

1-6;

Tafel

is

seasons

is

elements

neck-ridge

the settlement.

gradual

1964

the

and

hand-made
in

the

described

short

within

century

decline

is

the

for

taken

wares produced

c. 10,000
special

and

vessels,

levels

Schubart

some with

L. B. A.

in

excavations

these

and the indigenous

honey or other

of

by
and II;
(1969,

note

or, finger

of

Andalusia:

eastern

finds

and

as evidence

inhabitants

agricultural

to be a consequence

nail

and E. I. A.

They interpret

wheel-made

attention,

in

found

Niemeyer

by many recent

above.

given

wares-were

necked

the Phoenicians

as containers

are

number.

confirmed

between

the wheel-made

(compared with

excavation

forms

current

been

Andalusia,

possibly

the

diminish

bowls
are

of exchanges
area,

other

first

red

effect,

bowls,

of roughly

57% of

excavators:

this

or

of hand-made ware

The 265 sherds

the

is
16%
c.

1969,

o,

Niemeyer

development.

sherds)

the

and flagons;

or

slip

Taf. 24,

1972,

al

rim

shallow

of

consisting

ware,

painted

pottery

stripes

the

mainly

ware,

c. 70% of
forms;

and Schubart

c. 6% is

from-the

a 'polychrome'

between

forms

the material

(see

1972).

amphorae

black

with

storehouse

al

of

and other

bowls

red%brown

et

al

et

the

adjoin

(1972):

Lindemann

also

plates,

Lindemann

classification

amphorae

mainly

be dwellings,

to

taken

of

products;

the increased

at TOSCANOSby indigenous

use

populations.

for this
parallels
roughly
painted
ware are found in the
from GORHAM'S CAVE, Gibralter,
material
which contains
some 6th,
as
(1972).
as 5th and 4th century
to Culican
well
material
according

* Possible

**

the

is not supported
This argument
by Gran Aymerich's
at
excavation
CERCA NIEBLA - EL VADO just
little
north
of TOSCANOS, where very
Phoenician
(Gran Aymerich
1973, -Grail Aymerich
material
was found
et al 1975).

**

231

The hills
Phoenician
from

to

next

but

material,
'factory':

the

the

low mound of

the

in

later

or

century
JARDIN
1975;

date,

Schubart

Phoenician

have

mainly

found

on the

mainly

correspond
et

on the

cemetery

produced

the

basis

on the

of

Eastern

CERRO DEL, PENN (Niemeyer

an early

of

by Niemeyer

proposed

bronze

Phoenician

1965;

Schubart

and

the

and Schubart

is

Vdlez

the

6th

of

use of

of

The existence

the

of

material

Maass-Lindemann

1976).
bank

west

produced
the period

with

1972;

al

and Maass-Lindemann

and Schubart,
burner

which

(Lindemann

cemetery

all

quantity
or of the same date as that
CERRO DEL PEMN (Niemeyer
1969,
and Schubart
not

and CERRO DEL MAR (pp. 12-24)

4-11)

TOSCANOS have

perfume
Niemeyer

1970).

have

The ALARCON excavations

of

'factory'

the

in

situation
indigenous

and possibly
both

which

is

people

This

4,

secticn

posts

involved

imported

later

Phoenician

Niemeyer

of

1969,116),

than

in the earliest

this

the serpentine

red slip

that

of

- or

exchange

population:

the use of indigenous

of

the

the locally

Phoenician
(1966))

during

the 7th century,

the homeland were of greater

existence.

the c. 100 fragments

vessels
with

of different

or

sites
testifies

acculturisation.

relations

its

trading

produced

of TOSCANOS(eg.

phases of

in

as the floruit
with

in-Part

As described

and MOGADOR,Jodin

the alabaster
plate,
wares found in levels
associated

noted

of

technique

populations

on many Western

that

assistance

populations

and their

has suggested

that

1969,148).

important.

abandoned in favour
(1954)

the

dry-stone

indigenous

with

a historical

to
and

and Schubart

of local

TOSCANOS settle-

be contemporary

to

simple

Phoenician

wares recognised

(1972)

the

and stone

late

the

a response

- are

of non-Phoenicians,

recognised

period

also

labour

MERSAMADAKH, Vuillemot

to the presence

1968;

with

the-incorporation

hand-made wares,
(eg.

contact

formation

the

by

mud-brick

be defended,

to

(Niemeyer

and contracted

relations

had

sites

of

thought

represent

represented

for

evidence

is

early
that

with

wall

.
ALARCON fortification

the

A,

defensive

a dry-stone

ment,

comparable

and material

structures

revealed

Niemeyer

He cites

and Schubart
intensity
for

as evidence

and the high

the

the

'storehouse'.,

quality
It

is

Greek wares - none of

232

are

which

SOS Attic

in

IV b date

with

Eastern

Part

B,

2 rim

sherds

and

The Attic
level

this

1969,212).

Niemeyer

Proto

date.

century

level

720 - include

sherds

amphorae

8th

late

than

earlier

the

The occurrence

Phoenician

red

slip

the

and

during
7,

rimmed,

taken

from
been

stress
broadest

fact

of

of

bank

with
to

have

of

lamps,

flagons

whereas
and have

the site

H. -P.

of

is

plate,

are

seen

Level

of

(1976,

Figure

IV.
7)

as the

chronological

overlap

the

rim,

to

change

(1969)

Figure

with

the

Figure

23

contrasted

plates

forms

how this

shows

They
that

and
indicator

the
the

of

(Level

V)

notched

rims

and M. Uerpmann 1973).

a large

(Arribas

7th

the

plates
the

red

are

slip

A level

and II

plates
1976;

1967; Arribas

beginning
1976).
been

have
in

concerned:

Guadalhorce

bowls

are

of

different

information
some

et al

is

site

the

and straight-sided

and Arteaga

by Arribas

before

unknown

the

and

and Arteaga

Guadalhorce
wares

(of

was used.
I,

period

(Arribas

slip

another

deposits

century

building

Guadaihorce

a short

of

II,

has been published

b-a)

horizon

as red

Guadalhorce

in

seals

for

thecontents

as far

river:

Now,

GUADALHORCE, a 'tell'

at

TOSCANOS warehouse

tothe

and broad-rimmed
in

excavated

VI

c-a,

settlement
in

TOSCANOS was unique.

of

been

uninhabited

II

especially

observed,

VII

finds

been

differences

form

of

few

Certain

found;

different

Guadalhorce

construction

similar

rubble

has

the

(Levels

Guadalhorce

I,

of

The width

TRAYAMAR and CHORRERAS too.

warehouse

structure

the

of

the

recently,

right

thought

use

be regarded

should

Guadalhorce

size)

the

relative

and Niemeyer

Level

of

notched-lip

from

the

of

Schubart

see

and Maass-Lindemann

that

similar

of

plates.

and hence

material.

Until

on the

red-slip

plates

to material

applied

associated

possibly

centuries:

and sometimes

rim

(see

PITHECUSAE

development

to the diameter

narrow-rimmed

Schubart

the

the

of

width

6th

to

the

which

broad

has

this

of
8th

together

amphorae,

from

and

based on the 1964 material,

typological

the

significance

the

in

is

amplified,

ratio

Attic

known

findings

One of the most significant

chronological

is

ware,

(Schubart

century

these

of

sherds

2).

section

and since

7th

early

of

vases,

and PC kotylae

SOS amphorae

to

bird

Ionian

of

fragments,

kotylae

Corinthian

1969;

were

233
a

.
a

- --

:
/k

8th to 6th/5th
Development
23:
Figure
of red slip
plates,
1976, Abb. 4)
(Taken from Schubart
and Maass-Lindemann
II;
d TOSCANOS, level
a, b CHORRERAS; c TOSCANOS, Level

centuries.
IV b; -

f
12;
TRAYAMAR,
1,
dromos;
TRAYAMAR
ALMUNECAR,
grave
grave
g
grave
e
i JARDIN, grave 57;.
h TRAYAMARGrave 4, level
8;
4, chambr;
k JARDIN, grave
1: 3
Scale:

86.

234

On the
2 trial
they

site

trenches.
revealed

excavated

2 partly

disturbed

levels.
the

than

excavation

areal

or

began

occupation

ie.

At

the

of

nearby

deposit
7th

appears

century,

found

within

the

5 chamber

(Fernandez

blocks

of

the

is

in

from

beams of

the

(Niemeyer

tombs

the

et al

of

et al

wood were

probably

and Schubart

1975,82ff)

here.

be discussed

below.

one - Tomb 4Rough

obtained
on the

activities

1964; Niemeyer
a4x4

slabs
part

and

metre

Limestone

was recognized.

originally

century,

families,

certain

in 1967;

of the walls,

been

7th

the

and 5 were

Tomb 4 was excavated

construction

on the

have

to

to

agricultural

1967; Niemeyer

material

of

conditions.

Tombs 1, -2,3

early

or

established

will

the

TRAYAMAR

the

and of

difficult

course

8th

thought
of

a complex

settlement

dating

tombs

1976)

low mounds:

the

TRAYAMAR, only

extremely
of

earlier

Maass-

comparison

community,

the chamber was constructed,

2 horizontal
of

inland,

settlements

known

contents

Canivell

Caere used for-the

walls

fact,

Algarrobo,

the

shown

Its,

Aubet

late

the

In

Phoenician

the

under

1968a and 1975).

in which

pit,,

these

tombs

destruction

their

Schubart

of

ie.

by

The important.
of

1974a;

early,

5 TRAYAMAR chamber

and that

and ideas

site

but

further

bank

of

the

of

was excavated,

despite

opposite

not

material.

on 2 adjoining

structures.

CHORRERAS.

members

significance

plans

a brief

represent

but

and Maass-Lindemann

excavated

were

significance

ranking

the

Schubart

mound slightly

indicate

Of

1975;

has

the 6th.

the

on the

The

into

(Schubart,

TOSCANOS and GUADALHORCE,

of

and between

cemetery

high

as that

of

excavation
with

slopes

an extensive

of

recent

settlement

Phoenician

on the

now exists

together

occurs

material

deposits

revealed

LAS CHORRERAS (Aubet

of

(1976)

possibility

the

1975,3ff):

pre-Phoenician

levels

as can be assessed

from

established

the

and

occupation,

MORRO, a higher

or

site

to

have

Algarrobo,

the

of

and Schubart

possibly

Phoenician

the

buildings

rectangular

hill

and continued

and Schubart

Lindemann

excavations

same time

the

8th century,

late

recent

Significantly,

of,

at

(Niemeyer
of

- E. I. A. material

independent

mouth

levels

small

undisturbed

the

at

1967

4 metres,

up to

of

L. B. A.

the

than,

the

of

communication).

personal
that

The most

summit

depth,

considerable

in

were

and Phoenician
rather

MORRO DE MEZQUITILLA,

of

of the floor;
of

the

and a reconstruction

construction
of

235

the

tomb (Tafel

the

other

TRAYAMAR tombs
into

built

were

fill

on c. 5cm of

bead

above

inhumation

This

In

as goods.

lipped

and trefoil

empty;

in

in

in

features

wall

cremation

4a

had rich

gold

wall

seal

the

chamber

blocks

the

characteristic

is

of a divine

representation
by falcons,
Medallions

above
of

simpler
1976)

Maass-Lindemann

in

Phoenician

specifically

its

type

possessor

Niemeyer

is

is

(in

divinity

is

been

view

Phoenician

that

the

Cypriot

influenced

CARTHAGE and UTICA are

construction,

ie.

Phoenician

block

(1970a,

by Culican

with

medallions
by a disc

and 80.

at

JARDIN

But

relate

stone-built

(118ff).
noted,

Possible
and later

used

by special

guarded

case a mountain)

found

obvious

blocks

stone

the

symbolised

the

and crescent.

(Schubart

use

of

and

the
to

significance

symbolic

d.

of the

the architecture

TRAYAMARchambers to the L. B. A. stone-built

the

from

discussed

this

65,70

(1975)

was

was roughly

known from TRAYAMARtomb 4, grave

only

and Schubart

niche

as noted

this

of Phoenician

dwelling

also

use:

to

related

4d

of

the

of

and a Carnelian

dromos

usage,

1975,85).

graves

corner

and a mushroom

the

its

after

and Schubart

medallion

so far

to

known

have

Inhumation

the Southern

'Bossierung'

the

which

fibula

lie

inhumations

cremations.

2 glass

secondary

not

one of a series

clearly

led

that

from grave

to

box had been placed.

of

were

which

Two red

The

Northwestern

the

some time

obviously

were

the

were found;

northern.

to

from

a bronze

the

found.

(pp. 88ff).

ornaments,

in

TOSCANOS (Niemeyer

it

in

niche

flagon

red slip

The gold medallion

33ff):

deposit

thick

Amongst

one was seen

offerings:
floor

sla4

an ivory

the

at

later

niche

of

one had

stone

Western

the

filling-in

this

been

of
in

or

(4 d and e).
were

niches

use

of

containers

perishable

fragments

and sheet

beams,

the

of

as

- as well

Two phases

and 2 inhumations

the Northern

A doorway
filled

in

by a c. 5-8cm

was directly

tomb.

3 cremations

may have

above

separated

4d

and deep.

beads

the

level

the

c. 40cm wide

b and c)

gold

flagons

trefoil

were

4 a,

4 a,

of

ashes

walls,

this

structure

At

- represents.

recognised:

(graves

amphorae

slip

the

4 were

Chamber

the

47) shows what an elaborate

tombs of UGARIT and support

tombs
7th

(eg.

SALAMIS)

century.

examples

from

were

parallels
VILLARICOS

also
in
and

236

from

Morocco

types

'Iberian'

the

of

The

town

describes

is

A1mufdcar

of

the

CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL cemetery

cemetery
bones

cremated-remains

of

the

(1973a)

in

the

of

deep

lateral

(Pellicer

in

deposited

were

1962).
in

graves

alabaster

the

in

urns

to

an unpublished
has

which
7th

with

and 4th

century

5th

reached

century

near

is

that

material

Adra,

known

from

of

east

Schubart
work,
there.
CERRO

on the

levels,

base

the

To the

date has been found

excavation

the

This

which

1974).

Lindemann

niches'(cf.

comes from

evidence

shaft

another

of

cemetery is thought to have been established:

that gold jewellery
with granulation
and filigree

refers

deposits

but

the

not
finds

surface

on

site.

late

The Atlantic

sites

8th

eg.

Odiel

century,

findings
to

the 7th to the 1st

to the attraction
Phoenician

fishing

structures,

with

they

Kalathoussa.

'trade

suggest

is

are

thought

that

the site

is

represent

There

is

such as for

and material
for

period

to

regardless

evidence

said

to

date

is

surface
'exclusively
the

'city'

finds

were
from

attributed
But the
a poor

a tendency

in

rectangular

of the overall
elements

the

red slip

in the interior.

ores

red slip

of

published

have

contained

this

relations'.

of the floor,

to the

observations

century,
in

bank

right
(1971)

al

on vague parallels,

the excavators'

also

et

the site

occupation

limited

on the

levels

4,7th

of metal

of the structural
(1975) cite further

and Orta

and accept.

levels';

of

to concentrate
nature
the
or

or correspondence
Garrido

of

the wealth

phase

village

report

Level

dated

are also

stratigraphic

4 distinct

which

century.

of

Blzquez
there:

the occupation

and grey wares:

later

in

material

ALJARAQUE,

of

excavations

trench

one

site

1969,239).

the

of

Phoenician

with
the

(Blzquez

river

limited

site

'Laurita'

of

location

excavated

of LA ALISEDA, of 7th century

that

SAN CRISTO,

this

context

another
notes

He also

of

or

shaft

Almun4car

the

proto-

TUTUGI and

'of

eg.

Phoenician

be the

to

only

characteristic

consists

the

Western

the

thought

so far

foundation:

Phoenician

like

tombs,

chamber

as the

tombs

tombs.

chamber

of

Phoenician

these

see

stone-built

(1974)

Lindemann

TOYA.

They

noted.

are

context

of the site.
from

the

Phoenician
the Greeks called

2 17
,

Blzquez

et
known

many places

(1971,304)

al
to

by the

and-visited

ALJARAQUE was one of

that

claim

the

Phoenicians:

'Los cabezos de Huelva;

de las
el
cerro
...
Flores,
la desembocadura
del rio
en Ayamonte;
Piedras
en El Rompido,
y muchos otros
puntos
fueron
costeros,
conocidos
y habitados
por los
navigantes
orientales,
probablemente
atraidos
los pueblos
'que poseian

But,

'riches

the

from

hills

the

7th

century

of

1973),

has
at

which

so far

only

ware,

said

claims
in

Tharsis

surface

as seen

6th

finds

Phoenician

be of

in

the

and 5th
a site

at
which

of Phoenicians

association

Tinto
from
CERRO
SALOMON,
Rio
the
comes
have revealed
(Blanco
silver

a settlement
from metal

debris
et al
from

from galena
et al

slip

CERRO SALOMN

of

is

too

grey

from

He also.

reported.

it

Gibraleon:
ware,

and red

that

with

the

of

1975,207)

& Orta

are

6th

the

bank

right

amphorae

date,

coarse

in

known

only

ware

and Greek

with

ore extraction

(1975,208ff).

The most important

other

on the

Phoenician

ie.

expansion,

LA JOYA.

of

(Garrido

evidence

initial

scale

some significance

corresponding

include

the

Phoenician

of

'factorial

LOS MILLARES,

indigenous

contacts:

cemetery

century

mineras

the

small

phase

to

of

by

used

indicates

the

a similar

surface

area,
finds

during

not

TORRE DEL CATALAN, Lepe

located

have

of

Huelva

of

continuing

located

to be of

to

sherds

city

(Garrido

river

from

the

century,

Piedras

the

establishment

but

Garrido

were

the

expanding

only

settlement,
the

of

before

population

interior'

the

quienes
vinieron
por las riquezas
'
del interior.

1969,1970;

the jarosite
ores

1969,156):

of cupullation
lead found in

of small
extraction
Blanco

Argaric

the metal-working

(1966 and 1975),

were found

where excavations
in which

units
in all

and Luzon 1969).

the Southeast

the Rio Tinto

Huelva)

rectangular

was a more complex

in
known
as

as their.

(Prov.

process
during

slag

the excavated
The extraction
than

silver

and
areas

of
extraction

the Bronze Age (Blanco

used the same technique

by pieces of
counterparts,
as indicated
and
According
Luz6n
Blanco
to
areas.
silver

most of the c. 20 million

workers

tons

of slag

at-Rio

Tinto

are

238

the

remains

ancient

Huelva
in

silver

silver

too:

extraction

copper
of

of

too,

ie.

Rio

Tinto

working,

this,

they

Tharsis,
is

'explotacion
de nuestra

some slag

maintain,

etc.

be matched

by the

from

resulting
to

applied

Sotiel-Coronada,
to

said

with

the

areas

other

The extraction

of

del

cobre,
un metal
que los portadores
incisa
ceramica
extraian
en otros
de la
de la provincia
de Huelva y
yacimientos
de Cordoba...
Desde Tejada
la Vieja,
en
sierra
hasta
la Colina
de los Quemados, en
Huelva,
hemos ido recogiendo
Crdoba-ciudad,
testimonios
de
de cobre y rastreando
huellos
de metalurgfa
'
del mismo metal...
mineria

(Blanco

But

the

have

to

claim
grooved

Blanco

been

and Luz6n
the

this

extensive

prerogative
which

(Prov.

areas

in

for

the

hammers

stone

and Tejada

activities

evidence

main

et al. 1969,157-8)

are

Huelva)

(1975)

of

copper
'incised

particularly
and Cerro

interpret

the

CERRO SALONN settlement

ware

users',

abundant

remains

in

(Prov.

Muriano

of

they

which

working,

are
the

the

Rio

Cdrdoba).

Tinto
*

metallurgical

as follows:

'El hecho
disperas
dep6sitos

de que [las escorias]

se encuentran
las
casas,
por
y no formando
Brandes
,
dpoca
indica
como en
roniana,
que el
de fundicidn
no se hacia
en una gran
proceso
industrial
a
sino que se llevaba
concentracidn
las viviendas
en todas
estudias
cabo por igual
hasta
el momento y siempre
escala
a la reducida
'
domdstica.
de una actividad

(p. 241)

(1924) have been

by de Serra Rafols
* These hammers, originally
published
(1975)
(1968,34)
by
Garrido
and
as evidence for copper extraction
cited
in Bronce I when, it
in the Huelva area and other parts of Andalusia
3
be'noted,
copper axes are known to have been used as grave
only
should
We now know that these stone hammers could
goods in the Huelva area.
be associated
7th century
with
as easily
or even later
in
(1971)
Andalusia.
See Garrido
exploitation
and del
(? ) Bronze Age settlements
the cist
cemeteries
and early
it is also known from the earliest
Huelva. area:
levels
1975).
DE SAN PEDRO (cf.
Fernandez

phases of metal
for
Amo (1975)
from the
of the CABEZO.

239

indicates

This
debris

very
the

covered
the

areas

silver

(Garrido

in

wares

7th

the

century

unfortunately

(1975)

Fernandez

in

impressions

of

the

from

largely

was

in

Huelva

the

the

in

ores

Tinto

did

this

tion:

that
and

they
for

is

the

organise

required

important.
have

might

in

they
It

is

It

the

the

its

to

technology
that

of

the

on the

the

silver

they

required

produced

locally

establish

unlikely

that

extraction

Phoenicians

exploitation

when

by supplying

imported

bronzes,

they
oils,

Later,

the

Mediterranean

of

could

exchange
would
obtain

wine,

fine

on the

characteristic

and other

(on

the

ore

finds

exchanges

rates

the

exploita-

through

the

as

contrary,

initial

century

the

slag

populations.

the

site.

that

technology,

On the

amphorae

of

although

extraction

7th

the

as well

indigenous

the

early

used

and

that,

and organised

were

or

here

it

but

that

settlements

application.

left

corpus

exploitation

area,

his

material

possible

silver

in

(1970),

al

seasonal

suggested

crucible

with

Phoenician
is

major

Phoenician

could
is

the

et

Huelva

the

1967).

interesting

A more

It

where

excavation,

was found

material

been

came from

Phoenician

fragments

metal

with

of

imported

either

distribution.
to

very

introduced

possibly

obtained

which

metalworking

monopolise

not

material

Phoenicians

of

site.

CERRO SALOMON when masses

Phoenician

excavated.

wares

and Garrido

by Blzquez

than

extracted

supplied

phase

smelted

published

was deliberately

The Phoenicians

(Schubart

slag

Phoenician

1967

the

of

by Garrido

with

from

Phoenician

which

area

certainly

almost

extraction

silver

found

what

processing

themselves

they

have

is

and silver

Phoenicians

disturbed

association

Rio

primary

known

were

rather

in

was processed
on the

site

sector

city,

Characteristic

CABEZO DE SAN PEDRO.

involved
the

better

VII).

on the

settlements

force

labour

associated

level

is

some

northwestern

distinguished

in

this

the

8 levels

levels

collected

However,

to

claims

limited-excavation
material

are

deposits

the

the

in

but

1975,401).

the

(especially

levels

the lower

in

eg.

1966. excavation,

his

c. 1 km long,

CABEZO DE LA ESPERANZA, Huelva

the

throughout

in

1968)

of

(Blzquez

from

working

date,

habitation

the

since

Cerro,

the

of

later

was of

was found

The evidence

silver-working,

top

entire

occupation

Greek pottery

from

extensive

of

goods
coast)
the

and control
have
the

continued

silver

pottery,

they
textiles

240

dyed

- probably
the

1973,

for

TOSCANOS, in
al

The nature

use

of

is

there

for

murex

to
.

be a 7th

the

Phoenician

only

centres

1972;

a few bronze

established

appears

production

M. Uerpmann

the

of

so far

what

the

and function

indigenous

Unfortunately,
for

valley
invasions,
and

(cf.

the

H. P.

and M.
dyes

extracting

within

workshops
for

evidence

century

of

(cf.

context

tuyre

one

Blanco

1969,155).

et

with

evidence

'factories';

Iberian

from

the

in

garments
east

They may have

TOSCANOS).

their

in-the

as they'were

west

Uerpmann
in

and made into

the

Luz6n

et

al

the
Early

and Ruiz

Age is

Iron

indigenous
'gradual
impressed
appearance

coarse

of

decorated

coarse

of

Phoenician

DE LOS QUEMADOS,Cordoba

the

throughout
it

regarding
that

should

replacement'

etc.

ware

not

the

and relations

material

(Prov.

and
in

its

terms

of

coincidence

does

it

have

excavations

and ATEGUA (Prov.

material,

in

not

addition

stop

populations.
being

an

observed

L. B. A.
with

incised

the

intrusive
of

They

Celtic

of
of

south

burnished

controlled

C6rdoba)

* They give a list

this
with
of sites
COLINA DE LOS QUEMADOS and ATEGUA:

the

Guadalquivir

the

The ubiquity

possibility

be ignored.

and
in

as evidence

characteristic

wares

area

interpreted

still

recognise

development

Huelva

the

metalworkers,

from

(1973)

in

evidence

decorated
(1969)

establishments

populations

Indo-European

impressed

Blanco

of

the

wares

the
at

by the

first
LA COLINA

C6rdoba):

to

those

hemos recogido
de ellaabundantes
muestras
...
de"superficie
en prospecciones
en
realizadas
(Cabezo de la Esperanza),
FIuelva-ciudad
Niebla
(Los Bermejales),
Paterna
la
del Campo (Tejada
(Corta
"Esperanza"),
Tarsis
Vieja),
el Coronil,
(ruinas
de Basilippo),
Puente Genil
el Arahal
(ruinas
de Astapa),
de la Frontera,
Aguilar
etc.,
del
esto es, en los dos extremos
y en puntos
del tridngula
de la Baja Andalucia
centro
...
Andanse a ellos
Carmona y Mesas de Asta,
recintos
de la provincia
de Cordoba descubiertos
cicl6peos
por
Juan Bernier
y
explorados
y minas de la.
de esta misma provincia,
sierra
Cerro
a saber:
Muriano,
Campo Bajo,
Canada de Valdeviento,
la
Bramona,
etc. ' ' (p. 126)

of

241

furthermore

first

the

evidence

The significance

context.
Blzquez

(1975,360)

Andalusia,

based

these

of

for

evidence

occurrence

pottery

of

from

known

is

connections

the

summarises
on the

is

of metalworking

7th

and
in

century

incised

with

same

ignored,

largely

the

the

impressed

or

decoration:

'Estas

indican
de gentes
la presencia
cermicas
de la Meseta y de filiacin
moderna,...
procedentes
Es decir,
en torno
al 700 a. C. llegan
al Sur dos
la
distintas,
culturales
que suplantan
oleadas
inmediatemente
a
anterior
cultura
andaluza
rica
Esta cermica
las primeras
con
colonizaciones.
digitales,
decoraciones
tambign
que aparece
en
Toscanos,
en Mogador y posiblemente
se registra
intensas
de
Tartessos
relaciones
con el
confirma
'
fecha.
N. de Marruecos,
esta
en

At ATEGUA, where

QUENADOS, the
the

intrusive

were

at

the

known

from

former.

Other

Blanco

with

as the

in

population

in, the

Atlantic

trade

Phoenician

role

network:

elements

present

meseta

populations

traits

identified

the

there

Tagus

onset

are

Atlantic,

Eastern

be no reason

as the

'bearers'

of

by Blanco

et'al

(1969):

the

they

in

to

is

not

been

has

continued

probably
control
the

represent

together

represented

appears-to

stelae

beginning

the
This

trade

Phoenician

of

at

are

and Extremadura

bronze
and

the

be indications

Andalusia.

estuary

period

The Extremadura

when Northern

contact,

Mediterranean

with

Eastern

Huelva)

stela

could

date,

century

the

settle-

within
type

they

and
that

the

was found

Extremadura

Atlantic

the

believe

Campo (Prov.

1970):

in

excavators

since

del

the

7th

the

of

the

(1969)

stela

(Almagro

contact

pre-Phoenician

an important

play

of

this

by

be

to

considered

activity'

of

phase

role

intermediaries
as

observed

type

at

are

al

Paterna

examples

and using

metal-working

et

(cf.

users'

LA COLINA DE LOS

area

was found

a military

Extremadura

unexpected,

At

c. 5 km away,

ware

as at

the

of

Slag

site.

CARMONA-and SETEFILLA

relations

totally

to

the

and an Extremadura

fortified

the

advantages

ATEGUA and TEJADA LA VIEJA,

of

of

observable

'developed

population

walls

of

known

are

ores

ments

to

incised

the

of

as clearly

agricultural

attraction

main

copper

is

1975,370)

Blzquez

'arrival

the

of

the

period

and Central
the

carvings.

postulate

new combination

intrusive
of

cultural

of

24 A.

houses;

(b)

rectangular

(c)

intensive

(d)

close

connections

coast

(p. 126).

ments
into
to

the

the indigenous

the

the

metal-using

and metal-working

southwest.

Instead,

the
were

Phoenicians

were

circulating

in

functioning

were
tion

the

bronze

the

copper

resources

use

be understood
Mediterranean
sphere'

for

of

high

in

the context

sphere

from which

fallacy

of

riches

of

quality

sphere

production

and

possibly
bronzes

of operation

establish

traditional

view

the
by

tapped

which

the

as small-scale

the Euboeans and Phoenicians

in

Sicily

the Phoenician

encouraging
Central
and

Italy.
Sardinia

extension

by establishing

new, and quantitatively

and

involved

as well

therefore

in

in

splendour
to

of

and products

and

centres

tin)

existence

great

commodities

trading

of

these
they

known

originally

and gold

the

by the

Iberia

to

bronze

(and

did

try

to

essential

establish

By the mid 8th century

centres.
a need

increased

Phoenicians

is

the peninsula?

the

Atlantic

bronze

it

establish-

investigation

of

state

occupation,

'civilisation'

metal

stimulating
of

to

the

of several

intermediary

of

attracted

were

Phoenician

and what'relations

south,

referred

Phoenicians

rather

the

for

evidence
inadequate

E. I. A.

with

populations

already

the

why did

in

centres

We have
that

sites

on the south

establishments

briefly

and the

two questions:

production

colonial

very

Spain,

indigenous

answer

with

activity;

with

summarised

Southern

pottery;

*-

metallurgical

Having
in

impressed

and finger

incised

(a)

greater,

their

of

exploita-

The
can only

the Central

'Western
own

supplies

bronze
and precious
metals were obtained.
of
components
(discussed
tin resources
above) should not be forgotten.

the

of the

The rarity

of

houses of CERRO SALOMON, ALJARAQUE, LA COLINA DE LOS

* The rectangular
QUEMADOS and ATEGUA are compared with
one oval house at. LA COLINA
(Luz6n and Ruiz 1973, Lam. LXII)1

243

Within
in

silver
for
The

in

on the
in

8th

7th

'tribute'

semiperipheral

which

I A,

Part

in

I A,

of
3,

section

largely

independent

with

the

were

part

for

dominated

terms

represented

the

such

states,

in

fact,

by

met

Assyrian

the

of

In

West

2.

section

Part

were

city-states
Far

and the

used,

and as a medium

empire

system.

Phoenician

regions,

in

being

of

The requirements

Assyrian

economic

the

sources

discussed

and exchange

regional

definitions,

(1974)

by the

importance

the

Iberian

as a standard
been

city-states,

Asiatic

Western

East,

(1967,1971,1975).

Balmuth

from

payments

as the

has

of

discussed

silver

of

century

Phoenician

been

century

of

work

the

have

use

and Near

likelihood

the

and

the

by the

exchange

Mediterranean

UGARIT,

for

evidence

silver

L. $. A.

the

example

based

Eastern

the

periphery

Wallerstein's

of

characteristic
Assyrian

the

of

core-state.

interests
in the semilocated
the
primarily
...
the political
outside
arena
are located
periphery
it
difficult
find
to pursue
the
and
core-states,
of
be open
that might
the ends in political
coalitions
'
to them were they in the same political
arena...

(p 350)
.
But

the

importance

the

of

collection
(349-50).

The Phoenicians,

the

enabled

Central

that

skills

they did

Part

I A,

3,

section

its
and expand

regional

are
unpopular'

commodities

by establishing

this

'they

that

politically

and luxury

Mediterranean

Asiatic/Eastern

often

in

to function

empire

Asia:

are

as described

raw materials

the Assyrian
Western

within

the

of

suppliers

semiperipheral

vital

of

points

is

regions

became

that

frontiers

political

to the

a new periphery
system

in

the Western

Mediterranean.

Iberia,

Within

in

exploited

were

VILLARICOS

independent
an
5th

Schule
Almerian

centres

no evidence

8th

or

7th

1969a,
silver

for

33;

of
their

major

Trias'de

would

in contact

silver

with

Arribas

have

been

that

centuries,

by Greek

attempts

source
date

century

is

the

the

and

there

the Almerian

(cf.

exploitation
1967-8).

Any

instigated

the Phoenicians,

from

ie.

earlier
the

from

a 6th

Bldzquez

or

early

1968,217;

tapping

Eastern

of

to-obtain

centres

indicate

probably

ores

the establishment

whereas

and Carthaginian

would

silver

of

Andalusia

the C6rdoba area.

244

However,
the

the

of

exploitation

furthermore,

Phoenician

populations

The question

it

has

indigenous
for

the

is

centres
been

to

elements
later,

century,

on the

evidence

from

of

indigenous

more

scale

cannot
of

located

with

is

of

useful

in

centres

become

to

be envisaged

those

cemeteries

from

hinterland.

to date,

apparent

indicates
of

(Prov.
of

area of Carmona, and Lora

the

immediate

mainly

7th

the

with

the

the firms

Malaga),

that

which

the

Phoenician

of a Phoenician

and representatives

- whose burials
like

incorporation
and perhaps

of

the existence

the Guadalquivir,
del

the

without

The nature

in cemeteries

found

LAS SOMBRAS,Frigiliana
indigenous

detail

greater

assimilation

production

beginning

founders
the
representing
elite
the 'haburs'
of the Eastern cities
contrast

in

the

population

(Guadalquivir)

cemeteries,

below.

TOSCANOS, GUADALHORCE, CHORRERAS, MORRO DE MEZQUITILLA

elements

distant

into

people

(1974)

by Whittaker

Phoenician
is

that

on the

of

indigenous

be discussed

will

be examined

paper

period.

the

of

AlmunMcar,

and possibly

A recent

which

were

was secured

silver

indigenous

of

and must

population

of

which

characteristic

members

goods,

incorporation

Carthaginian,

supply

established,

once
of

of

high-ranking

high-status

date.

The functioning

the

products

is

enterprise

industry,

the

production

continued

important

of

the

indisputable:

instigated

the

operation,

with

the

of

that

makes

settlements

century

was a Phoenician

and the

special

7th

the

through

relations
using

in

Huelva

the

and

postulated

Phoenicians

the

by establishing

than

also

commodities

Phoenician

it

an indigenous

by

Tinto

there

that

We have

was essentially
obtained

Rio

silver

fact

the

doubt.

beyond

from

material

of

can be seen to
of

the CORTIJA DE

are more related

particularly.

in

to the

the Alcores

Rio.

'demographic
Whittaker's
view of the Phoenician
expanis based on
the Western Mediterranean,
Iberia,
particularly
both the nature
(which he
misunderstanding
of Phoenician
expansion
believes
the same process
represents
as Greek colonisation)
and the
for their
in Iberia
(eg. in the case
evidence
archaeological
presence
of MORRO DE MEZQUITILLA),
as well
as the nature
of the Lower
'marismas'.
Guadalquivir
Unfortunately,
into
sion'

245

The finds
Guadalquivir

the

the

centres

production

deep-sea

merchants,

lishment

of

maintain

and

the

Phoenicians'

from

establishments
and

the

nature

and Levantine

for

one particular

We must
routes,

but

Among the
donkey;

the

(1973)

SAN PEDRO. )

those

as sources

of

The high
(1973,68),

that

evidence

notes

remains
in

at

the

is

noted

by H. P.

TOSCANOS, cattle

substantiates

'factories'

that

settlements

- were

the

was proposed
more

been

they

of
of

impossible
let

centres.

regular

maritime
traders.

overland

Phoenicians

the

southern,

dominated,

was the
(H. P.

and cat.

cat

and fowl

of

above:
with

used

of

used

as beasts

and M.

they

interdependence

den

CABEZO DE
in

animals,
of

burden

(1973):

'Arbeitstiere'

as

remains

whereas

from

certain

and M. Uerpmann

and horse

concerned

only

fowl

were

type

the

Phoenician

proportions

have

of. donkey

system

which

made it

have

to

the

by

donkey,

could

proportion

commodities

TOSCANOS and GUADALHORCE; von

which

meat,

estab-

as by sea,

along

by caravans

Iberia

from
of

the

coastal

as well

have

not

domesticated

cite

and

trading
of

Phoenician

with

used
to

the

The variation

particular

suggest

were

others

(1973)

routes

supporting

of

Atlantic

the

would

establishment,

introduced

animals

Uerpmann
Driesch

inland

also

for

desired

exploitation

the

region

- or

relations

the

envisage

the

as navigators,

the

activities

Iberia,

of

manufacturing,

object

hinterland,

the

of

centre

exchange

monopolise,

alone

to

merchants'

coasts

was an

Southwest.

access

many parts

With

craftsmen

provide

the

the

as well

in

there

required

The main

role

Iberia.

supplying

specialised
1973),

silver,

direct

as for

produce

was to

the

Phoenician

of

western
any

of
in

of

in

dominant

supply

The possibility

assist

of

centres

instigated

had

themselves

the

to

ship-builders.

production

it

coast

(Lepiksaar

fishers

the

add to

south

agricultural

populations

and possibly

crews

ships'

the

with

in

on the

as well

the

as an important

involvement

population
processes,

resident

substantial

to

attracting

in

context,

be interpreted

should

'factories'

the

indigenous

Phoenician

of

transporting,

and perhaps

the

for

need

area,

phase

of

establishment

increased

to

second

in

material

Huelva

and'the

of

aspect

Phoenician

of

note
of

as well

they
(p. 93).

for
these

GUADALHORCE
Phoenician'

TOSCANOS - and possibly

production,

other

GUADALHORCE, and others,

246

would

the

factories

the

of

products

the

amongst

in

distribution

the

and

TOSCANOS, in

from

evidence

remains

involved

been more

have

and collection

resources

of
the

particular
category,

sheepfgoat

interior.

the

Furthermore,

predominance
to

suggests

the

of

of

H. P.

goat

and M. Uerpmann

the
'..
Existenz
die
Bevlkerungsschicht
einer
..
ihre HaputbeschUftigung
in der Landwirtschaft
nicht
in anderen Wirtschaftszweigen
fand.
Fr
sondern
Schicht
k$nnon Handwerker,
Kaufleute,
eine solche
Fischer,
usw. in Frage kommen'

(p. 93)

It

is

in

the

to report

relevant

composition
Phoenician

other

faunal

of
or

findings

their

from

material
Iberian

contemporary

demonstrate

that

the difference

TOSCANOS, when

compared

They

settlements,

with

note:

ist
'Zuerst
festzuhalten,
dass die Faktorei
von
Toscanos
Wirtschaftseinals abgeschlossene
nicht
ist.
ist
heit
Vielmehr
davon auszugehen,
anzusehen
dass von der Grndung
an der Gteraustausch
mit
dem Hinterland
Ein gewisser
Teil
angestrebt
war.
drfte
der Schlachttiere
also aus dem Hinterland
Die
nach Toscanos"gebracht
worden sein.
in der Zusammensetzung
der
Verschiebung
kann also nicht
darauf
Fleischnahrung
unbedingt
dass der eigene Viehbestand
werden,
zurckgefuhrt
der Siedlung
habe
seine Zusammensetzung
gendert
Schlachtviehangebot
und sich damit das anfallende
'
htte.
verandert

iP 86)
.
it

However,

is

difficult

Eigenproduktion
(p. 86),

gegeben'

than

the

when

slaughtered

(eg.

in

exchange

variations

the
in

a change

the

The many L. B. A.

particularly

between

CORIO DEL'RtO,

agree

size

function
Thus,
Tabelle
relations
of

settlements

Sevilla

them

with

im Bereich

Schlachtvieh

and transport.

production
animals

von

to

the

'Ein

der

Faktorei

the

changes

in

25)

is

likely

more

with

units'

from

and Cordoba,

the

the

war

zur
also

wohl
was

settlements
of

proportions
to

neighbouring

'consumer

known

Anlass

Phoenician

these

of

that

represent
Iberian

within

the

minor
populations

settlement.

Guadalquivir,

eg. EL CARAMBOLO,Camas,

SAN JUAN DE AZNALFARACBE, CALVES, MACARENO,La Rinconada,

247

*
RIO,
DEL
LORA
as well
and
levels,

occupation

the

of

products

and all
south

The Phoenician

textiles

with

Atlantic

as copper,

functioning

must

The

proposed
the

West

in

the

seals

of

Takelot
for

use;

royal

found
the

to
the

represents
for

II

their

the

the

there

highest

political

tombs

Essarhaddon

at SIDON for

own name and stored

to

the

as silver

resources,

such

Phoenician
They

too.

secured

also

on which

their

categories

of

1962,51ff).
the

royal

is'known

took

alabaster

in

vessels

the

East.

the

denoted

ivory
royal

Osorkon

pharoahs:
Pellicer
cemeteries

of

to have looted

alabaster

vessels

among his

own treasures

which

in

Those
bear
II

and

parallels

Egypt,

and

of Abdimilkuti's

he then had inscribed

the palace

*. I should like to thank F. G6mez, of Huelva, for

in. the-Sevilla
L. B. A. and E. T. A. sites
area.

were

only

the treasures

in

material

products

Sheshonq

II,

TANIS,

ivories

Almundcar,

as the

cites

This

status.

CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL,

informing

is

It

and engraved

urns

East:

Phoenician

ivories.

the

and

same way as in

the

of

vessels

status

Egyptian

century

as urns

in

alabaster

similarly

(Pellicer

alabaster

Phoenicians

be used

9th

local

produce,

the

an increased

was a characteristic

- and significant

are

Phoenician

use

SAMARIA.
palace

interesting

that

from

as well

of

Mediterranean

or

depended.

commodities
here

this

area:

Central

bronzework,

bronze,

the

commodities,

created

exploitation

from

initially

style

quality

and agricultural

have

two most

introduced

to

livestock

of

supply

the

in the Eastern

observed

strategy,

as high

such

together

wares,

the

bronzework,

they

even

or

operating

in

centres

Southwest,

the

of

C6rdoba

the

from

sites.

wine

certain

own Phoenician

their

and encouraged

in

also

and other

and grey

merchants

Phoenician

the

slip

oil,

slip

the

By introducing

'luxuries'
work,

gold

red

to

-- on these

importing

and bronzes,

populations

for

demand

the

from

then

network,

indigenous

and

obtained

centres,

red

containing

were

Mediterranean.

Eastern

probably

but

the

excavated

valued

jewellery

particularly

rarely

highly

production

coastal

but
-

by

E. I. A.

all'had

areas,

had access

have

as indicated

as the

etc,

and Huelva

to

seen

amphorae,

as well

unguents,

are

coast,

wares found

Phoenician

Jerez

as the

with

at ASSUR

me of

these

his

248

1970c);

(Culican

to Leclant

According

2 and 3,

tombs

has

vers

l'extr?

the

inscription

of

of

the

alabaster

in

the

East

of

the

of

1970,21ff

significant

OSUNA, SETEFILLA,

OSUNA (Prov.
'Iberian'

(Garcia

are

finds

those

with

of

(Garcia

Cadiz

1970,11)

should

be noted.

known

Iberia

alabaster

RIO BARBATE (Prov.

the

y Bellido

Roman times)

be

the

societies:

and PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA,

Cadiz)

remodelled-in
finds

from

in

resident

or

The isolated
eg.

authority
therefore

should

indigenous

PUERTO DE TIERRA,

references)

(Prov.

Pdlvora

political

Iberia

operating

Spain,

ALMUIRECAR

the significance

symbolise
in

'kings'.

of

1963,22);

- with

an amphora

coast

south

(Pellicer

Cadiz)

members
them like

treated

on the

vessels

certain

from

vessel

product.

they

the

of

Gamer-Wallert

manufacture,

same:

'provenant,
en Phdnicie

exportfies

-Inie
the alabaster

by Phoenicians

as recognition
rank

the

TRAYAMAR

origin

Occident'.

use by Phoenicians

and their

Phoenicians

de la

is

from

oriental
dtd

out

or Phoenician

vessels

of

(1970).

by Leclant

also

amphorae,

as an Egyptian

she recognises

Whether of Egyptian

regarded

m6me, elles

rddxpedides

studied

1, which

tomb

d'Egypte

noted

alabaster

ALNUN CAR and TOSCANOS are

de la

puis

is

practice

Western

the

du moins

certaines
...
(1973)

Assyrian

this

associations

y Bellido
Castillo

near

(representing
But

the

more

and contexts,

ie.

LA JOYA, TOSCANOS, TRAYAMAR and ALM MECAR.

is

Sevilla)

a fortified

settlement,

mainly

with

to the evidence of the 1903 excavations

according
(1906).
The Phoenician
from the site,
there by Engel and Paris
material
from two burials
in particular
has been rethe settlement,
within
(1971b).
importance
is
indicated
by
by
The
Aubet
the
of
site
examined
its

occupation

commanding
Malaga
in

location

strategic
the

coastal

levels

by Bonsor

and

the

trench

graves

unguentario

in

the

Nearby,
Alcores

routes

Guidalquivir.

dominating
from
The

fortification:

the-'Iberian'

found.

promontory

communication

cemetery.

an alabaster
were

area

in

pre-'Iberian'

beads

natural

below

inhumations

on a high

In

and are

Tomb A an ivory

(c. llcm

high)

a neck
cemeteries

to

two burials

have

sherd

of

to
were

been

part

was noted

by

of

vitreous

similar
the

the
found

of

in

comb was found;

an urn

and

simple

were

and a number

area

interior

the

they

thought

a large

to

a.
B

tomb
paste

found

those

excavators:

it

had

X49

black

and red

This
of

tomb B,

in

it

is

at

the

tumulus

II at

the

one of

42,

32;

Figure

illustrated

are

8th

of

parallel

or

7th

are

they
to

aspects
(b)

their

that

She does
their

nor

larger
found
tomb

leg,

is

date

Bonsor

the

7th

mid

Another

similar

an inhumation
(Bonsor

Tumulus

All

was found

3 alabasters

14-16).

Figures

1928,

no handles,

weapons.

cited

in

and Thouvenot

has

which

century:

Another

by Aubet

from

material

and some typological

HILL

the

OF

recognises
in

related
of

Cadiz

and LA JOYA,

province

'connected

their

finds

Phoenician

with

in

occurrence

alabaster

of
At

LA JOYA,

with

Huelva;

trade

and

indigenous

these

inhumation
an

a young

male)
of

the

contexts

burnished

claims

that

a piece

(similar
They
the

an iron

with

(7 x5

cm) were

(discussed

with

a 'bronze

was found

above)

cemeteries

with

container

Under

plaques

vessels

rounded

the

vessel,

was found

and a cremation.

excavator

ivory

an alabaster

Abb, 9a)).

al

from

are

1972,

et

c. 45cm diameter)

4 undecorated

vessels

a stopper,

and a small

vessel

TOSCANOS (Lindemann

9 with

4 pattern

(1970,

a cremation

115).

handles,

neckless

a 'brasero'

burials,

and various

hereis

explain

recent

and 2 small

at

vessel,

vessels

LA JOYA and TRAYAMAR.

neck

(of

to

to

contents

significance.

The more
of

this

types,

(1971b,
try

Sevilla)

in

Sevilla)(cf.

date

from

the

of

1).

Figure

disturbed.

were

(Prov.

to

1971b,

one found

to

urn

known

Aubet

occurrence

not

is

century

larger

colonisation'

tombs

Alcores

y Bellido

oriental.

the

both

(Prov.

Carthage.

(a)

that

ivories

Garcia

at

part

the

1971b):

in

JUNO cemetery
that

Rio

engraved

with

associated

which
of

del

Aubet

was originally

is thought

(c. 17cm high)

Lora

SETEFILLA,

that

ACEBUCHAL, Carmona

earliest

vessel

(Aubet

OSUNA alabaster

25)

and Figure

alabaster

believes

related

background

on a cream

an urn

Aubet

since

Aubet

1899,29

zones

may represent.

sherd

burial

painted

a marked

to

were

of

that
in

found

inhumed

remains

shield'

(probably

knife;

found,

were found.

on the

on which

the

Together

with

* According
to Bonsor,
it was found
this
who did'not
tumulus,
excavate
in
ashes
among
a 2-handled
2 large
together
globular
urn,
gold
with
(made
de cuivre
d'or')
earrings
of 'feuilles
plaquees
and a gold ring
(Figures
7-8),
by piles
(pp. 29-30)'.
surrounded
of plates

250

the

in

ashes

another
hook

belt

a bronze

were

the

tomb

is

in

other
7th

of
or

added,
7th
the

date

century

cited

The occurrence

location

their

area,

in

(also

of

the

predicted

on the

material,

ie.

alabaster

denoting

their

indigenous

of
the

of

but

period,

Ivory

was the other

for

in

occurrence
this

and Paris

the

in

was worked
handles,

status

pins,

99)

rings

These,

he suggests,

finds,

from

Carmona,

being

by their

context

and at

two

areas

as indicated

more

and

the

from

relations

Huelva

the

population

their

of

alabaster

during

main

indigenous

with

high-ranking

of

obvious

common Phoenician
centre

of

of

by the

indigenous

of

vessels,
members

the

of

the

pre-Phoenician

merchants
items

destined

and Huelva

1899,1928;

1947 for

the original

and wooden
locally
were

boxes

with

produced

include

a comb,
- or

Bisi

Engel

publications).

locally

bone

and he regards

products.

1928;

probably

ivory

in

be viewed

tombs should

tombs

exclusively

use and their

royal

and Thouvenot

from

as Carthaginian

for

ivory,

members

the East almost

Bonsor

that

this

and the high-ranking

in
was used

Ivory

noted

used to express

of material

and finds

Carthage

this

recognisable.

society.

IV,

beads

be excluded:

cannot

given

the

was known

existence

the Guadalquivir

(1929,

in

some material

evidence

with

1906; Fernandez-Chicacrro

Gsell

2 amber

the

presentation

category

(see Bonsor

context

and the

Phoenician

by the

or manufacturing

adorning

and

1970,71)

West,

the

pottery,

between Phoenician

relationship
indigenous
the
of

bronze,

is

in

distribution

of

whose

found

century,

relations

of

as clearly

not

in

and other

recognition

society,

were

6th

vessels

centres

was symbolised

populations

arcaico'

of

finds

and hand-

red-slip

contained

by Garrido

noted

The confirmation

activities.

of

and

1971,142).

pattern

amphorae

tipo

beads

gold

of

piles

possibility

of

Phoenicians

basis

tore,

material

the

majority

production
the

confirms

included

al

the

to

of

the

et

tde

the

of

but

above

TOSCANOS (Lindemann

interest

Most

the

of

tomb,

odd fragments

date,

burial

the

amphorae

goods.

century

another

sites

major

In

A scarab,

grave

a bronze

grave,

found.

were

1970,39).

(Garrido

the

of

and 3 Phoenician

made plates,

the

area

obtained,
mirror
decoration.
-

the

defined

Spanish
3 groups

5 1

ivories,

Carthaginian

of

(1948)

Barnett
being

(1960)

Blanco

in

founded

from

the

her

of
in

Iberia,

found

8th

7th

paper).

and

but

warrior

been

from

(1941)

taken

Recent
(1971b)

and

'clearly

its

Phoenician
factories'

western

on the

engraved

considers

summary

on some ivories,

elements

helmet

and date

published

as
in

(1971)

products

the

was

such
from

plaque

some to

be of

for

Spanish

6th

century

studies
(summarised

,
concerned

the

of

the

basis

on the

ivories:

of Eastern

refutation

with

of

the
in

gold

finds

ivories

Blzquez

her

by Blanco

of

ivories

new evidence

has not been found

this

by Tckholm

thesis

techniques

group

ivory

were

of

(1960,3-25)

1968,149ff,

style,

CRUZ DEL NEGRO tombs,

Phoenician

date

has been

above.

A characteristic
the

to

become

2nd millenium

late

Samos and an examination

discussed

been

Greek

up by Freyer-Schauenburg

be convincing

to

has

and he therefore

workshop
Winter

be Phoenician

ivory-work

the

style

wearing1a

ivory

century.

Albright's
has

that

to

workers

7th

the

and Carthage.

(according

regards

also

in

a Phoenician

Iberia

he distinguishes

BENCARRN, Carmona,
date,

in

ivory

Phoenician

(1968).

finds

Spanish

the

unlikely

Etruria

centuries

debased

however

kneeling

the

in

as occurred

not

that

view

to
of

is

which

this

Harden

(1971,200),

possibility

Iberia,

ivories

late

style,

as

in
supports

the

considers

the

suggested

established

them

and related

of

combs

Carmona

(where

found),

has

and

some of
been

1975 Addenda)

manufacture

from

and by Aubet

and

OSUNA, grave
the

recognised

most

have

dating.

A,

-and"
distinctively

by Aubet

as:

'...

un grupo de peines,
cuyo estilo
se caracteriza
en la
por su elevado esquematismo y estilizaci6n
forma de los animales,
especialmente
en los. de
Carmona, y que, a su vez, presentan
todos ellos

*A

number of Greek bronze helmets are known from casual finds in

helmet from the Huelva estuary of
eg. a Corinthian
southern Iberia:
6th century date (Boardman (1964,221);
in the
another from Jerez,
(Ptman 1940-41),
Guadalete
to Boardman
of 7th century date according
(1964,221.,
Figure 60) and Riis
(1950).

5 ?

id4ntica
forma rectangular,
laterales
escotaduras
decoracin
"dientes
de lobo"
y
en zigzag
o
a lo
largo
del marco que rodea el friso
zoomorfo.
Estas caracteristicas
comunes,
unidas
a la
del trazo
tdcnica
ya
cada uno de los motivos
ornamentales,,
revelan
claramente
que todos ellos
son obras de un mismo taller
o, mejor
an, de una
homoEsta serie
misma mano artesana.
uniforme,
la forman
go-nea y, logicamente,
contempornea,
la gran mayoria
de peines
de la Cruz del Negro,
hallado
tal come se ha mencionado,
un peine
ebrneo
de Juno,
en la Colina
en Cartago,
y por ultimo,
del Heraion
de Samos. '
cuatro
peines
procedentes

Aubet

presents

(p. 122,

of

in

claims

that

fora

technique

of

Iberian

would

by Gsell

Iberian

the

9th

the Huelva
styles
Blanco

for

that

Syrian

products).

in Carthage,

in

products

East

the

on finds

from

Another

ivory

and she
engraving
NIMRUD (which
working

described

the types

producing

of

combs

an Assyrian

using

- based

are

The Iberian

found

produced

manufacturing

they

centre.

those

century

production
in

found

and a mid 7th century

centre

(she does not

the Guadalquivir
is

account)

not

totally

be expected

than what can reasonably

de un mismo taller

diminishes

the

production

evidence

from

a single

into

ivories

estilisticas

regi6n

and general

take

the range

convincing:

of

as well as the forms and content,

and techniques,
as observed by
(1960), Harden (1971,200ff)
and Tckholm (1975) appears to be

greater

the

or

the ivories

all

She maintains

many authors

in
known
Iberia.
are not

which

for

classification.

- production

8th

have existed

Her argument
date

of

indicates

combs were
and

and chronologies

content

ivories

Iberian

Phoenician

probably

in

and manufacture

the

views

Blanco's

similarity

- probably

differ

the

and revises

the

of

a single

centre

a summary

overriding

techniques

are

120)

43)

note

the

that

(1971b,

mucho
for

credibility
centre

in

Gadir,

'una

(p. 128).

foundation

of- Cadiz

gran

the

there
7th

126).

by firmly

metrpoli

But,
in

1971b,

further

argument

antes':

tiempo
the

her

of

(Aubet

artesano'

'una serie

from

still

century.

Aubet
locating

establecida
is

de variantes

en la

no archaeological

253

fact,

In

made in

whether

Phoenician

centre,

the

indigenous

burials

in

the

We can agree

same.

indigenous
and Lora

del

predated

or were

Thus,
included

Rio

merchants

established

is

ivories
of

the

frequently

ivories

by the

to

extent,

The maintenance

of

increasing

Garrido

is

1973)

it

vessels

whom they

with

the Eastern

from

of gold

and silver

of

create

than

ivories

work which

-were more generally

area

were.

as

and exemplified

during

too.
6th

century

'oriental-

or
in

excavated

to

possibly

the

oriental,

LA JOYA (eg.

members of

of

They thereby

and alabaster,
were used for
available.

of alabaster

the local

the local

and ivory

'elite'.

were
but
-

confirmed

and possibly

Phoenician
certain

the establishment
The latter

popula-

they were following

In so doing

rank.

ivories

presented

categories

of

included

distributed
of amphorae and the unguents probably
(described
'oil-bottles'
by Culican
1970b).
These thick,

contents

content

populations

the Phoenicians
ranking

- the rank

the

etc:

applied,

hinterland

the possession

political

Iberian

a wagon.

that

to the highest

whereby

not necessarily
other

pieces

by a

populations

probably

recently

their

with

the

of

'Southwest',

the

and exclusive

tombs

the

is proposed

of highest

material,

Huelva

Phoenician

and possession

indigenous

established-reltions.

practice,

the attributes

relations,

for

Phoenicians

represented

content

and Huelva

the

been

'degenerate'

area

elaborate

included

which

and alabaster

did

(1975a)

in

the

presentation

the

Guadalquivir

to

known

To summarise:

tion

their

within

an elite

access

items,

ising'

ranking

the

have

with

that

graves

the

to

Carmona

contact.

whose

rank

an

horizons

to

be compared

cannot

would

L. B. A. /E. I. A. 'Extremadura-Tagus

a lesser

with

coast,

on as being

by Schubart

demonstrated

political

The iconographic

important;

of

society

remains

the

Phoenician

by relations

rank

commented

was not

of

of

of

reaching

from

the

period

context

were

burials

the

members

south

which

ivories

assigned

confirmed

goods.

grave

of

The existence
best

in

the

the

and Huelva

Rio

be clearly

highest

on the

burials
set

ranking

had been

status

different

with

symbolising

and whose

predecessors'

cannot

high

of

del

that

unfortunate

contemporary

items

the

is

in

Lora

that

an Iberian-

or

ivories

the

area,

Aubet

with

Carthage

of

Carmona

the

cemeteries

burials

the

significance

It

elite.

Phoenicia,

in

specific

the
the small

'rounded

vessels

254

apertures

small

with

fine

the

of

equivalents

which

and perfumes

unguents
distributed.

fact,

In

vessels

for

the

these

Western

sphere:

they

were

for

small-scale

the

larger

Fine

perishable

items,

used

high

of

value

general

Phoenician
for

specimens,

single

of

the

for

red

example

plates

etc,

navigators

Due to

not

could

route

between
to

the

Alcores

the

the

areas

coastal

Guadiara

Guadalquivir;

/E.
B.
L.
A.
I. A.
many

times

edge

of

as the

productive

area

the

granary

agricultural

(1974)
reviews
in Western
combinations

* Lindemann

of

rivers

at

the

Granada)

use

of

red

traders,

these

products

factories

the

could
let

the

since

and
be

easily

us concentrate

OSUNA, on the

from

the

fertile

foot

the

from
del

Lora

near

This

area

Western

the use of red slip

Phoenician
graves.

of
the

Rio,

the

of

is
and

Carmona

land

led

which

empire

and distribu-

finds.

vast

valley.

zones

occurrence

centre,

in

But,

come from

the

Western

(Prov.

south,

peninsula

coast.

SETEFILLA,

Guadalquivir
the

the

interior;

established

sites

of

of

finds

and Carbones

The

by the

indigenous

and ivory

the

with

as the

the

be increased

overlooking

and from

in

always

on the

to

together

production

single

valley,

or

merchants,

their

of

by any

areas

grey

red-slip

Orce

as well

activities

alabaster

of

illustrated

the

of

sources

operating

escarpment

the

on the

other

Guadalquivir

the

from

could

to

access

two main

In

monopolised

ideal

Phoenicians.

Phoenician

of

Iberia.

the

is

wares

graves

in

the

Alicante),

Phoenician

of

by traders

established
on the

of

production

of

new points

proximity

been

their

of

scale

rank

nature

have

the

high

of

the

and the

tion,

in

and flagons

by

CERRO DEL REAL,

at

(Prov.

and LOS SALADARES, Orihuela

slip

slip

of

made were,

exchange

the

products

especially

locally

or

in

containers,

valuable

be
be

could

and used
strong

more

made wares,

imported

were

designed

of

- could

Eastern-homeland

the

the

famed

were

transportable,
of

quantities

small

which

functional

the

were

Phoenicians

were

easily

wheel

either

which

vessels

in

in

absence

distribution

amphorae.

ware,

which

their

that

the

to

be plugged,

easily

alabaster

fact

due

could

one of

Sierra
in

It

their

area
the

Morena

one of

and

on

Campia,

Osuna

Mediterranean.

wares

area

the

was known
still

main

Roman
the
is

most
possible

characteristic

Z5 5

in

that
in

7th

the

here

surplus

and the
have

undoubtedly

could

on the south

the

by Bonsor

of

and others

in

the

the

of

contact,

L. B. A.

importance

established

beyond
as from

as well
ment

probably

will

Ayamonte

But,
in

Iberia

who were

firms

but

is

this
the

the

mining

area
'factories'

the

of

the

of

only

the

be augmented

in

to

Phoenicians
in

of

the

the

of

number

Alcores

has

been

city

of

was quite
Phoenician

Western

the

commodities

in

Huelva,

Huglva

The establish-

area

of

Niebla

period

large

CERRO SALOMON.

the

and road

Age. *

Iron

settlements

from

the

the

existence

by others

1961),
MACARENO,

by the

the

inhabitants

the

high-status

began

during

of

such

survey,

operations

and probably

establishment
indigenous

his

and Raddatz

contradicted

the

- have

(including

sedentism

from

for

in

levelling

area

large
ware

slip

(Carriazo

Guadalquivir

Huelva

red

by modern

clearly

investigated

number

Guadalquivir

the

tumuli

unexcavated

of

Alcores

the

to be used

importance

finds

the

and

sphere

this

Furthermore,

including
-

along

any doubt,

crucial

of

clearly

needs

the

century.

CARMONA itself

proposes

with

relations

of

number

exceeds

along

that

of

the

19th

sites

continued

The

the
far

destroyed

along

sites

which

escarpment,

the

to meet

pottery

towns

modern

Ponsich

Phoenician

late

course

now being

La Rinconada:

Alcores

of

on a number

building).

in

activities

agricultural

sufficient

pre-Roman

of

of

of

produced

easily

were

products

(1974,219)

escarpment

as ALCAUDETE, and of

the

been

the

located

and most

extent

Ponsich

to

concentrations
been

agricultural

coast.

According
along

too,

century

from

LA JOYA

and possibly

areas.

the

use

gives

of

and

alabaster

indication
us some

involved

and 'haburs',

in

establishing

organised

ivory
of
the

by the

Phoenicians

the'importance
Western

the production

branches

of

themselves

the
of

of characteristic

Phoenicians

the

Eastern

Phoenician

in
intensification
the
the real
activities
of agricultural
is assigned
AD
to the 1st century
of the Guadalquivir
reaches
middle
irrigation
were established,
and grain
organised
when latifundia
in the Campifia is indicated
by the
on an enormous scale
production
factories
of
amphorae
establishment
and ports
on the Guadalquivir;
in
the
the A13arafe
olive
cultivation
whilst
area was similarly
(Ponsich
intensified
1974, * 223ff).

* However,

? rGO

in

material

the
of

maintenance
the

secure

west,
relations

supplies
were

centres.

Although

Phoenician

The use

block

ashlar
Schubart

1975)

show the

importance

burials

or

implies

that

observed

activities

'branches'

West when
(as

in

these

Carthage,
tombs

or

cities,
the

regarded
city-states
their
of

**

the

incompatible

Assyrian
as the
in

operations

the

of

and demands

the

of

the

the

network,
Eastern

like
to thank Gerta
should
in Madrid
thesis
unpublished
noted
leurs

(1966),

'about

life

of

to

in
the

which

of
(1960),

Blanco

Eastern

organisations

and create

Iberia

establishments
homeland

be incorporated'

centres

Iberia,

the

character

Phoenician

production

sphere

to

up in

set

overpopulated

southern

This

was extended
were

the

later

and industrial

Culican

commercial
ie.

of

The exceptional
of

and

cemeteries

burials.

cities

constantly

Atlantic

on the

(1929,
Gsell.
IV, 107)
in Carthage:
'D'abord
ceux de Phdnicie'.

view

The Phoenician

a new periphery,
into

**

from

(Niemeyer

possibility

firms

the

of

and the

Both

existing

of

graves

shaft

tombs

the

into

who regard

city-states

extension

deep

establishments

the

by refugees

empire.

are

Western

1962,1963)

and

Ch. IV).

with

and many others

besieged

can be

done, * there
no exact

the

Phoenician

Eastern
1929,

Gsell

an Atlantic-Mediterranean

needs

*I

cf.

burial

Eastern

the

of

other

features.

organisation

the

as inhabited

Iberia

into

is

(1962)

Pellicer
in

in

in

as distinctive

kin-based

the

production

Western

(Pellicer

incorporated

being

offerings

Western

of

which

as urns

collective

of

were

Iberia

TRAYAMAR chamber

the

recognised

are

interested

Southern

has

to

order

found.

of

construction

for

Almun6car

CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL,

the

in

1974)

and

in

the

of

those

with

(1972

amphorae

alabaster

of

they

which

and

establishment

populations

cemeteries

cemeteries

are

- parallels

the

establishment

and content

Iberian

the

of

Eastern

form

as Lindemann

areas,

many features
- or

in

compared

the

Phoenician

the

in

resources

for

reason

indigenous

the

these

for

responsible

with

of

the

and which

roughly

and were

must

of

the

order

to

b.e
Eastern
extend

new configuration
depended

on the

city-states.

Lindemann
in'1973.
in
that
ateliers

for

allowing

the case
ne sont

me to

consult

industrial
of-the
que les succursales

her

workshops
de

2r7

The burials
accorded

East

- who were

kin

to

and continue
in

involved

their

of

'men of

the

rites

concern

TRAYAMAR and AL Uli CAR represent

of

the

in

lands

craftsmen

and the

merchants.

burial

involving

of

burial,
In

box.
the

terms

Phoenician

in

were

the

East,

red

Phoenician

was to

sphere

the

case

slip

1968b,

a considerable

ivory

later

offerings,

and some Western

flagons

plates,

of

simple

-a

Eastern

the

of

2 Froto-Corinthian

only

sphere:

elaboration

exceptional

and lamps

1970c,

1973b).

also

show that

TRAYAMAR and JARDIN

ALMUNCAR,

of

who were
the
expeditions,
rank

and probably

those

resemble

tombs

niche

contents,

grave

particular

and - in

northern

the

and the

maritime

urns

in

industries

men of

accorded

alabaster

TRAYAMAR 4,

the

of

KHALDEH, ER-REQUISH. (Culican

ACHZIB,

Carthaginian

of

tombs

eg.

The cemeteries
Western

in

these

tombs:

in

use

some of

of
of

contents

found

the

They

use of

These

them.

leaders

the

were

an offering,

or

in

the

burial

special

be known

would

Western

the

to maintain

offerings

distant

buried

city'

organising

groups

place

- as they

the

independent

extent
kotylae

known

are

are

this
the

of

from

19 niche

ALMUNECAR, grave
are

etc.

in

found

ALMa9CAR

Lindemann

AUNNECAR

seal

from

ring

indicator

of

established

the

the

from

the

of

on the

with

Greek

obligations
the

Eastern

1962)
of

1962,62,

were

kin-based
city-states

the

which
fact
or

Lm. XIX)

is

terminated

at

Roman traders

in

hereditary,

an indication,

organisation

of

'firms'

from

10th

the

tombs

another

A seal

represents

death.

when Carthaginian

that

and Maass-

and a swivel
is

person.

been

Phoenician

the

communication))

deceased

have

(Schubart

and JARDfN
in

razors,

eggs

ostrich

a seal-ring

personal

guarantee

comments

of

continuity

known

(Schubart,

'occupation'

contracts

decorated

3 and 16 (Pellicer

JARDfN

the

113)

IV,

centuries

tombs

Carthaginian

characteristic

A few

West.

The occurrence

a personal.

a signature,

and the

10 (Pellicer

tomb

1976).

(eg.

(1929,

in. the

known

not

B,

Gsell

merchants

the

5th

and later

perhaps,
and workshops

century

of
as

onwards.

in the 4th (possibly

5th)
eggs are only known in quantity
century
(Siret
1907, Astruc
VILLARICOS
1951),
the settlement
of
graves
although
in the 6th century.
to have been established
It is
there
appears
interesting
to"note.
Guasch has identified
that Pascual
a 3rd. century
Punic type of amphora whose distribution
to part
to be limited
appears

* Ostrich

7th
the
century
of
Morocco (1969)

Western

Phoenician

sphere,

ie.

Southern

Iberia

and

2"8

The widespread
from

the

alabaster,
in

concentrated

Although

and Extremadura).
dealt

in

with

comes from

goldwork

a tributary

near
(1921)

Harden

(1958,1973a)

a typical
33),
of

includes

coarse

c. 45cm wide,

other
Culican
bearing

finds

of

(1956),

discussions

recent

Garcia

Cdceres,

by Melida

published
More

a tomb.

(1970,

y Bellido

(1968,115ff),

Blzquez

Culican

be a Phoenician

kg -

1.425

the

were

other

Egyptian
product,

possibly

had

green

Assyria

nearby,

was

Lam. 29-30).

by

to the 7th century

(eg.

Mediterranean

glass

and cartouche,

made in

found

of

a hand-attachment,

and Central

a clear

motifs

One was broken

1968,107,

dated

and the Western

hieroglyph

1921,10).

1970a,

The motifs

and seals,.

'braseros'

now more conclusively

with

scarab

Phoenician

(Blzquez

kg

(Culican

debased

(Melida

including

rings,

pendants,

discs

but

decoration,

and embossed

an amethyst

vessels

0.984

was associated

a garbled

with

Two silver

pottery

from Iberia

1973a)

earrings,

characteristic

and weighed

granulated

with

crescents,

cases,

weighed

The goldwork,

ring

lions.

griffons,
with

a belt

signet

amulet

fragments

the

first

were

Blanco

2 bracelets,

include

decoration

together

came from

influenced

etc.

beads,

palmettes,

they

in

their

of

west-south-west

(1971,206-7,96-8,212-14),

necklaces,
-3
Phoenician

gold

The finds

to be"found

context

and Phoenician

30 kilometres

Tagus.

that

are

The goldwork
a diadem,

Phoenician

of

be

important.

is

known,

find

the

of

material

25-6),

is

Portugal

cannot

goods

and the

ivory,

clearly

Central

Phoenician

of

distribution

LA ALISEDA,

who suggested

the

of

as it

important

The most

* their

is

(niainly

Iberia

finds

the

here,

detail

as far

occurrence,

and Atlantic

known

gold,

silver,

distribution

their

and pottery:

Andalusia

as bronze,

such

is

'luxuries'

introduced

Phoenician

of

materials,

non-perishable

iron,

amber,

use

piriform
which

where

is

most

vessel,
thought
glass

of

1956,1960,1964,1966,
Garcia y. Bellido
* Blanco 1956,1960;
"1970;
Garcia y -Be-llido et al 1971; Cuadrado 1966; Blzquez 1963a, 1963b;
1973; Culican 1968b, 1970b, 1973a; Nietieyer. 1970.
Carriazo

to-

259

but
-

type

this

it

recognises

not

shape

is

to

as related

(Harden

found

1971,145).

Culican

the

'series
Etruria

jugs found in Cyprus,

of bronze
and silver
Phoenician
not
and Spain and declared
only on account
of this
shape but also because
attachment
of the
of the palmette
at the joining
handle
to be of the
and body, and generally
agreed
'
7th century.

(Culican

to date
finds

Sevilla)

1969,

which

bronze

Foz

(Beira

by Garcia

basis
the

of

the

ALISEDA

dates

vague
belt.

of the associated
unguentaria
or later.

in

a stone

cist

and a grey

(Prow.

this

similarity
This

date

material,

'eyed'-beads,
and
Harden,

with

of

decoration,
'tin',

(1970)

y Bellido

(unknown

Andalusia

a necklace

glass,

(Da Costa

Literal)

y Bellido

Garcia

including

paste,

LOS SALADARES, Orihuela

and other
del

Lora
43,

provenance,
(Prov.

Rio

is

and which

(1974b).

was found

ring

Alentejo),

Figure

was found

unguentaria,

(Baixo

illustrates,

and palmette

glass

of

a necklace

from

earrings

y Bellido

The GAIO goldwork,

with

Sines

it
and uses

chronology

SETEFILLA,

by Aubet

griffin

this

Lm. 50A); and one from

Garcia

discussed

solid

from near

Phoenician

elaborate

see Blzquez

pieces

1970) supports

the GAIO treasure,

of

also

(eg.

y Bellido

Garcia

h8)*

1958,

tomb;
clay

and Farinha
of
the

is

dos
finds

reference

with

and glass

a piece
like

ring,

of

those

a plain

found

at
da

to

mid

the
of

for

dated

(1960),

with

necklace

for

on the

century

goldwork,

too high

157-8).

Figures

7th

the

the

illustrated

best

(1972,

are usually

to Blanco

is

Santos

decoration

probably

which

associated

and SANTA OLAYA, Figueira

may be correct

but

nearby

gold

sheet

beads,

The jewellery

1966).

of

2 earrings,
and amber

Alicante)

group

16 identical

and some

the glass

to the 6th century

notes

that:

for the jug in Etruria,

* He discusses
in a 6th century
the parallels
8th and 7th centuries.
grave,
and in Assyria
and Egypt dated to the late
The closest
buried
parallel
comes from the tomb of Queen Khenisa,
690 and 664 during
(1970)
between
Taharqa.
the reign-of
Von Saldern
it to be an Assyrian
considers
or Syrian
product
of the 7th century.

2G0

'Though

jewels,
the ALISEDA
some of
such as the
Phoenician,
signet
ring,
are purely
others,
while
showing many Phoenician
elements,
reveal
certain
The necklaces
traits
alien
as well.
may perhaps
from
come from Carthage,
and the signet
ring
but the other
items are now thought
by
Phoenicia,
Blanco
to be Tartessian,
a culture
which had, he
by this
thinks,
time become a mixture
of indigenousinfluences.
'
and oriental

(Harden

As other
note
included

which

1973;

16 decorated

(Prov.

Barrameda
bracelets,

Cadiz),

finds

come from

'gran

florecemiento

and beads,
citing

necropolis,
including

tomb

Hierro'

of late

at

Aubet

gold

9,

indigenous

Huelva
tombs

the

Carriazo

1958 on

and E. I. A.
than

6th

the

(which

1974b

Carmona

'agate'
(Prov.
of

also

(Bonsor
I have

come from
(Prov.
beads

beads,
Huelva)-

7th

is

(cf.
etc.
(Garrido

and possibly

wares,

from MESAS DE
(The main
1959;

able

a cremation

in

(Bonsor

1928;

the

1970).
6th

century

date.

1975,

Garcia

CRUZ DEL NEGRO

Figures

signet

11-this
-A.

amulets

Bldzquez

1899,79ff,

known

gold

locate);

to

Culican-1973a),
are

Carriazo

been

Others

to

similar

the Southwest.

and Thouvenot

Sevilla

as a

He illustrates

known from an earring,

not

The

describes

Carriazo

de Torrecillas

Blanco

including

cornelian.

of

to material

in

de

Sanlcar

jewellery

and painted

sites

are:

in

(1973,413).

and related

SETEFILLA

and silver

scarabs,

in

earlier

gold

B1 zquez 1968,138ff,

Some finds

near

of

what

red slip

goldwork

style

1970).

Bellido

swivel

en la Edad del

1973,326ff;

found

1959;

L. B. A.

as 43 pieces

as well
during

jewellery
the
of

Phoenician

to

3 parts

93 pieces

6th or 5th century

1970b,

in

established

quantities

publications

396,

etc,

rings

a site

ASTA and other

be dated

found

contained

in
the Southeast,
wares

Iberian

was found

cannot

EVORA) treasure

earrings,

considerable

The treasure
indigenous

in

pendants

and Blanco

Sevilla),

1968,143).

The EBORA (or

1970a,

itself

with

(Kukahn

as an important

The treasure

(Blzquez

a necklace

plaques

1968,138ff).

recognised

settlement.

century

2 bracelets,

Harden

goldwork,

from Camas (Prov.

the EL CARAMBOLOtreasure,

Blzquez

was later

'Tartessian'

6th century

this

2 pectorals,

seal-rings,

of

1970a,
what

of

286) cites

(1971,

form

examples

1971,207)

from

rings

76-90)
with

LA JOYA,

material

eg.

from
comes

2ri

Culican
Punic

from

the

regards

Carmona

from

known

brought

the

(1973b,

The finds
the

Atlantic

distribution
the

the
from

(eg.

added,

at

palmettes
with

in

a 'brasero'

Figure

1899,55ff,
grave

central
a tumulus

was built

Guadalquivir

an in
on top

and

the

it).

It
of

vase

Garcia

from

1970

form

iron

is

have
the

a bronze

flagon

found

'oriental'
(1966).

y Bellido
are

also

taken

have

been

Phoenician
found

flagon

SANCHEZ, Bonsor

have

flagon

only

most

LA ALISEDA

to

of

TORRES

in

spearheads'etc

thought

the

map is

and 1973)

all

A includes

is

the

represents
to

1964,1966,

from

new finds

piriform,

with

cremation

of

whose

grouping
the

LA CAIRADA DE RUIZ

of

together

situ

of

Phoenician

original

(Garrido

group

(Tumulus

according

to which

19)

and

A palmette

glass

38)

handle:

found

Alcazaba,

ornaments,

(Segovia)

53)

coast

(eg.

y Bellido

distribution:

their

A and B are

the

of

Carmona

valley.
on the

possibly
flagon

where

5,17

evidence

bronzework,

Blanco's

redefined

Figure

Groups

base

the

has

(1970,

drawn.

not

Tagus

western

characteristic

of

24 shows

VEDRAS and LA JOYA (graves

but

were

1971,135).

Harden

Figure

the

shown by Garcia
flagons

(1966)

y Bellido

Garca

which

'they

convincing

introduced

Phoenician

bronze

(1956).

flagons

the

of

ring

that
the

more

along

merchants

been

has

y Bellido

Garcia

the

of

visiting

and GAIO provide

of

elements

body

Ile suggests

merchants

are

eg.

9). *

category

and decorative

of

finds,

earrings

the

round

Portugal.

Phoenician

note

piriform

leech

gold

plain

later

- and

Iberian

the

amongst

wrapped

Phoenician

of

Another

are

wire

LA ALISEDA

of

presence

the

coast

west

35,

Iberia.

1970)

with

Phoenician

characteristic

represented

where

by Western

there

estuary'

for

area,

as those

same series
are

tobe

earrings

gold

the

some of

taken

found
in
of

a deep
place;

in

the

Malaga,
the

Spanish

The COCA flagon

included

in

group

from
finds
by Heleno
of
publications
and Cardozo
cites
a number
in
fact
date.
are
not
accurate;
always
very
some
of Eneolithic
are
which
(1972,165ff)
dos Santos
leech-shaped
Farinha
that
records
earrings
are
in the 'castro
found at SAN MARTINHHODE ANTA, Sabrosa,
culture'
context,
but not at the other
The former
Punic
sites
noted by Culican.
mentions
influenced
from further
but of unknown date'.
See
earrings
south,

* Culican

Bldzquez (1963a) for 'orientalising'

etc from Extremadura.
medallions

earrings

and cylindrical

pendants,

2"

I----1

Distribution
24:
Figure
33, with
Fig.
additions

(Garcia
flagons.
of bronze
* from Garrido
1970 and 1973).

y Bellido

1970,

263

A:

he believes
B, on the

Group
it

he dates

C,

Group
7th

the

LA VERA (Caceres)
in

vessels,

come from

to

found

zoomorphic
from

known

are

century,

thought

extincin

and

Andalusia:

they

the

'Vives',

believes

that

Garrido

1963)

Group

B flagons,

but

to

imitating

were

preceder

and

LA JOYA,

been

y Bellida

Garcia

century.

DE

have

to

thought

'Tartessian'

vase,

VILLANUEVA

the

of

the

of

'Lzaro'

the

also

8th

the

2nd half

of-the

D consists

the

the

to

(p. 79),

and Huelva,

made in

SIRUELA flagon

a veces

flagon,

''Lzaro'

were

vessels

dated

are

products:

according

suelen

possibly

'Vives'

century.

the

and

century

especie'

Group

7th

'Tartessian'

ie.

(CALZODILLA)

Andalusia.

vase

5th

Mdrida

the

late

NIEBLA

giganteas
de la

a la

immediatanente

2 from

possibly

formas

las

cual

or

the

to

as local,

flagons,

6th

the

to

dated

he sees

3 largest

segeln la

'regla

hand,

other

the

comprises

which

be imports,

them to

tomb

1 (Orta
that

workshops

and

produced

forms:

Greek

ie.
de
'Precisamente
aquella
mezcla
pnico
indigena
Phoenician
griego
e
es la caracteristica
de los siglos
VII
de todo el arte
orientalizante
del
Occidente
VI
tanto
y
el
por
arte
en
y
'.
tartessio.

(1966,80)

He sees

the

snakes

on the

tomb
to

of

this

5 (Garrido

the

mid

and even

with

this

LA JOYA 'Rhodian'
Culican

product.
on the

shoulder,

'urnes

ceramiques
from

North

a 'brasero':

(1970,33)

type

in

found
(eg.

flagon

as an Etruscan,

(1968b)

the

views

as an imitation
d'un
African

type

a deux

sites

CORTIJA DE LAS SOMBRAS too.

of

and
This

for

or
1,

et

panse

Carmona
be the

find

Other
Society
the

regards

even-indigenous
2 handles

with

vessel,
Western
globulaire'

Phoenician
(p. 275)

now from

necropoli,
reverse

LA JOYA,

the

vessel.

y Bellido

characteristic

anses

would

tomb

in

Mediterranean,

this

Phoenician

the

dates

The Hispanic

Garcia

LA JOYA,

the

in

known

1968b).

Culican

Central

parallels
are

important,

was found

y Bellido

the

and notes

Spain

flagon

Garcia

(VILSINGEN)

European.

New York

collection,

known

1970)
century

Central
of

vessels

6th

of

NIEBLA,

and therefore

A 'Rhodian'

vessels.

group

from

vessels

as the most indigenous,

SIRUELA and VILLANUEVA

feature

large

the

of

mouths

of

the

usual

as

Q6+

Phoenician

practice
in

flagons

8th

the

imitating

of

'kraters'

and the

century,

in

forms

metal

in

the

cf.

clay,

(Culican

L. B. A.

the

piriform

1968b).

disagrees

Culican
to

Iberian

He agrees

the

that

'branches'

two

features

of

in

occur

on either

the Iberian

attribution

Phoenician

the

that

sole

they

since

workshops,

(1968b).

the

with

Etruria

in

ie.

red

distinctive

lotus

the

of

slip

and notes

characteristic

are

by the NIEBLA and SIRUELA

as represented

vases,

is

vessels

zoomorphic

too,

palmette

side

the

of

flagons.

Pottery

the

7th

and

is

century

by Culican
in

terminates

Iberia,

the

represent

He notes

workshops.

and suggests

on the

as found'on

that

it

represents

of

the

workshop

was a product

It

red

slip

that

produced

in

found

the

of

general

flagons

the

the

find

Iberian

only

the

to

SIDON

contemporary,

vessels

an exception

is

to note

occur

significant
known
far
as
- only
as
-

vases

imitating

ACHZIB)

the

AL*NNECAR,

workshops,
use

them

use

of

relations

that
the

or. even
as tomb

certain

found

the

from

either

west,

in

fact

the

metal

also

and are

despite

of

the

the
that

proposes

the

SIDON

although

possibly
is

from

same shape,
ie.

pattern,
in

found

(1968b).

Etruria

ie.

slip

flagon

Carmona

the

known

- and those

different,

of

is

flagon,

Culican

mouth.

and red

silver

and Cyprus before

flagon

VILLANUEVA

the

products
that

base,

a concave

with

A 'composite'

with

a lotus

bronze,
-

flagons

Etruscan

in Phoenicia

prototypes

can be assumed.

compared

handle

vessels-are

piriform

the use of metal

therefore

known from ACHZIB and KHALDEH and

Western

the

Phoenician

Phoenicians
Eastern

them
This
for

the indigenous

in
is

the

exchange,

west,

populations

or

KIIALDEH and
in

cemeteries

bronze

or Central

another

(cf.

East

they

indication

to

vessels

the

Mediterranean
did

themselves
of

gift-giving,
of

Iberia,

Therefore,

and TRAYAMAR.

carrying

Mediterranean

producing

contents.

were

in Iberia

found

and the red slip

context

common in

are

flagons

CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL,

commodities
with

in indigenous

form
in

the bronze

that

the-peninsula.

the
in

not

deliberate

the

context

265

Another
work

is

with

ornate

category

of
by

represented

for

rim

with

rim

(see

1966;

Cuadrado

hands
finds

on the

handle

- were

found

the

represent
fragment

from

continued

in

the

of

6th

of

And from

SANCHEZ, Carmona.

'braseros'

recorded
of

probably

de guerra'

6th

a tomb

the
at

(1975a)

lists

rivets;

2 small

belt

plaque

iron

sword

have contained

Iberia

may
The only
is

Iberia

the

'braseros'

the

'brasero'

is

and Veiga

27-31).

The flagon

LA ALISEDA,

is

from

is

the

date,

as the

1965;

Ferreira
resembles

those

7th

century

other

flagon

glass

bronze

of

flagons

17 and 18 of

tombs

CANADA DE RUIZ

The associations
in

from

known

The only

there

flagons

remains

associated

from

EL PALMERON, 2 kilometres
associated

bronze

(made of

ferrules,

finds

in

7th

a mid

centre.

(Trindade

(1973)

bronze

large

the

with

and

by-Garrido

century

Iberian

the

LA JOYA
'carros

of

suggest.

would

One of

In

bronze,

'braseros'.

silver

with

associated

in

two vessels,

these

with

of

context

SIRUELA and NIEBLA.

ALANJE,

and

centuries.

flagon

Figures

the

3 'braseros'

production

5).

and 5th

of

CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL,

the

Figure

piriform

1970,28ff,

y Bellido

combination

2 iron

Tomb 1 in

the

1968

Blzquez

and Iberian

a Phoenician

TORRES VEDRAS (Estremadura)

in

from

from

of

SANAN: one in

of

bronze

a Phoenician

side

feature

Egyptian

the

upper

that

out

necropolis

that

underside

on the
1899;

usually

plates,

the

to

characteristic

the

1962,106,

COCA, Carmona,

are

in

century

be used

points

-a

known

The association

and

Bonsor

of

7th

the

to

of

1970;

Egypt

relics

(Pellicer

Garcia

Garrido

He suggests

AIMU99CAR

tomb

heads

'brasero'
a

of

handle

rivet

attachment
in

context.

century

elaborate

and 1970-71)

(1968b

Culican

fixed

handles

the

bronze

shallow

bronze-

introduced

Phoenician

- or

'braseros':

the

attachments

and sometimes

1975).

Phoenician

rings,
a tin

a rhomboid

beads

(eg.

dated

to the 6th century.

Blzquez

alloy,

iron.
of

This

Bldzquez

The tomb is

and its

regards

an ornate
an

spearheads,

also

said

to

beads,

associated

the fretwork

5 rosette-

1968,68),

iron

diadem with

a silver
flagon,

rod;

come
Pingel

with

Blzquez

2 socketed

have

Niebla.

handle
silver

to

blade,

section

'brasero',

1968).

decorated

according

fragments

several
a silver.

a small

to

said
of

north-east

as a 'brsero'

finds

is

Niebla

and gold
finds,
are

belt-hook

as

2G6

a 'Tartessian'

product,
(Baixo

AZOUGADA, Moura
(1968),

89ff,

he compares

which
Alentejo)

Figure

33).

addition

to

these

appear

together

with

Southwest.

It

includes

fibulae,

Bencarr6n

types;

In
bronzes

and Acebuchal

part),

an Atlantic

eg.
131)

together

found

within

tombs

(Arribas

de la

from

LA JOYA,

area

(Bonsor

in

found

its

Figueira
Schle
argument

for

leech

1970),

shaped

7th
this

19).

Figure

development

the

fibulae

in Iberia,

Central

Europe

before

(1961a;

of

7th

the

at

Abb. 14;

date,

Lm. XVII,
fibulae

are

tomb

9,

here

(tomb

the

an iron

the

belt

of

important

cross-bow

64ff).

known

the

Carmona

plaque

as well

the

Figure

supports

as

and

fibula

type

1963,31,

also

was associated

a scarab

for

12)

were

SANTA OLAYA and CRASTO, in

Cuadrado

are

bracelets

knife,

The

11 and

1970,39ff)

was

dating

of

the
6b

and c;

SchUle's

and decorated-foot

they were used in Hallstatt

1961b; " 1969a,

9).

Figures

bronze

(Garrido

is

tweezers,

cemeteries

The CERRO SALOMON find

of

contexts

FRIGILIANA,

1953,

where

beads,

date

found

de

century

1975,

CERRO SALOMON, a Bencarrn

century

1961a,

in

as found

heads

and rivet

type

indigenous

pendant

Monteagudo

LA JOYA,

On the

Ria

belt-plaques,

with

and in

91;

and amber

en la

and Serna

together

hooks,

In

(Schle

1961b,

(probably

CORTIJO DE LAS SOMBRAS, FRIGILIANA

the

Figure

gold

probable

area

and
(counter-

ends

The double-coil

CRUZ DEL NEGRO cemetery,

of

coil

serpentiform

in

material

fibula.

multiple

beads.

fibulae

the

and ALCACER DO SAL as

occur

B2 (Arteaga

and bronze

pegs

the

indoeuropeos

belt-hooks

I-

9 (Garrido

plaques,

other

found:
other

tomb

vessels,

alabaster

in

double

expanded

regards

de los

1969),

some quantity.

ivory

various

13),
with

the

smaller

serpentiform

with

with'Phoenician

1899,81-2,

from

(1961)

these

and Wilkins

belt-plates

hook,

multiple

of

material

bow,

stilted

bracelets

presencia

and among many of

flat

mainly

the

a double-coil

tomb

the

Salamanca)

series

ACEBUCHAL, Tumba A,

But,

with

(in

a scarab

with

in

LOS SALADARES, level

in

Phoenician

Cuadrado

association,

unambiguous

earliest

from

and tweezers,

(1975,390).

Huelva'
in

indicio

another

bronze

as found

nuevo

vessels,

of

of

following

belt-fasteners,
'un

the

type,

product)

Blzquez,

and SANCHORREJA (Prov,

bronze

belt-hooks

known

examples

with

D2

contexts

in

267

The introduction
to

contact

in

the

to

the
have

intermediaries

Points

beads,

with

according

to

associated

with
also

in

of

6th

(1969a)

SchUle's
development
and the

of

Tagus

hypothesis

of

from

Culture
proved,

his

or

Appendix

the

that

matter

likely

more

and their
from

than

Central

the

such
is

as glass

a 6th

is

and amber

century

known

of

coasts

from

product

the

cemetery

and a bronze

Alentejo),

CRUZ DEL NEGRO, was associated

et

HERDADE DO PEGO, probably

of
1970);

al

the

some of

the

amongst

tombs

pottery

resembles

material

1).

in

and in
plausible
(see

been

the

Duero

of

capable

170ff

for

his

coast:
of

case

of

Meseta,

southern

establishment

nor

1969a,

have

Atlantic

the
the

to

the

of
on the

posts

disproved

likely

much more

populations

trading

neither

and

populations

and Levantine

cemetery

steppe,

is

Balkans,

is

Meseta

coastal

resulting

Eurasian

the

In

clear.

quite

coasts,

1975)

is

Culture

'Kulturstrmungen'

the

for

with

valley

Dias

between

certainly

and

Phoenicians

(which

of

and found

Tagus

contacts

from

populations

(Alves

(see

area

those
nearby

butials

the

Figueira

the

the

of
date

century
with

associated
from

tomb III

this
the

(Baixo

Ourique

like

but

Phoenician

types,

Gamer-Wallert.

of

iron

both

Atlantic

and a scarab

MONTE DE A-DO MEALHA-NOVA,

2 hooks,

8th

with

of, certain

of

with

late

the

assumed.

on the

Naucratis,

belt-plaque

in

into

indigenous

penetration
iron

also

makes

contact

generally

can be identified
The inland

can

and Mediterranean

linking

of contact,

Phoenicians,
Iberia.

of

be attributed

Iberia

tombs,

technology

points

as is

Europe,

the

settlements,

Atlantic

on the

Southern

or

from

place

possibly

from

iron

of

penetration

taken

traders

as from

as well

in

technology

Evidence

century.

indigenous,
fact,

Phoenician

with

7th

iron

of

being

a summary

of

ideas).

for

The evidence
7th century
described
imports

Atlantic
above,

Phoenician
trade

which

is known from

clearly

and the. acquisition

involvement

indicate
of Phoenician

in the late

the bronze

and goidwork

the distribution
technical

8th and early

finds,

of Phoenician
skills

by indigenous

268

Further

metalworkers.

an important

where

In
Mondego,
the

a group

bank
The

of

initially

CRASTO, east

of

the

about

more

well

informed

having

himself

Although
archaeology,

detail

and observation

erudition.
digging

mouth
shows

left.

been
the

of

a view

was almost

of

the

an island

which

from

hill,
when

first

site

of

part

excavation

'outeiro'

of

on the

Rocha

in

for

he then

excavated

in

Figueira)

right

1890s.

the

wares,

he

which
the

of

site

north

of
find

to

order

necropolis

not

walls

quite
the

of

his

academic

site,

ie.

by

hill

West.

Plate

Santos

Rocha

therefore

The fortifications,
of

uncertain

evidence

1 (Appendix
that

suggests

requiring
qr

walls,

that

on the

was a promontory

up.

silted

great

match

the

small

FONTE

of

claiming

although

any undisturbed

occupied,

CRASTO are

the

of

destroyed

since
the

the

and Punic

archaeology,

did
-

expose

(1905-08,310-11).
on the

Atlantic

painted

of

European

probably

has

on-the

(1897).

Originally,

Mondego,

fortification
located

have

them,

along

may have

efforts

indicates

and CHOES, 200 metres

stratigraphy
to

Santos
of

Brenha,

excavated
his

Rocha

The

century.

origin:

about

of

(Recent

Arab

wares

(Algarve),

Bensafrim

VELHA,

by dos

north-north-east

painted

Santos

the

of

mouth

and Montemor-o-Velho

quantities

da Serra,

Casal

(c. 14 kilometres

Brenha
out

large

the

at

contact

7th

the

Maiorca

a Roman or

proposed

Phoenician

of

was excavated

revealed

excavation

Litoral)
by dos

during

between

Mondego,

the

point

another

SANTA OLAYA (OLAIA)

(Beira

investigated

sites

ALCCER DO SAL area,

the

known. *

area

established

probably

coast,

da Foz

of

of

existence

is

cemetery

Figueira

the

comes from

evidence

1)
it

no
he

date.

from this
have been distributed
the finds
* Unfortunately
to
cemetery
in
Portugal,
museums
and-possibly
private
collections
and
various
finds
be
2 presents
the
Appendix
cannot
of
compiled.
corpus
a
some
of
finds
from
from the
do Sal;
Alccer
the
the'Museum
of
others
by Dr. H. Schubart;
Belem museum, recorded
from the
and finds
Institute
Studies,
Coimbra University.
of Classical

P,69

from

The material
of

a local

or

their

of

pottery

from

in
slip

red

vessels

appear

resemble

to

decoration,

circle
been

in

neither

Portugal,

the

are

many coarse

are

beginning

Some of

the

the

probably
the

of

imports,

Mondego

in

often

contemporary

or

known

highly

with

vessels

of

from

the

of

in

known
further

from
are

incised

the

L. B. A.

form

with

incised

with

the

copies,

such
north,

very

decoration,

surfaces,

vessels;

decoration

fine

on the

fine

wares

at

and

wares

SANTA OLAYA.
inland

further

penetrated

date

and I. A.

closed

of

imported

CONIMBRIGA,
the

burnished

late

wheel-made

as local

I. A.

material

is

Of general

wares,

late

the

sometimes

this

L. B. A.

known

burnished

with

usually

and are

none

**

Galicia.

as well

of

derived

to

have

to

appear

Significantly,

Mondego,

the

manufacture

Characteristic

throughout

of

can be seen

and concentric

do not

which

storage

proto-types.

that

line

plates

The local

Phoenician

wavy

imports,

and Phoenician

globular

short-necked

These

rims.

the

with

fine

decorated

the

majority

and fine

amphorae,

no material

Alccer.

hand-made wares,
of

is

merchants

coarse

sherds.

and many of

wares,

than

mouth
nor

characteristic

many are

along

the

at

The fine

the

north

2 Campanian

there

any Greek

nor

Phoenician

here,

quantity

note

that

eg.

wares,

of

existence

The vast

hand--made

developments

painted

further

traded

characteristic

there

be indigenous

to

! exotic'

imports,

the

centuries.
of

the

Phoenician

with

and 6th

consisted

the

identify

to

contact

and finally

ware,

'Iberian'

the

7th

the

are

imitate

interesting

is

in

sites

there

grey

or

potters

are

three

addition

can be used

population,
in

all

came to

It

A.

intermediaries

wares:
of

L. B. A. /I.

3 sites

all

Condeixa-a-Velha.

fine,

hard,

which

are

grey
well

wares.,
known

area.

from the Iron

* It was possible
to record
a large
amount of the material
in
1972
OLAYA,
Age levels
SANTA
that
particularly
of these sites,
of
da Foz.
Unfortunately,
and 1973 in the Museu Dr. Santos Rocha, Figueira
due to the fact
the material
that
was being moved to new premises,
some
could only be briefly
material
noted,
and some not recorded
at all.
be regarded
1 should
Appendix
therefore
as a collection
of the most
characteristic
as well
as the most distinctive
wares from the Iron Age
in the Figueira
but must be recognised
settlements
area,
as a selection.

** This has been ascertained

by visiting
as many collections
as was possible.

'

in
museums

the northwest

examining

Z70

The main
Portuguese

interior

in
of

series

the

wares

were

probably

Sal,

the

Alcores

Phoenician
Phoenician

form.

The

4-handled

sites,

but

the

decorated

zone

wares

the

with

the

west

in

beginning
the

Direct

make

clay

along

the

Orihuela;
contents

Ist

for

the
of

clay

the

Despite

ring

tomb
9;

one of

Neolithic

have

been

is

forms

undisturbed

of

stamped

from

southern

..
appears

and south,
of

with

Atlantic

had become

general

centre

incised

connections
the

do

Alcdcer

Western

and

general

BC, when

Phoenician

or

wheel

made,

with

handles

have

parallels

to

one from

above)

(Arteaga

similar

coastal
peripheral

only

to

be revived-

gold

in

the

North-

which

which
in

GALA,

is

material

was used

went

over

seen
to

and

LOS SALADARES,

found

near
1975,

and Serna

the
Lam. XXXI,

1966).

3 of

Iron

houses

building

4 pre-Roman

to recognise

which

known

LA JOYA.

of

the

of

eg.

south,

SANTA OLAYA specimens

in

Roman and Mediaeval

date,
to

hand

(described

extensive

Rocha claimed

to

Both

da Costa

Santos

Age level,

17.

Plate

rim,

a characteristic

century

and bowls

pots,

the

1972).

7th

sometimes

ware,

stands

Bird

other

with

from

Roman exploitation

scale

AD (ef.

century

grey

232 and Figure

Iron

large

of

the

of

The amphorae

and cemetery

more

Northwest

as other

south.

ie.

few centuries

the

and

plates

as well

also

the

of

with

plates,

'urns'

are

of

these

the

The occurrence

last

the

parallels

fine

the

amphorae

Roman development

major

resemble

sometimes

for

known

amphorae

be an indication

Tagus

the

the

settlements

decoration

site.

during
of

north

this

could

hinterland

the

to

to

from

and Frigiliana,

cemeteries

be peculiar

slip

indigenous

and

found:

prototypes

red

imported

2 handles

with

vessels

the

the

Huelva

is

with

1971,191).

Gorbea

plates

Phoenician

the

of

painted

bowl

Phoenician

(Almagro

imitates

often

which

Central

or

characteristic

from

ware

some of

TOSCANOS, TRAYAMAR and the

storage

in

ie.

ware,

as the

Some of

stripes.

variations

The

grey

or

sites,

on the

represent

to

slipped,
or

and forms,

in

known

Phoenician

the

of

grey

as well

and Extremadura

south

red/brown

found

fine

the

wares,

rim

decoration

flame

in

seen

slip

thickened

centres

are

red

influence

material

is

contacts

Phoenician

the

at

observable

Age date,
n,

o,

p.

by Roman building:

levels

The

ist

v and y are

on the site,
in

dos

the 1903 excavations,

(latest)
assigned,

pre-Roman
are'said

271

'0

de cermica
compe-se
esplio
principalmente
pintada
o nao, associada
exotica,
a louSa indigena
de pasta grosseira
no
trabalhada
e s vezes
das
recolhido
em todos os pavimentos
com roda,
casas e na referida
villa.
so
-'Os tipos
inferiores,
precisamente
os mesmos dos povoados
excepSoes. '
com raras

(1905-08,316)

CRUZ DEL NEGRO type

of

amphorae

r,

contained

also
level

to which

fibulae

houses

a,

material

similar
been

bronze

to

in

found

bronze
material
defined

by dos

dos

is

Figures

dos Santos
less
or
more
abandoned.
to be rubbish

is
there

e;

f.

In

Iron

of

too)
(oldest)
contained

assigned

slag

house

to

the

have'

to

said

also. -

were

the

general,

Age occupation

him,

so similar

from

both

material

adoptions

that

no

the use of

of

of

SANTA OLAYA and

'exotic'

forms

as changes in pottery

est. XXXV), as well

Rocha notes

complete

that

(even if

But some deposits

heaps,

the wheel

eg.

earth

within

Iron

working

is

in

and tuy; --res are illustrated

'copper'
finds
are cited
Est. XX,

61 shows

broken)

in

he considers

technology,

and the variety

of

(1905-08,

of

is

found

the houses had been

to be house floors
Hearths

to have located
the Iron

Est. XVIII,

appear

are

`sherds
of ashes,

concentrations

phases

the houses

of the site.

and he claims

to all

within

as though

the northwest

the houses,

attributed

the material

that

to have been recognisable

burnt

found-.

are

1,

k,

e,

used as filler.

materials

said

t1

house

stages

indigenous
shows

383,398,

in

beads

according

that

notes

in

j,

The 3rd

querns.

some iron

implements

and middle

Roman material

t and

g,

i,

h,

the

that

can be identified.

them

in the--beginning

observed

f,

e,

lower

the

houses

stone

"
two phases;

are,

in

to which

3 successive

between

Rocha

only

is

levels

the

some contained

d,

iron

Rocha

CRASTO (1905-08,509)
(cf.

c,

other

the

Santos

Santos

found

and 2 glass

of

differences

real

the

fibulae,

culture

are

and rings,

b,

some houses,

rings,

between

(although

attributed

s are

he notes

level,

I. A.

The second

settlements.
in, q,

in material

difference

The only

and

a kiln.

Age settlements,

18,19).

and illustrated:

no bronze

slag

a characteristic

'brasero'

handle

Bronze

or

or mlds
attachment.

are

27'.

Various

Acebuchal

tweezers,

and SANTA OLAYA; Bencarr6n,

known

(Cuadrado

too

Leech

were

pendants

Similar

hooks

Acebuchal

1963,

Figure

found

in

finds

pre-Roman

belt

type

6b

and

some number

(Est. XX,

are

from

claimed

at

BIZORREIRO DE CASTELLO (dos

the

tumulus

of

FERRESTELLO, where
is

their

use

as burial

The sites
SANTA OLAYA,
trade,

do not

but

of
that

from
to

that

and large

4-handled,

type

functioned

that

suggest

the

(often

266-77;

XXIX,

in

XXXVI,
the

Rocha

not

centres
taken
the

the

small

south,
H. -P.

place.

proportion

that

'eine

eigene

Wolle

war

sicherlich

im Hinterland'

'La

cloth

plain

where

of

sheep

in

represented

in

the

in

Faktorei

wichtiges

note

der

important

Handelsgut

der

in

case

faunal

function
It

too.

would
of

is

Phoenician

the

processing

nicht

473-4)

XXXVII,

demand

the

of

have

TOSCANOS,

remains
angestrebt

indicates
wurde.
Bevlkerung

einheimischen

(1973,93).

date and the

Tene'
by Seguro Pereira
suggested

* The

that

Wollproduktion
ein

and other

weights

whorls;

settlements
in

have

on SANTA OLAYA and

been'an

been

and a

centre

whorls,

450,

have

and metal-

may also

'loomweight';

dyeing

and M. Uerpmann

of

amphorae

storage

wares

243-54,257-65

may have

coastal

of

simple

found

neighbouring

would
the

The number

XXVIII,

cloth

its

the

and redistribution

It

number

like

CRASTO and CHOES,

or

network.

1905-08,

than

rather

of

imported

as net-weights)

of

that

2-handled

the

of

centres,

storage

with

and

435,447,449

production

from

SANTA OLAYA.

Atlantic

the

tumuli,

of

and from

occurrence

SANTA OLAYA as a regional

centre

of

in

of

the

indigenous

the

south

(1908).

Age

ware

the

1907);

Rocha

of

collection,

together

described

Santos

slip

to

role

SANTA OLAYA, and possibly

unlikely

the

to

some products

as smaller

site,

as a production

CRASTO (dos

at

the

trade'

of

kinds

various

as well

from

'port

of

had

have

indicate

would

work,

CRASTO, red

can be. attributed

functions

vessels

be receiving

to

appear

appear

known

Iron

the

19).

Figure

50). *

that

CRASTO and CHES represent

bronzes

cf.

during

places,

1961b,

Santos

desecration

are

of'fibulae

a castro

he suggests
the

to

related

types

Schle

c;

Mondego

Age material

CRASTO, Brenha,

and other

the

Iron

from

Iberian-Etruscan
(1965)
do not

SANTA OLAYA

connections
of
to. be. correct.
appear

713

were

of

accidentally

excavated

in

was found
two

levels

an inurned

jewellery

burnt

including

belt

Greek

whorls.

(i)

were

wares

in urns-in

Cremations

occasionally

hooks

(iii)

In

situ

position
the

others

bracelet

with

graves,
jewellery,
weapons,

Unfortunately,

Correia
the other
conjunto,

grave,

and spearheads,
and

- unguentaria,
these

the rock,

graves.

the urns

covered

lamps and

single-spouted

in the graves;

were found

some

finds.

Punic

weapons,

bracelets

and jewellery:

vases
iron

and

situ:

some are

lamps

(single-spouted),

spearheads

associated

belt-hooks,

the
shows

whorls,

spindle
annular

handled

small

with

that

gold

and a hollow,

fibulae,

pendants.

in which

cremations
were associated
instruments'
as well as 'musical

with

vessels,
and a 'chariot',

bones. *

records
is

the material

a shallow

red or brown bands and were thought

with

knives,

leech

'Shaft'

and animal

*A

with

spearheads,

rings,

of

in
was

cremation

vessels,

(iv)

burnt

bronze

the

of

some of

pieces

African

in

fibulae

dug into

of

(1952).

Arthur

'falcatas'

some contained

to North

cremations,

in

c. 130 graves

of

graves:

of

a plate,

and

found

of the urns were decorated

to be related

types

graves

The existence

by Costa

and folded

or iron

bronze

Correia.

first

the

since
group

another

claimed

with

graves

of slate:

a piece

with

covered

- often

weapons

are

several

cremation,

known

by Virgilio

graves

of

been

1870s;

the

identified

(1928)

Correia

with

in

1925 and excavated

superimposed

(i)

ALCCER DO SAL has

The cemetery

(1928)

were not kept

attributable

regarded

during

to individual

the first

group

the excavation

variety
similar
LA JOYA cemetery,
that
no two tombs
the graves
within
pattern-b"irnished
contemporary.

of tombs has been

which is dated to
are alike
and that
shows the painted
and painted,
red

some

graves.

as the

latest

'visto
he saw no chronological
differences
(1928,200
de
homogeneidade
esp6lios'
uma grande
three

and only

but within
que hh,

no

or 1972,178).

(1973)
described
by Garrido
for the
the 8th to 6th centuries:
-he claims
the combination
types
of pottery
Phoenician
wares,
amphorae,
to be
slip
and grey wares all

274

He identified

the

cemetery

'Mediterranean

with

an indigenous

as one of

navigators'

than

rather

in

population

a cemetery

contact

any Mediterranean

of

peoples.

Correia
(1925c),

including

(1925b)

and fibulae

beginning

Celtic
of

a catalogue

fibulae,

for

the

indicated

4th

by the

century
6 finds

Taf.
finds

metal

some of
6th

the

Schle,

known

but

Alentejo),

4th

site

(see

the

arrival

has

presented

century

date

1961a,

1961b).
finds,

Rocha

Pereira

as

amount

small

Tagus

the

of

the

century

on the

and

relate

including

a 7th

with

area

to

(pp. 179ff).

Schule

of

estuary:

lamps,

connections
4th

as known
where

red

later

associated

is

and probably

finds

from
bowls

to

products,

of

the

and

by

The adoption

of

imports

from the

the red slip

south

plates

through

obtained

potters

and

the

centres.

the

the

7th. and

of

and lamps by indigenous

most of

the southern

Appendix

illustrated
are

from photographs.
plates

the

with

illustrated

the vases

the use of some apparent

a, route

In

too.

too

Some of

amphorae,

with

slip

pottery

finds

metal

ALCCER DO SAL - mainly

are Phoenician

century
from

from

are taken

of urns,

the

the

many of

illustrated

are

indicated.

Some of the urns,

use,

to

type

comments

some cases

some possibly

coast.

in

determined

(cf.

illustrated

and

pottery

appears

By the

listed

provenance

to have followed

maritime

the

material

cemetery,

suggest

on the

Alccer

the drawings

single-spouted

found

Greek

the

(1968)

Acebuchal

be associated

in

and in

forms

Phoenician

the

cemetery

Trias

88-110)

date,

but

to

type.

e Brito

from

1967-68).

has

where known,

context,

the

of

spiral

cemetery

belt-hooks,

material

unpublished

century

use

(1969a)

of

finds

double

known.

are

Schule
(280ff,

the

imports

Attic

the

hooks

is

but

cemetery

belt

some of

century,

the

(1925a),

the

with

and one of

appear

de-Arribas

Trias

only

the

Greek

4th

metal

and some of
of

dealt

De Ascengo

fibula

bracelets

The bronze

1962;

the

scarab
was of

hence
and
-

people.

some of

beginning

has

the

of

double-spiral

now lost
These

and 1956)

which

from

material

of

Egyptian

one of

iron-using

of

Hallstatt

Late

(1930),

(1952

categories

century

associations

and possible
the

7th

the

Arthur

Da Costa

various

presented

southwest

castro

Cuadrado's

of

via

the

Guadiana

AZOUGADA, Moura
'Iberian

types'

was

(Baixo
(eg.

Cuadrado

275

1969)
this

overland

it

is

route

from

pottery

(Cuadrado

found

are

in-use

been

development
establishment

from

trade

of

area,

but
eg.

The beginning,

finds

Moura

5th

the

relations

the

with

the

of

'Iberian'

of

type

and Campo Maior,

ie.

century,

'Iberian'

Southeastern

the

of

1970).

known,

not

Guadiana

the

may have

de Isasa

use of

painted

corresponding

culture

and its

Atlantic

zone,

that

suggest

the

with

independent
south

the

of

Tagus.

Continuity
explain

would

SAL graves

of

illustrates
of

the

continued

the

5th

the
'Western

his

latter

use

and 4th
of

occurrence

to

the

to

area

from

wealth

of

centuries.

Schle

a belt-hook

with

del

Cruz

century

former

and the

and relative

(ie.

7th

Alccer

the

with

Andalusian'

related

Andalusia,

relations

of

'Iberian

the

lateral

at

and one

ALCACER, the

Phoenicians

the
(Taf.

culture'

20)

Karte
openwork

type

through

contacts

ALCCER DO

the

(1969a,

Negro)

Southeast

the

with

108,3;

Taf.

95,

11). *

The ALCACER DO SAL cemetery

between Phoenician
initially

coast,
trade

network

The coastal

areas

coastal

the

majority
EVORA,
etc
introduction
Northwest

of

have

or would

gold
of

the

(as noted
of

objects,

in

founded

form

part

in

direct

the coastal
the

by Pingel

or

(1934)
* Garcia
y Bellido
from 'Iberian'
contexts,

trade.

1975b),

alloying
inexplicable

illustrates
and from

contact

the

In this
which

goldwork,

cf.

not

techniques
incident,

with

the

coast

in

the

context,

corresponds

with,

BERZOCANA, BODONAL,

goldworkers

as Pinsel

belt
hooks
several
OLYMPIA (L m. V).

is

Nor

surprising.
to

who would

the

near

Phoenicians

the

with

communication

of

is

Atlantic"

an Atlantic/Mediterranean

own centres

composition

tradition

on the south

dominating
of

points

from the hinterland

regular

their

contact

established

century

of population

Atlantic

Phoenician

an isolated

to

and maintained

to become involved

occurrence

7th

centres

elements

have established

either

it

and re-orienting

would have attracted

order

and by the

tapping

the

one of

fleets,

and their

merchants

system.

regional

represents

of

sees

of

this

the
the

it.

type

27

This

situation

(Prov.

Burriana
7th

of

established

from

VINARRAGELL is

is

the

dated

the

75),

Addenda

4 handles,

2 or

'Iberian'

obviously
have

would

it,

VINARRAGELL,
become

part

Phoenicians,
this

area:

indoeuropea...

*I

that

evidence

(p. 377).

the

of

but
'La

this

poblacion,
'

are

There

from

apparent
which

lleg

tipo
were

coast:

not

Blazquez

probably

indigenous

entail

trade
the

que se semitiz6

his

76)

Figure

with

those

be very

like

los

situation
fuertemente,

those

with

as he

Pirineos

like
to

established
dominated

Blzquez
era

el

con

sites,

by

the

envisages
de prodedencia

(1975,375)

by Mesado
not seen the publication
of the excavation
is
1975,375ff:
here
from
Blzquez
taken
presented
evidence
interpretations
may not be those of the excavator..
have

of

compares
nor,

many other

system

in

and Schubart

then

centres

of

some plain

products,
hasta

etc.

(as

Niemeyer

be Phoenician

'este

in

to

said

site

tripods,
those

compared

also

the

of

with

(as

levels

Phoenician

jars,

storage

Atlantic/Mediterranean
does

compared

of

north

lowest

The

handles,

some painted

not

Levantine

on the

are

material

wares'need

fenicio'

comercio

not

The Levantine

15).

Taf.

1975,

is

2 (which

TRAYAMAR, tomb

the

occupation

misleadingly

possibly

are

to

plain

4 bifid

The

and MOGADOR. They

I,

CARTHAGE Tanit
of

the

to

crossing
and Eastern

(1974).
main

with

amphorae

Figure

with

trade

this

Some characteristic

jars

Tinto.

1975,

and the

centuries.

storage

Some of

there.

coastal

by Mesado

ALMUNECAR, CARAMBOLO and Rio

Blzquez

purpose

by Phoenician

and Central

on the

century

and 5th

amphorae,

eg.

found

7th

the

6th

the

'tell'

and published

end of

to

material,
are

sites

specific
century

before

coast

Sardinian

a small

excavated

to

8th

the

Mediterranean

the

Levantine

their

to

In

trade.

the

with

these

that

destinations.

Mediterranean

Valencia,

to
the

along

and thence

Balearics

Atlantic

the

was extended
'tramping'
merchants

bronze

the

century

datable

clearly

of

can be suggested

8th

The

coast.

and VINARRAGELL,

quantities

It
late

the

in

involved

becoming

date

in

the. Levantine

Alicante)

large

material.

here

from

(Prow.

have

Castell6n)

Phoenician

century

were

known

now better

LOS SALADARES, Orihuela

of

sites

is

and the
his

in

277

LOS SALADARES is
last

few years.

addition

to

the
In

the

ecological

of

Segura

floodplain,

diese
der

from

hinterland

the

and the

of

reliability

value

the

'Iberian'

the

of

incised
and
in

imports,

7th

by the

century,

hand-made

wares

locally

produced
in

now found
known

from

the

I-B

Lm. XX).
objects:

Parallelen
zwischen
111).

t. a. q.

found

gerade

(Arteaga

excavated

from

occupation

and

in

5 seasons

increase

publication

phase

L. B. A.

the

to

next

horizon,

first

the

(level

from

of

a double-spiral

fibula
belt-hooks

and e),
and an iron dagger

with

und 625/600

v.

but

are

Phoenician
the

Lam.

the

contact
soon

replaced
which

material

ware

is

types

characteristic

polychrome

the

of

(with

broad

numbers of amphorae
157,158;

XXII,

163-5;

are accompanied by metal

and a (? ) pendant (Arteaga and Serna

Phoenician

wares

(Arteaga
bronze

and Serna 1975, Lam. XVII,

'Auf
der
direkten
Grund
sheet.

knnen wir

zu, den Importfunden

1975,

phase

and Serna 1975, Lm. XXI,

these

Phoenician

occupation

and large

and grey ware,

horizon,

beginning

1)

ware

decoration

applied

the

to

and includes

TOSCANOS, ie.

a coarse

pre-Phoenician

I-B

imitations

of

and Serna

can be dated
by the

characteristic

use

this

of

(Arteaga

occur

quantity
eg.

the

with

lugs,

this
at

1-3)

shaped

phase

Significantly,

675/660

of

I-A

final

hand-made

red slip

and

roughly

given

In

2) (Arteaga

1974, Abb. 3c
130-32)

L. B. A.

south,

fhrten

'

its

to

route

den Bewohnern

has been

area

the

above

natural

zwischen

the

the

considerable

zones),

painted
(level

are

'Sicher

involved

amphorae,

horizon.

'pre-Iberian'

by

in

final

This

I-XXII).

but

zone,

also

wares

cordons,

particular

on the

Segura:

excavation

(Levels

burnished

decoration;

ie.

has been recognised.

occupation

Iberian

location,

the

sequence

that

culture

finger-impressed

with

the

uninterrupted

The L. B. A.
southern

both

Orihuela.

Handelsstrasse...

large

A relatively

near

dominated

Kontaken

dieser

hill

coastal

the

along

und den Bentzern

the

also

site

coast

of

the

zu kommerziellen

1974,108).

Serna

in

its

during

excavated

sites

on a small

advantages

the
the

Moglichkeiten
Siedlung

lies

and lowlands

high

interesting

most

The settlement

intersection
river

the

one of

Chr.

diesen

datieren.

'

Kulturhorizont
(Arteaga

etwa

and Serna 1974,

27

In

'Early

the

ware

polychrome
increasingly
effect

by the

their

perfection
from

adopted

is

exclusively
by local

phase

represented

Phoenician

(levels

III-A

decorated

pottery,

'Iberian'

wares,

increasingly

for

date
in

in

material

the

probability

(cf.

some time

at

the

of

Phoenician

Levantine

trade
in

coast

the

North

centres
were

African

by the

preferred

route:

in

LOS SALADARES with

the

latter

collection

southern

as well

the

extraction
Iberia.

bronzes

SANTA OLAyA is
traders

A final

ware found

Phoenician

another

- or even

Central

in

of

the

They

the

to

in

it

above:

their

have

production
in

products

distribution

from
centre
of

they

which

North

the

avoided

Africa.

the

whereas

the

and was clearly

contents

of use and certain

striking:

of

Balearics.

resources
to

context

was an alternative

established
local

plain

the

part
the

are known from North

date

coastal

following

route

appear

and the

be seen

must

be correct,

to

proves

Mediterranean

who had

Levantine

on the

founded

coast,

a production
of

their

century,

shortest

with

functioned'as
point

now

wares.

this

has been discussed

in the location,

as the

is

and Early
but

8th

1974)

south

the

Phoenicians

the

by Phoenician
may have

take

to

route

being

and Serna

route

no Atlantic

The similarity

was supplied

to

Western

and organised

interested

African

order

if

late

the

sites

the

that

Even

estuary.

from

Pre

be located

will

L. B. A.

routes

Iberian'

and semi-circle

for

they believe

Arteaga

island

The use of this

to

late

other

to

century

by Pre-Campanian

given

LOS SALADARES in

of

horizon

the mid 5th

Greek

of

motif

A 'developed

derivation,

the parallels

note

sites,

this

another

of Campanian A is known.

find

Segura

the

establishment
of

site

establishment(s)
in

possibly

is

date

characteristic

imitations

local

of-the

the southern

the

is

circle

of'Phoenician

the excavators

- Phoenician

coast,

by

2; a surface

III-B

from

which

5th.
in

beginning

and concentric

derived

accompanied

Although

other

striped

the occupation

level

1-2)

ultimately

all

elements,

increasing

same time

the

at

or the 6th and early

and III-B

ie.

II-C,

is

which
'polychrome'

the

The excavators

prototypes.

by simple

characterised

level

imported

the

variety:

who abandon

decorative

the end of the 7th century,

horizon

in

II-C).

to

narrow-zoned

potters,

geometric

of

the

of

imitated

II-A

(levels

horizon'

Iberian

former

probably

the

southern

for

Phoenician

Phoenician

of

- or

centres,.

southern

279

Iberian

commodities

-The function

intermediaries.
pattern

settlement
been

(in

amongst

were

not

for

were

deliberately

and along

from

were

intended

mainly

the

to

activity
result

(eg.
the

Catalan

like

in

the

traders

The red
bronzes

the

local

the

is

on LOS SALADARES.

Mediterranean.

ware

with

indigenous

the

circulated

slip

- which

and hinterland

deposited
they

since

had not

context

and they

reached

Catalonia
but

century,
the

and the
also

coast,

but

the

known

finds

with

nor

populations-

have

the

just

is

(eg.

263)
Catalonia

were

to have
Bosch

from

the

from

a grave

I Parcerisa
6th

in

understood

been

necropolis
Greek

could

scarabs
in

centre

Gimpera

the

of

century)

by one person.

These
Punic

in

(ie.

cemetery

'beads'.

said

inhabitants

Pdro

monopolised

significance

vases

(Figure
reached

of

be the

well

together

to

according

but

when it

faience

vessel

found

(an established

Ibiza

7th

the

'scaraboids'

Phoenician

of

could

or Punic

the-use

their

area

Phoenicians

were,

in

obviously

from

Naucratic

could

the

distributed,

been

were

not

Cypriot

extend

early

function

neither

to

a necklace

there

their

tried

and discoid

The 9 scarabs

(1971)

has

relations

CAN CANYIS forming

They

exchange

1969a),

indirect

of

Ibiza.

could

fine

of

contacts

by Phoenician

carried

to

LOS SALADARES

One thing

which

from

south.

Maluquer

at

for

not

inland

way that

was found

plate

Central

the

the

connection.

objects

were

a category

represents

pottery

slip

status

for

bound

Spain

Southern

high

Atlantic,

the

in

even

perhaps

with

or whether

this

of

settlement

a supplement

relations

coast,

a red

of

that

suggest

would

Atlantic

the

further

represents

whether

red-

of

as if

is

settlement

by Phoenicians

the

one sherd

only

striking:

certain

instigators

the

were

populations

L. B. A.

been

quantity

was dependent

Game therefore

established

established

but

unit,

main

not

along

site;

may have

Von den Driesch

surprising
it

it

regional

or may have

hinterland.

on the

the

of

clear:

traders,

the

the

of

economic

is

It

from

their

or

terms

yet

not

Phoenician

remains

on the

is

area

comments

founded.

had been

supplies.

south,

1975)

of meat

these

This

for

an independent

it

were

point

faunal

the

a supply

which

Orihuela

resources

and Serna

Arteaga

Phoenicians

the

LOS SALADARES in

of

the

or

materials

deer

of

of

a revictualising

supplying

through

obtained

the

founded)..

this
have
6th
So too

1932a, Figure
at

But

262)

AMPURIAS.

centres

established

280

in

the

of

Marseilles

a 7th

7th

late

date

firne

para

There

simply

el

in

clearly

are
style

finds

that

fairly

ware

been

in

used

LOS QUEMADOS (Blanco

'Iberian'

term

concentric

of

the

the

is

culture

of

adoption

wheel

of

new pottery

be over-emphasised.

of

the

5th

century,

its

own tradition

ie.

all

the

of

indigenous

towards

greater

in

this

initial

call

it)

sculpture

In

from

and
is

ware

5th

the

1963).

the

general

ware

with
century

The significance
ie.

techniques,
century,

the

use of

therefore

should

with
society

and the

not

to

technological
of

overall

the

of

Phoenicians
in-terms

dependence

'Iberian'

of

pottery

the

manufacture,
Early

Iron

would

have

brought

economic
within

writing

as the

in

with
etc

be emphasised.

of

on exchanges.

Southeast,

civilisation

such

and bronze

structure

structure

architecture,

changes,
iron

the

- should

later

the

altered

in

(as

tendency

totally

society

'civilisation'

of

techniques
the

'orientalising'

and religious

manufacture

certain

Relations
the

of

the

changes

major

1973).

known

7th

the

south

and LA COLINA DE

painted

Arribas

'Iberian'

contribution

and possibly

(eg.

known

ware

painted

later

manufacturing

urbanised

be overestimated:

adoption

would

accoutrements

The Phoenician
not

between

(1973)

and Ruiz

the

'Iberian'

of

1974,1975)

and Ruiz

and Phoenicians

the

pre-Iberian

as well

in

in

are

The difference
Luzon

the

Luz6n

decoration

and painted

247).

coast

polychrome

centres

and Serna

Southeast

the

Phoenician

the

lines,

and wavy

The origin

describe

to

Levant

and the

century.

them:

1969;

al

ms

(1969a,

Levante'

populations

production

from

reserved

circles

'Iberian'

Phoenician

at

on
than

de apoyo

indigenous

7th

the

LOS SALADARES (Arteaga

from

(rather

'punto

del

costas

establishment

By insisting

century.

as the

Andalusia

to be in

seen

distributed

widely

known

is

the

this.

between
for

before

by Phoenicians

Ibiza
Ibiza

Eastern

relations

the

of

en las
for

from

recognisable

painted

to have

fenicio

no evidence

The recent

turn
of

ie.

Lions,

of

envisages

comercio
is

the

at

foundation

of

Maluquer

Carthaginians),

Gulf

the

and Ampurias

century

important

in

century

should

use of

bronze

the
south,
did not lead

to

Age society.

and political
a regional

about

changes

in

organisation
as well

as an

281

international
the

more

in
way

which

of

or

corein

Part

from
the

intense

a peripheral

III,

system

regional
the

as observed
(Almagro

the

(especially

Europe,

Central

semiperiphery
the

of

processes
late

In
boosted
rank

8th

the

Portugal

the

as well

Thus,

creation

the

all

of

7th

and economic

elite
of

but

the

from

Atlantic

as manufacture,

of techniques

of

were

Western

with

Greek

specialised

features,

to

similar
in

observed

are

Etruria

in

for

their
is

the

advances

terms-of
only

in

found

that

of the Atlantic-goldworkers:

the

In

ivories

was not
fact,

the
by

in

the

the

south

beads,

glass

decline

Phoenicians

the

replaced

from

of

vessels

northwest.

that

were

techniques-of

extended

ie.

products

presence

known

and reinforced

was followed

century

west

populations;

status,

centre.

the

Portugal

technical
in

6th

the

confirmed

Phoenician

had

traders

indigenous

the

and elite

indigenous
by

also

of

had been

luxury

of

Evidence

as Central

goldworkers,

capacity

of

a Punic-sphere

which

true

not

Phoenician

the

of

availability

network.

as well

relations

'civilisation'

society

new items

foundations

of

of

any particular

Phoenician

is

and Greeks

structural

activities

members

introduction

Huelva,

LA JOYA,

(This

Albacete)

centuries.

production
the

urban

(Prov.

a new economically

and

the
of

the

concomitant

'orientalisation'

The considerable
local

on

'orientalisation'

of

eg.

Etruscans

the

with

the

and jewellery,

to

relations

took

and figure-decorated

process

Southwest,

within

ie.

states,

forms

1973).

century

culture

POZO MORO, Chinchilla

(Garrido

18)

core

the

6th

the

incorporation

of

art

the

Southwest,

establishment
in

in

the

controllable
of

eg.

and also

17 and

and

and alabaster,

the

and stone
'at

for

the

of

be discussed

will

'Iberian'

the

The

west.

attributes

system

degree

establishment

of'the

available

of

Southeast,

involved

states

the

features

intensified

where

with

by

the

by intermediaries.

controlled

the

However,

- or

graves

regional
data

bronze

1975),

Gorbea

cities

The Southeastern

sanctuaries,

in

the

the

of

on cultural

detailed

distinctive

most

Greek

takes

of

varied.

and continued

pottery,

the

more

Germany.

Southwestern

settlements,

in

areas

pre-conditions

the

with
society

the

using

the

created

relations

semiperipheral

many of

city

that

system

range

their

introduced
(cf.

alloying
of

products

skills

by Phoenicians
Pingel

1975b)

and variety

had been exercised

282

since

the

and

df

context

Iberia,

is

not

noted,

the

gold

is

the

the
in

changes

the

the

type

gold

Iberia

into

and the

system

for

and the

goidworkers,

in

Northwest.

Atlantic

the

and
Thus,

network
in

techniques

Atlantic

their

indigenous

resources,

the

to

no profound
by the

Atlantic/Western

with

Iberia

to

to maintain

which

maintain

function

to

and continue

to

order

but

'commitment'

resources

were

encouraged

was produced

dominated

The Phoenician

in

system

resources,

societies

a Phoenician

sphere

regional

available

resources:

Western

in

L. B. A.
the

has

in

found

some objects

local

Atlantic

objects.

system.

of obtaining

tradition,

(1975b)

As Pingel

adopted

used

locally

of
of

the

were

tapped

were

by

used

Iberia

structure

trading

the

and reproduce

as the

suppliers

of

empire.

The decline

of the Western

of Carthage,

expansion

of

Age.
of

Atlantic

the

and Northwestern

involvement

style

exploitation

reproduce

Assyrian

type

by

trading

Eastern

the

Phoenician

Mediterranean

terms

manufacture

techniques

they

Central
Iron

the

in

objects

the

the

of

and

for

Phoenicians,

the

in

different

incorporation

in
was

ie.

of

areas,

increase

products,

Phoenician

of

peripheral

their

alloying

demonstrated

For

of

4, was of

element

manufacture

production

used

Phoenician

another

the

very

TRAYAMAR, tomb
the

in

L. B. A.

the

but

is

sphere

the expansion

requirements

empire

terms

of

the

of Carthage

was only possible

independently.
The reason

function
Western
to
the
ceased
sphere
when
in the Eastern cities,
for this lay partly
of the Assyrian

seen in

usually

ie.

predicted

in

the decline

the silver

by the beginning

of hoarding

ingots
in
bullion
form
the
of
of
silver
was probably
one of the
in the abandonment-of
factors
decisive
the Western sphere.
Another was
into
Greek
the
the Western Mediterranean
expansion
certainly
and the
Levantine

coast

into
in
for

the
this

increasing
periphery
way,

which

on Phoenician
based

in

in

incorporation
of

independent

the

Iberia.

independent

when

was established

same resources
was the

of

Iberia,

Central
enterprise,

the

of

Central
access.

Mediterranean
and

the

in

6th

and

Europe,

Mediterranean

north

Greek

of

had previously
the

Western

to

the

factor
Alps,

the

.and Etruscan

to many of

was established

particular,

access

And a third

century.

Central

centres

competitive

the
been

cities:

resources
dependent

Phoenician

sphere,

28

PART III

OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF IRON AGE SOCIETY IN

A RE-ANALYSIS

SOUTHWESTERN GEFSlANY IN THE CONTEXT OF ITS EXTERNAL RELATIONS

The Heuneburg

In
usually

as

which

by their

decline

are

described

for

the

recognition

these

of

can be related
in
was

to

the

core

the

of

nature

it

The present

only

related
economic

obtain

during

Germany

in

primarily
in

and not

valley

fortified
?

72
C

(4ftu4can.

'trade'

terms

consumables.
the

and used
Thus,

Mediterranean

interaction

areas,

in

terms

in

have

a feudal

and

been

labour

to

Southwestern

viewed

autonomous

units

interdependence.

of

detailed

evidence

between

Riedlingen

settlement

the

of

we have

for

Ha D1

and Sigmaringen:

I1EUNtBURG, the. open

comes
in

from

particular
of

settlement

the

si

.d

Upper

from
TALBAU,
a`'

c,..

one of

The

of

between

between

these

phenomena,

centres.

relations

and, exchange

of

developments

resources

world

the

and

in

independent

viewed

beyond
and

society

Mediterranean
is

Europe

is

impact

the

Age cultural

D society

appropriated

and

of

the

core

with

as essentially
with

Hallstatt

and elite

terms

The most
Danube

of

Ha D1

regard

Alps,

terms

a nobility

imports

Iron

the

which

model,

is

it

establishment

indigenous

the

of

Central

Whilst

here

Germany.

of

of

deal

- and later

Greek

the

and

Mediterranean,

trade.

Mediterranean

Southwestern

to

and Western

with

the
to

structure

ie.

structure
in

with

north

in

detail

proposed

internal

tendency

Europe,

Central

is

Hallstatt

Mediterranean.

in

relations

areas,

peripheral

Central

main

emergence

during

the

of

the

the

and Etruscan

periphery

deal

to

exchange

on the

connections

the
the

thesis

intermediaries,

their

the

in

states

this

of

scope

into

drawn

Greek

(eg.

tumulus)

of

But,

Central

the

are

development'.

represent

Germany

in

of

expansion

size

centres.

southwestern

developments

the
the

increasingly

Etruscan

in

the

graves,

these

of

summary

by what

cultural

of

often

'Frsten'

a brief

characterised

'centres

the

(and

as

centres
to

particular

in

Age is

Iron

contents

1956)

evidence

Early

the

'shifts'

regarded

interpretations:

and current

Europe,

Central

Burials,
Schiek

complex

the
and

284

in

burials

the

HOINICHELE,

the
Kr.

Heiligkreuztal,

of

these

of

settlements

and other

sites

which

and burials

the

and 1923;

Veeck

work

Goessler

on the

fortifications

southeastern

corner

of

in

been
(1954),

and Kimmig
(1968

Kimmig

finds

eg.

Mansfeld

of

ribbed

Kimmig

the

major

(1975)

the

'dozen

of

stratigraphy

is

the

known

so walls

in

Bronze

Hallstatt

date:

according

Hallstatt

citadel

levels'.

by Kimmig

in particular
blocks

the

in its

and Gersbach

Dehn (1957)

1971).

to

relation
for

the

for

and the parallels

of many publications

are

schematic

and mud-bricks

the Central

Age

The Ha D1

published

in

sherds

this

and Eastern
(eg.

Dehn 1952,
the

considered

of

are characteristic

1958).

(292

corner

has been the subject

appearing,

(1974)

from

IV fortification,

of

the Heuneburg mud-bricks

to correspond most closely
with
(Albania).
bastions,
Its rectangular
of Apollonia
abrupt corners

dimensions

etc

are

IV which,

complex,

and 1971),

publications

level

329; Dehn 1957; Kimmig and Gersbach

those

(1966

Sangmeister

and Late

many habitation
from

Dehn,

unstratified).

the

of

construction

unmitteleuropisch'

Mediterranean

of

begun

Middle

the

The use of limestone

of

construction

and Lang

is

the

of

Major

97 fibulae)

southeastern

the level

(1951),

were

have

excavations

and Gersbach

during

twice'as

seen to be quite

fortification.

'vllig

is

evidence

settlement

the

over

of

and 1974).

occupation
or

series

which

(Goessler

deposits

excavations)

85% of

complex

excavations

seasons'

occupation

1973),

with]

of

pottery,

a period

(associated

two

one or

of

(1973

This

1920s

the

recent

and Rieth

Kiinmig

Gersbach

(a study

wheel-made

(Gersbach

(1971),

from

(1973)

After

to

and 1971),

(mainly

the

(1959),

Schiek

in

more

The

by Bittel

published

location

exact

summarised here:

and settlement

interior.

the

the

to below. )

and Veeck
1927)

and Goessler

concentrated

1950 have

be briefly

will

of

27 for

be referred

will

(Gem.

tumuli

and other

(See Figure

Saulgau).

Following
1911

TALHAU,

Dehn, also

southern

Mediterranean

France
at

of Greek defensive

elements
cites
during

the use of mud-brick

the

period

LE PEGUE, Nyons

of

(Dr6me)

Greek

in domestic
colonisation

(1974).

(Dehn

constructions

architecture
of

the

Western

285

interesting

The most

as

in

evidence

for

bronze,
signs

'...

the

corner

both
of

structures

During

stress.

building

Ha D 3)

less

settlement
Unfortunately,

is

concerned

here)

cities'),

of

given

to

the

1971,72-3,

Taf.

in

left

level

of

layout

as the

as well

(Early

(with

in

certain

La Thne the

within

which
as to

the

of

granary

1966).

and Gersbach

doubt

the

the

place

to

as opposed

IV

considerable

in

but

activities

'workshop',

of

structures

took

(Kimmig

much attention

situation

12);

and III

the

wall:

be inferior

still

of

was

settlement

to

considered

southeastern

southern

entrance

nature

definition

the

crafts-

dem

auf

the

a particular

(Ha D 2)

of

as an indication

to

II

the

to

the

of

'granary'

when a vast

bronzeworking

level

showing

zuletzt
of

drawn

of

most

response

is

what

and

and we are

15),

the size

Kimmig
then

to the interpretations

'independent'

of
(1975,51)
it

we are
the

function

successive

settle-

understanding

structure

of

by"Kimmig

and

'workshop-quarters'
units
or
'bazaars
(souks) of Oriental

compares with

be achieved,

(as shown in Kimmig

economic

has to be admitted

will

as economic

of the are excavated

it

and relates

in terms

the settlement

using

the

with

ovens,

layout

was added

and Gersbach

tothe

5-10%,
no real
mere
a

well

been

one considers

Gersbach

a 1,

IV

a2

tower,

be the

to

nicht

in

pieces

by them

The

IV

houses

there

Ha D 1.

during

(which

not

structures,

1975, Figure

level
or

known

applied

individual

If

in

no precise

dwelling,

ments,

'

a 1,

and dwellings

wohl

occupa-

associated

or

interpreted

...
(1971).

occupation

and IV

of

the

are

Ha D1

interpret

workshops

die

of

bronze,

and Gersbach

is

same place-and

well

groupings

as hearths,

as the

area

in

The structures

of

Kimmig

thought

buildings.

for

as well

Blte

was rebuilt

have

IV a2

particular,

in

are

IV b 1,

etc)

(Kimmig
the

earliest

of

period

material

c (the

drops

was filled

wall

eastern

IV

molten

altered

are

level

phases

(ie.

and a 'bastion',

constructed,

various

IV b 2,

dem Sden basierte...

was somewhat

the

usually

wirtschaftliche

mit

excavations

- but

this

in

IV b 3,

Level

Handel

in

recent

in

corner

burning.

located

the

and orientation

fragments

intensive

structures

level

bronzeworking

crucible
of

From

southeastern

combinations

evidence

men.

IV.

IV b 3,

the

from

activities

level

level

phase),

different

of

in

recognised

tion
is

industrial

for

evidence

findings

that
of

unless

on the basis

of information

on

the organisation

of

the nature

of

a model of

the total

the society

is

rigorously

social

applied.

as
By

M9

imposing

alternatively

on the

market-place
Kimmig

has

clearly

imports,

to

Figure

use

of

found

vessels

to

of
(cf.

period
to

are

in

dated

to

Hallstatt

III,

most

in

the Massaliote

Central

long-bodied
any

found

on the

an unspecified

wares are said

no bucchero

49) mentions

an exceptional

wares;

amphorae

fragment

imports

of

Greek

level

in

level

of

These

amphorae

from

neck

origin

to

wares

for

them.

are

shoulder)
(personal

doubt

the

III

amphorae

Gersbach

as to
are

not

to be the prototypes

are published..

'black-and-red
of a

Kimmig

(1975,

banded urn'

type.

(personal
* According
to Gersbach
communication),
figured
Greek wares,
Black
all
wares are Attic
broad black
plain
also many sherds with
stripes.

b.

III
are

varieties

since

by Lang (1974)

mentioned

Greek

viz.

and expressed

'Greek'

the

vessels

Greater

VIIIa).

Heuneburg

Black

c. 500 BC illustrated

and I.

Plate

D1

Este

II

1975,

of Hallstatt

of

in

and others.

also

in

levels,

wall

The different

found

is

rubble

or

Abb. 45 and Kimmig

for

Italian

Attic

often

end of

sherds

sherd,

2 handles

He suggested

micaceous.

mud-brick
D2. *

are

of

southern

two

only

body,

mentioned
origin

are

the

very

(M 181)

rounded

type

1968,

communication)
Massaliote

(viz.

post-

They

received

and drinking

krater

volute

has

Kimmig

the

was in

amphorae

HEUNEBURG

the

on an Attic

at

the

(1975).

HEUNEBURG is

find

sherd

(S 108),

kraters,

c).

found

appear

Kimmig

VIII

Plate

other

of

Gersbach,

viz.

as one of

figured

BC, eg.

(1975,
Most

origin.

Greek

of

sherds

525-475

by Kimmig

the

a 1;

case

the

of

This

wall.

(1971,41)

stratified:

31 small

began

of

IV

in

settlement

dated

earliest
of

mud-brick

and Gersbach

by Kimmig

the

that

to be 'feudal'

the

by Dehn,

south

on a house-floor
the

in

the

of

organisation

the

existence,

very

the

with

states

is

sherd

period

contacts

from

HEUNEBURG,

the

activities

particularly

the

and an Oriental
of

believes

industrial

The material

that

spatial

he still

for

attention,

occupations

the

of

which

evidence

below.

(1974)

Lang

the

the

successive

view

with,

considering

attributed

dated

no overall

little

surprisingly

of

be discussed

The

of

The nature
will

evidence

he is dealing

society

Greek city

a model of a classical

of c. 60 pieces
of
but there
Figure,
are-

287

The

so-called

time

this

'northern

bearing

Heuneburg,
1954)
was
the

largely

also

pottery

of

colours,

techniques

of

Urnfield

tradition.

black/brown
based

and red

dominant

were

by

indicated
was

by

footed

necked

horizontal

has

on ribbed

as seen

studied

some pottery
techniques.

The basic

but

are

in

appear

she concludes
'imported'
with
culture,
with
Greek

on local
or

* Why this

period

that

III

Southern

should

of
French

use

to be
Funnel

background,
wares

the

of

thought

range

was
of

which

An unusual

was compared
decorated

introduction

the
the

funnel-

with

with

It

a,

semi-circles

(viz.

a1
of

and throwing

bowls,
-

dishes

in

feature'

of

via

based

Hallstatt

is not

and IV.

D2)
Thus,

wheel was not

the Golasecca

techniques

wares

and

Hallstatt

IIIb

on a fast

Italy,

Instead,

and coarse

be an 'Iberian

building

of

of pottery

from Central

prototypes

process:

at the beginning
found in
period

types

techniques,

was a gradual

forms

thrown

of

throwing

of

Heuneburg.

France.

fine

showed

lines.

the manufacture

from Southern

the

plain

towers.

it-was

Heuneburg:

repertoire

the pottery

types

the

one of

made by a combination

developments

clearly

nor

at

wares,

was clearly

jars

the

and vertical

(1974)

Lang

of

al

preceding

on a white

BURRENHOF (Nllrtingen)

from

sherd

Period'IV

Italian.

Gebrauchskeramik';

from

finds

from

vessel

corresponding
between

the

of

were

and Central

The manufacture

grober

Dehn et

the

eg.

decoration

red-brown

(in

vessels
in

background,

Greek

viz.

finds.

'Fehlbr1nde

Kimmig

found

the

reached

wares

decorated
not

on a white

or

red

among the

illustrated

and motifs

sherds

characteristic

The richly

produced

painted

The new techniques,

patterns

with

vessels

it.

prototypes,

on southern

necked

to

Greek

and I.

pottery

painted

confined

II

pottery

wares

of

at

cocmunication).

pattern'.

fine

III,

periods

the

that

maintained

use

in

especially

a 'series

and associated

amphorae

certain

cites

in

France

on painted

as a decorative

semicircles

concentric

wine

He also

Southern

personal

influence

as influential

Iberia'

Thus,

(Gersbach,

their

Heuneburg.

the

in

manufactured

Heuneburg

acknowledges

at

manufactured

wares

the

reached

also

(1975,49)

Kimmig

in

'Ionian'

were experimented

on Central

D 1.

clear.

Italian,

2 81

found

Amber

the

and bones

On the
TALHAU,
very

The

due

to
it

consider
to

the

the

period

IV c of

the

pits

date

the

to

and ditches.
for

moulds

Schiek

to

by Paulus

during

his

he claims
that

claims

communication).

like
should
the'HEUNEBURG

Ha D1

beginning

the

According

settlement;

(Kimmig

route

main

terms

of

IV

of

building

(1959),

the

excavation
similar

first

burnt

by Gersbach.

patches

was worked

building

main

they
is

settlement
the

with

dated

end of

included

fragments

of

TALHAU I

in

1966),

and Gersbach

were-a

ditch

as pieces

the

techniques

settlement

100 loom weights

of

the

of

1969).

1959).

the

of

which

construction

contemporary

the

of

as well

armrings

the

as the

and Gersbach

The second

c.

of

identified

hearth

the

(Schiek

The contents

iron

been

D 2,

III

1959

have

than
to

settlement,

of

for

1968,93).

HEUNEBURG, known

the

Schiek

(Kirunig

site

as evidence

(Kimmig

south

of

on the

HEUNEBURG (Kimmig

in

mud-bricks

from

transition

lost-wax

*I

compared,

in

be of'later

to

Related

Gersbach

is

use

HEUNEBURG IV,

of

D 1) could

Alpine

considered

7 phases

settlement

of

of

the

(mainly

published

settlement
with

been

found

are

foot

the

at

to have

2 phases

only

from

goods

said

are

and material
but

mules

of

has been

little

first

the

or

been

have

to

and donkeys

settlement

open

there

fact,

Rh6ne-Saone

the

said

transporting

of

method

are

chickens

of

1968,92)

period

(Hallstatt

level

IV

1971,57).

and Gersbach
Bones

and was possibly

area.

a late

HEUNEBURG via

the

reached

in

found

branch

A coral
have

Hallstatt

be Baltic,

to

on analysis

1971,56)

and Gersbach

the Eastern

via

obtained

In

(Kinnig

Mediterranean

not

IiEUNEBURG was shown

the

on

the

from

for

moulds
found

in

tumulus
beneath

settlement

of

armbands.

a burnt

were

series

from

TALHAU II

patch
the
and III.

(personal

to thank Dr. Gersbach

and TALBAU with me in

for discussing
the
1975..
Tubingen,

material

from

289

The burials
described
the

and represented
high

c. 15 metre
the

and

area
The

13 burials

the

contents

HOBMICHELE tumulus

upper

part

were

I,

which

in

goods

excavation

revealed

The excavators

phase

the

the
There

appeared

woven
it

through
the

been

have

its

of

cloth

remains

chamber,

in

an inhumatibn

indicating

cow and horse

(but

hair

of

the

gold

lining

strip

trench.
the

corner

of

found,

were

the

walls

woven

remains
of

in

on hides.

northeastern

south

a building
found

found

were

puzzling

1962,

robbers'

chamber,

and human hair

found

in

and many

during
those

in

thin

the

More

were

no skins)

the

had
In

area.

details

and Iiundt

like

found

in

and cow-hide
this

tumulus.

a wagon

of

beads,

fragments

fringes.

central

was robbed

(Riek
lm
x

were

a belt

the

full

tomb was robbed

some cases,

and decorating

(1962);

remains

cloth

of

- possibly

strip

the

the

of

tumulus,

x 3.5

pendant

a loh

in

the

Some glass

a glass

of

floor

the

and probably
A loosely

(pp. 42-3).

tumulus

to

that

to

of

there.

the

c. 5.7

chamber,
suggest

and part

chamber,

to

central

The excavation

segment

can be found

be briefly

will

was limited

and Hundt

was almost

a wooden

25.

Figure
1937/8

by Riek

IV)

period

southeastern

context

44-54).
of

the

of

published

Careful

antiquity.

(Heuneburg

Dl

on a scalogram,

and their

Grave

grave

Hallstatt

of

human,

of

wagon.

found
beads
400
a
glass
pendant
together
of
were
part
and
glass
with
c.
The wagon remains consisted
1 amber bead.
of a bronze sheet covered hab-of iron

and pieces
evidence

for

probably

part

A bronze'ring

of the fittings.

A quartz

from outside
belt,

a bronze

wheel,

sheet,

spoke-covering.

A number of finds

a terret,

Small piles

miniature

pot.

hazelnuts

and fruit

from the wagon body.

possibly

stones

coffins
buried

group

covered
facing

- these
by stone

towards

boulder

was found

of human hair

in

limestone

were found

chamber.

there

are thought

too.

found
in wooden

to have been

evidence,

viz.

and Hundt'1962,54-61,
build-up
of
the
within

(Rick

also

of

burials'were

is based on minimal
the graves

was

of a wagon

They were buried

to V.

slabs,

in'the

and piles

and a plait,

The bodies

this

remains

section

2 amber beads and a

4 inhumation

level,

packings.
found

beads,

plums)

are Graves II

Grave I:

minute fragments of teeth

A number of flat
Abb. 13).

rectangular

193 glass

At 0.65 m above the ground

in a small

with

the. chamber included

(possibly

There was no

2 JD

Figure

25

THE HOCHMICHELE GRAVE CONTENTS

on
"r4
0
u

a)
cri
Cd

Cd
43

to 0
to

(',

GRAVE/Rite*

>

0)
Cl.

G)

CL)

0 Cl) G
s+
to
0
e
0
N
3 .[ a

VI /inh

I /inh

V)

r-1

14

XI

/cre

XII

/cre

VII

/inh

IX

/cre

II

/inh
/cre

XIII

9.
CU n

L;

C)

0
1+

Cl
0
N

G
0
N

.c

.o

.n

4)
w
0
a

a
v

q
U) Cd 0 "d 0) +.
0
0 $4
0
0 0
'-+
L+
0
0
E
1i
1a
. -4
r-I
oo u ,0 0o
v ", .c

xx
x

xx
x

xx

/inh

VIII

4j
0

a, c0

,
:
w

"1-+ U

0
I

41

/inh

x
x

x
x

x /cre
TTT

"r4
"i
14 a

x
x

ao

?"

IV /inh

V /inh

*inhumation/cremation

291

"

the

Nearby,

thought

are

mound,

excavation

burnt

bone.

The

excavators

Only

the

bronze

one piece

could

be identified

that

these

were

Hallstatt

(polychrome

The small
believe
the

in

the soil.

but

Hazel

IV was a simpler

no traces

Grave V was larger

.
Sherds of Kegelhals

leads

near

think

it

Riek

leaves

nuts

and oak

tomb

construction;

objects

the others

than

left

)
etc.

to

disintegrated
impressions

their

and Hundt

finds;

surviving

sherd,

in

found

were

1962,58-9).

and had a larger

were the only

vessels

the

had

40 sherds

(Riek

in

(1962,58)

object

to

unlikely

complete
vessel

may

the knee

height

shoulder

and Hundt

A bronze

grave.

any metal

of

iron

a funnel-necked

III

Grave

a child's

region.

chest

Grave
it,

of
is

this

that

in

size

of

sherds

II.

have

these

The traces

Alb-Salem

fragments,

these

arm regions:

at

Grave

disintegrated

of

analysis

found

graves.

in

unfavourable

of

usually

are

the

over

(1962,57)

boar.

sacrificial

purposes

and Hundt

Characteristic

graves.
goods

grave

the scalogram.

burnt

build-up

and lower

For

with

was wild

of

only'traces

chest

as Riek

remains

the

slabs

in'the

Spearheads

the

graves.

patches

and it

particularly

and an armring.

included

be a spearhead.

were

the

of

and charcoal

in

found

limestone

found

were

been

not

burial
by

'?
'
in
as

been listed
have

of

a fibula

been

have

is

pottery

covered

objects

south

areas

suggest

coffin

a path

stony

The"conditions
In

of

revealed

Urnfield

offerings.

be part

to

stone

some other

packing.

sherds

had

crumbled.
Grave VI was another

2.15 m above the base of

but

Grave I,

c. 2.45 x 3.0 x 1.06m.

The floor

cow hides

before

chamber.

The position

of

heads

were

indicate
in

the

fairly

their
chamber,
well

wooden chamber tomb,

the bodies

a 4-wheeled

preserved

of

c. 10 m south-east

The chamber was

the tumulus.

the chamber had been covered

of a man and a woman were placed

grave
in

goods

and the

the

southeast.

wagon

was put

and hub

of

fragments

few

fragments

Once they
in.
- with

Its

iron

bronze

in

sheet

the
teeth

of

had been
tyres

with

placed

werecovering

292

(see

were

found

3).

Two bronze

iron

with

ends

horse

Bronze

cylindrical

to have

assumed

are

and bronze
chamber.
like

in

bits

studded

several

found

the
in

clothing

of

the

the

other

Taf. 8).

bronze

bowl,

a pair

incisors
of

glass

were

were

found

positions

are

iron

Remains

of

had been
has

leather

snake

fibula

clothing

of

this

shown

to

iron

the

and
both

into

the

be true

silk

wagon
in

cloth

of

bag,
lay

nearby

embroidered

fragments
to

addition

tusks

bound in bronze

strips

Taf. 12).

in

the

fragments
assumed

a height

region
adhering

- only

of
to

the
it

fragmentary

in

the

sheet

ring

2.5m

of

head.

the

(Dehn

rim

flat-

the

and

With

them

ore and a broken

pendant.

bronze

A small
near

positioned

had been placed.

bronze

Between

a fourth)

of

of iron

wheels

placed.

Near

pieces

piece

the

a beaded

nearby.

(and

a perforated

at

bowl. with

was preserved
boar

mounted

between

had been

vessel

bronze

was a flat
basket

lay

ring-handles

bronze

a small

was located

pin

- with

bronze

quantities

and a cylindrical

1962,69-70,

cloth

arrowheads;

adhering"to

large

with

of coral,

bead,

rings

it

3 bronze

was a piece

headed

bowl

there

there

Hundt

a fine

and an iron

belt

and a small

51 iron

thread

found

of

knife

slashing

analysis

was also

A shallow

VII

a boulder,

wheels,

bronze

a plain

containing

legs:

man's

Inside

1971,

Grave

an iron

presence

wheels,

paste

fibulae,

and amber beads.

bronze

wagon.

the

of

tomb.

the

A beaten

the

one of

the

of

floor

on the

groups

too.

(Riemenverteiler)

crossings

in

The woman had

Cloth

indicating

corner

pole

fittings

wagon

northeastern

Near

A decomposed

on the

1969).

(Hundt

found.

rivets,

found.

were

cloth

were

lay

him

glass

of

rows

bodies

were

function

unknown
8 bronze

the

of

the

found

reins

a whet-stone.

of

piece

wagon

in

- of

fittings.

and strap

2 snake

The man had worn

bronze

tops

Beilage

was lying.

I,

Beside

flat

be part

to

found

were

for

Grave

with

the

of

taken

Taf. 3-5,7-8,10-11,

with

(Buckelscheiben)

2 iron

neckring.

part

are

trappings

strips

that

pieces

been

rings

terrets

chamber:

1962,61-9,

and Hundt

Riek

Flat

arms,

mound. (Riek
and a hollow

open-ended

and a bronze

in
was
skeletel

the

and

waist
remains

bronze
sheet
region.
were

arm-

belt

plaque
(The

found.

291
Grave

In

3.83m
in

found

were

spearheads

(at

VIII

the

indicating
located
was
lay in the chest region.
of lamb'3

fragments

in

ie.

situ,

gathered

IX,

Grave

area,

clay-lined

Alb-Salem

with

armrings
15-17)

two

was partly

consisted

of

an especially

on which

the

layers

of

bark

Salem pottery

were

found

are

were

always

(c. lm above)

(Riek

intensively

and on

of

cloth,

a set

of

2 bronze

and

and Hundt

burnt

laid

were

consisted

burnt

of

of

the

1962,71-5,

plain

but

'Kahn'

2 golden

plate,

a stepped

a Hochhals

between
-

armring

(at

by fire.

were found.

were

found.

were

Taf. 19,20)

destroyed

earrings

remains

a bronze

pottery

and Hundt 1962,76-7,

had been all

cremated

harmer,

an antler

and 28 sherds

included

6.8m
Near the

Remains of Alb-

vessel,

2 simple

bowls

a handle.

bowl
with
a
and

Near the cremated

of acorns

In Grave XIII
armrings

lay

(at

wavy line

rings,
traces

of disintegrated

(Riek

nearby

ll.

in Grave XII

were probably

rings

deposited

beside

the piled

of snake fibulae

decoration
bronze

(at

9.7m height)
in pieces

- were lying

objects

and some animal

of bark.

fragments,
bone
up

found.
were
nearby;

an

Taf. 21).

and Hundt 1962,77-9,

lm height),

and a pair

1 with

found

remains

4
bronze
bead
and
amber

2 bronze

and

and goods

1962,75-6)

which

near

(Rick

remains

2 piles

a roll

and Hundt

a snake fibula

cremated

fragments

large

The goods

decoration

line

X (Riek

In Grave XI
height)

found.

were

engraved

remains

superimposed

bones

burnt

c. 30 vessels,

by boulders,

marked

plaque

Grave

In

snake fibulae

belt

cremated
bone

larger

the

height,

pottery,

one spear

pile.

a small

charcoal

of

masses

which

Taf.

It

VI.

on Grave

of

2 bronze

bronze

The

cremations,

all

although

4.35m

at

shoe

of 1.7m.

to a ribbed

Adhering

are

in

together

the

region,

length

a spear

burnt,

where

shoulder

2 iron-socketed

build-up)

the

wool.

IX - XIII

Graves

in

height

2 other
there

bones.

arm

werd also

2H

large

The other
19th

provide

century,

In

the

and pottery

tusks

in bronze

tubes

2m: this

in

robbed

Gersbach

another,

and boars

(g),

fragment

sequence

in

terms

of

thought

to

HEUNEBURG

the

of

the

is

a small

1968).

He suggested
in

from
It

Kimmig

interpretation
(1969).

bronze

burial.

1956,42;

iron

1923).

known

are

at

that

the

Heiligkreuztal

relationand

'dynasties'

successive

the Heuneburg:

at

resident

(Schiek

be interpreted

could

bead

fibula,

a snake

HEUNEBURG and thelurials

the

In

tumulus,

(Goessler

be a secondary

a tentative

and destruction

tumuli

blade

could

antiquity

forward

put

between

In his
defines

iron
and an

2x

chamber,

wooden

by Pfitzenmayer,

Another

as pottery.

LEHENBHL, Gem. Hundersingen,

the

iron,

a blue

rings,

etc were found

and plaques

contents:

1968).

Kimmig

the

A wooden chamber was reported

in which wagon remains,
including

4m high)

a tumulus

objects

building

as well
in 1880.

mountings,

original

bronze,

1923;

bronze

in

ravaged

HOHMICHELE, excavated

the

of

by Paulus

bronze

Talhau

reported

and bow fibulae,

snake

'button-like'

ship

are

southwest

was investigated
1.5m depth (in

been

their

(Goessler

included

have

to

finds

finds

wooden

clues

mere

Gem. Heiligkreuztal,

immediately

From

us with

HOHMICHELE group,

the

KLEINE IIOHMICHELE,

(d),

sheet,

in

tumuli

on period

publication

most recent

IV (Gersbach

he

1974),

as follows:

the period

'Die Periode
den Zeitraum
IV umspannt
von der
lokalen
Grndung der Burg als Sitz
eines
bis zum mutmasslichen
Untergang
Adelsgeschlechtes
dieser
Dynastie
als Folge
gewaltsamen
einer
der von einer
Lehmzielmauer
Zerstrung
'
Burg.
umgllrteten

(p 189)
.
Thus,

period

foundation

and the

fall

the fortified
Hallstatt

is

of
from

site.
Dl.

the

represents

site

power

defined

no longer

it

units:

archaeological
the

IV

of

as the
this.

The finds

the

in

terms

time

period

residence

dynasty.

are only

of

of

between

a local

as a result

used to date

or

stratigraphic
two

events:
line

aristocratic

of

the

destruction

the period

to

of

295

in

The entrance
to

be of

in

the

or

the

fact

(1974,196)

According

Burg'.

zur

immediate

connection

'verkehrsgnstige

primitive
'die

that
Druck

a1

this

Bauweise'

of

reduced

to

ashes,

relationship
the

relating

led

Tores

in

kriegerischer

one of

afforded
the

emphasised

Not

'ungewhnliche

Gersbach

to

propose

Eile

aller

dem

unter

Auseinandersetzungen
Heuneburg

was the

only

'Kampfhandlungen'

has
the

contents

of

were

also

settlement
in

reflected

(see also

open settlement

attempted

Kimmig and

Alb-Hegau)

the incised

decorated

Grave

VI

(with

the

and

that

evidence

of

ie.

Heuneburg,

incised

(associated

in Grave XI,

decorated
with

the

the

of
is

3 sherds)

Hohmichele

the

on ZUrn's

debris

of Alb-Salem

studies

the secondary
which is stratified
pottery

on the

by Spindler

to

before

the

this

seen

D1

Alb-Hegau

ware

mud-brick

hearth)

settlement.

found
is

the large

in

was constructed
earliest

Thus,

wares.
found

absence

virtual

exception

habitation

the

.I

reasoning

pottery

- especially
the

to

graves

by

(ZUrn
1943 and 1957) and on the view
pottery
in
be
later
Hallstatt
to
continued
used
wares

and stamp decorated

the Hohmichele

chronological

1975).

and stamp decorated

the excised

the

redefine

Hohmichele

the

chronological

(now called

to

HEUNEBURG, HOHMICHELE and TALHAU sites

(Spindler

the two settlements

on the

it

The

has

construction

these

between

He bases his

of

this

Spindler

Recently,

excised

been

1971,75).

Gersbach

than

entrance

the Talhau

down of

the burning

from

but

the

Haupteingang

and this

in.

was filled

1974,196).

(Gersbach

have

(1971,71)

routes

found

Dynastenburg'.

bevorstehender

unmittelbar

erfolgt

der

trade

main

is

fording

gelegenen

and Gersbach

des donauseitigen

Vermauerung

ist'

the

with
Lage

IV

During

Kimmig

to

situated

gully

for

would

verkehrsglnstig

is

It

site,

place

this

that

considered

a natural

where

a convenient

believes

'ausserordentlich

the

just

to

the

of

is

IV

period

history

the

led

during

wall

corner,

may have

It

Gersbach

in

in

southeastern

slope.

river.

eastern

importance

special

c. 35m from

the

Talhau

greater

than

D1

amount of
burials

of

above
Heuneburg

be convincing
IV

Since

on the

that

c settlement
the

open
that

proportion
settlement

in

IV

c,

he

29

that

suggests
the

Heuneburg.

the

Talhau

use

of

But

`lst

in

scale

hearth

the

in

of mud-bricks
unpublished

mentions*3
which
than

Hohmichele

is

for

be looked

for

The basis
the

that

tumulus
'lost

during

had been

decorated

is

in

that

Urnfield

the

Hohmichele

1959).

domestic
by

utensils,

in

certain

is

As will

the

Heuneburg

material

material

Hallstatt

C to

archaeologically
Heuneburg.

sufficiently

area

second

found

is

to

the

nor

in

the

have

absence

been

of

in

the difference

has

the build-up

within

appears

chronological
D. 1 must

in

the

in fact

the

centre

burial

emergence

of

rites,

of

is

denied

'Hallstatt

phenomenon,

of
C'

which

The continuity-fromis

likely

new developments,
eg.

it

as a 'Hallstatt

as a spatial

and

as opposed to

and distribution

appearance

significance.

be acknowledged

in

emphasised;

be described

can only

thus

of pots,

the

represents

what
It

Continuity

the

sets

below,

be elaborated

within

even

vessels

material

Neither

material

of funerary

nature

not

environment.

can be attributed

represent

said

the

of

any conviction.

the special

Spindler.

D 1'

and Alb-Hegau

build-up

He prefers

the

(Schiek

could

He maintains

the

or

tumulus'.

there),

ground

found

settlement

the

of

redeposited

remains
settlement
the inclusion
of Urnfeld

Finally,

later

although

pottery.
insecure.

very

sherds

an earlier

he admits

with

c,

must therefore
he believes,
by the

at the base of the Hohmichele,

been established

settlement'

'residence'

His

be recognised,

argument

construction

on sterile

established

IV

large-

Spindler

the Heuneburg'

of

and stamp-decorated

excised

be from

(although

explanation
tumulus

the

'lst

the

the

Heuneburg.

than

earlier

'Founder

the

will

Spindler's

either

could

or

the Hohmichele.

and stamp

excised

that

it

elsewhere;

of Alb-Hegau

presence

in

be buried

possibly

prior

that

precede

the

the

and XI.

IX

His main conclusion

not

to

of

involve

both

suggested

the

of

phases
with

correlation

may well

fortification

the

settlement

VI,

Talhau

on the

be contemporary

may still

been

already

IV c on

of

the

IV b (since

Heuneburg

however,

has,

settlement

to maintain

anxious

with

It

mud-bricks
use

is

settlement'

fortified

the

predated

Spindler

mud-bricks).

of

use

Talhau

the

the

inclusion

to

be recognised
such
of

as the
a set

of

2197

as is

pots
the

frequently

of what

links

of

maintenance

could

only

Gersbach

usually

one -

aspect

(1974),

immediate
is

is

Germany

Fttrsten

the

residences

southern

acropolis

imports;

*I

as in

the

case

beyond

area
Here,

a few

with
of

the
(n. d. )

Driehaus

of

Here

and

their

of

contribution

Age society,

Heuneburg

all

Firsten

of

concepts

'Zum Problem

in

1969).

Iron

Ha D evidence

the

of

and

the

be evaluated.

will

on the

found

he attempts

designations

and the layout

He regards

in
used

authorities,

but,

in

interpreting

the

spUthallstUttischer
to

for

of Fllrsten
of

has

many publications;

use

the

The term Adelssitz,

by the proximity

and suburbium.

from mediaeval

Early

of

concept

are alternative

are curiously

conjunction

the

summarised

(Kimmig 1969,102).

defined

in

or

of

of the

the evidence

that

interpretations

influential
the

is

(Kimmig

interpretations

current

ignored.

largely

it,

for

statement

phenomenon

and Herrensitz

of

most

explicit

Adelssitze'

their

nature

and elaborated

most

is

C' areas.

and,

from

be briefly

will

evidence

Kimmig,

settlement

available

current

the

explaining

archaeological

his

the

of

alone

inhabitants

the

with

or

of

important

Southwestern

adopted

considered

evidence

exception.

The most

Germany is

be an indication

could

as 'Hallstatt

can be made of

HEUNEBURG vicinity

a notable

towards

the

C,

generations

in Southwestern

burials

often

past

that

criticism

the Ha D material
Fllrsten

with

Hallstatt

be described

still

A general

in

found

these

them as functionally

to

define

Frstensitz
settlements

graves;

the settlement

tumuli

which

the presence

to include

an

indistinct

Burgs:

for allowing
to Dr. Driehaus
am very grateful
me to consult
in Tbingen
in February
1975.,
that was available
of his study
and page references
not dated,
with
given here will
not parry
publication.
later
I hope that'from
of
consultation
my brief
important
I am representing
his. views
fairly.
study

a copy
It was
any
his

9fiq

'Wissen wir doch, dass in prhistorischer

wie
in frhmittelalterlicher
bis etwa gegen
Zeit
1100 n. Chr. der Adlige
grundsatzlich"mit
Klientel
Untergegebenen
seiner
und seinen
'
zusammen wohnt...

(1969,92)

and

the

the

Adelssitz

for

criteria

above

from

with

the

case

Ftlrsten
the
a

dynasty

controlling

the

the

of

extent

distribution

the late

political

- of

graves

ie.

its

GRAY.
of

surrounding
existence
a long

of

time

indicate

would

Frsten

in'Late

situation

AD with

number

the

the

which

were

Hallstatt

to

small

'Frstentmer'

as intrusive

- probably

many

is

discussed

trade

vessels
were

and motifs

The
that

found

probably

'Ionian'

northwest

(1954).

slaves

given
of

sites

of

those

with

the

the

of

are
in

of

Ftlrsten

being

the RhBne-

the amphorae and

through
to

for

southern

Some Etruscan

routes

difficult

exchange

wares,

Alps.

along

with

Trade via

and Attic

transmitted

commodities
were

markedly

the Frsten

provided

which

the

their

(1975).

involved

the-possibility

who 'established

in Kimmig and Rest

Saone would have brought

bronze

Frsten

in ways contrasting

of the time'

The long-distance

consider

contrasted

tumuli

HOHENASPERG) for

within

Hallstatt

of life

and styles

settlements

suggest

Kimmig

Frsten

of

'individuals'

- and made up of

passes.

HEUNEBURG (or

and

1975).

residence

the

is

large

the

large

the

for

'Herrschaftsbereich'

Kimmig regards

imports

in
-

centuries

rich

and 'probable'

graves

Hohenasperg,

evidence

the

graves

in gold

BREISACH, and Upper Saone,

be contained

to

and 18th

17th

the

(1969,108;

other

ie,

and the

he compares

Thus,

village.

between Frsten

the

The wider

Celtic

the Heuneburg,

certain

are

(1969,102).

of

around

1969,107))

assumed

settlements

that

(ie.

Heuneburg

the

of

graves

buried.

graves

in the Upper Rhine,

Ftlrstensitze
In

of Ftlrsten

distinguish

to

required

fortified,

distances

the greater

are

'ordinary'

the

The concentration
(eg.
imports
southern

definition

their

the

involved

luxuries
in

Alpine
'they

ascertain:

southern

techniques

the

and
amber

trade.

299

The mud-brick
'Celtic

(Kimznig
techniques

adopted

The notion
suburbium

in

city-states
aspect

physical
influenced

the

of

as a combination
attempt

relate

the

with

late

the

and

'ausgeprilgte

the

Ile suggests

than

the

of

region

an acropolis

of

(1969,98)

- rather

plans

settlement

to

Mediterranean.

'polis'

the

Marseille

the

instruction.

Hallstattraum'

(b)

by

distorted

the

emergence
the

that

aspects

socio-political

Hallstatt

separating
the

Firsten

attributing

an indigenous

influenced

Fairsten

by

impose

to

attempt

the

(a)

of

model

original

and therefore

with

contact

north

peoples

of

a model

is

world

and domination

conquest

local

their

context

a 'civilised',

to

aspirations

with

of

in

society

Mediterranean

the

from

graves

feudal

(c)

and
ie.

urban,

life.

way of

The combination
organisation

spatial

the

of

1971,90)

and Gersbach

south:

of

work

(1969,97).

Thus

Hallstatt

late

Firstly,

of

elementsof

of

societies

be expected

possibly

not

could

the

Kimmig's

Eastern

the

of

the

the Alps

thus

part

im spIten

Feudalstruktur

is

(1975)

in

as the

regarded

Kimmig

Frstensitz

the

of

1975,44;

source

is

IV

period

observed

as a possible

mentioned

of

Heuneburg

of

architects'

having
is

wall

social,

as distinct
to

he is

society

political,

the appropriateness

describe,

let

from

alne

explain,

feudal

society

with.

the comparisons

of

and even

he selects

as those

adequately
dealing

economic

with

be
considered.
must
Underlying

and expansion

emergence

European

specifically

There

Earl

is,

to its
Iron

model

feudal

development.

as a reversion

regarded

society

use of

historical

of

course

the

the

Thus,

to

a pre-Roman

of

Rome are

social

form

Mediaeval

mediaeval

in

a cyclical

The effects

situation.

and the

is

society

dominance

of

the

of

assumed.

of course, "considerable

Age and Early

a belief

early

minimised

is

pre-Roman counterpart,

is

value
but

societies

if

in relating

post-Roman

the relationship

between

is

then

to be tested,

the'

300

general

(mainly

Age

Europe

had

in

far-reaching

of
the

trading

Age.

networks
large-scale

of

establishment

the

altered
Iron

be the

to

developments

certain

clearly
Early

the

be assumed

not

C),

La Tene

which

been

had

must

situation

the

within

Central

was a society

from

the Hallstatt

D society

Mediaeval

society
Age that

Iron

Late

Further
'feudalism'

stage

Many aspects

here.
eg.

the
of

But,

the

define

of

distinctive

a general

in

form

of

within

- often

are known.

Thus,

and political

structure

When Early
it

is

to the

is

or

not

and is

not

directly

relevant

in

societies,

can be found
by a ruling

dependent

on their

lords

European

feudalism

political/economic

a hierarchical

viz.

class

of

term

it

Whether

feudalism

of the

misuse

a peasant

character

it),

beyond

counterpart,

meaning,

much debated

European

of

caste

a warrior

ence

is

real.

land.

to

on rights

exploitation

its

from

evolution

cultural

a pre-Roman

as it

existence

to elucidate.

is. caused by the frequent

detracts

based

(and

economic

trying

Central

refer.

one should

which

of

compared with

confusion

system

social

is

Kimmig is

Europe
centres

Iron

society

Age the

of coins

settlements

in

Iron

Late

manufacturing

Late

place

European

of

During

this

walled

had taken

structure

- and the minting

different
essentially
of

urban

By the

same.

other

class,
for

organisation,

a general

or

the

exist-

land.

rights

to

cannot

be used

to

Europe

to a particular
represents
a response
set
Following
the collapse
conditions.
of the
and
political
of economic
Mediterranean
trade with
the Eastern
Roman Empire in the west,
area
in
dwindling
by
the
resources
precious
of
metals
was soon checked
Furthermore,
Europe.
Western
conquest
as a result
of
of the Islamic
North Africa
large
peninsula,
and the Iberian
parts
of the Near East,
(quoted
in
Pirenne
Mediterranean.
trade
the
Muslims
to
control
came
the
by Slicher
point
at which
saw this
as the decisive
van Bath)
its
long-distance
trade
Mediterranean
networks
economic
system and

* Feudalism

Western

in
brought
Europe
disrupted
Western
the
this
about
change-over
and
was
(subsistence
from a money economy to a natural
oriented).
economy
indicated
later,
is
have
This turning
thought
to
as
occurred
now
point
(eg.
Carolingian
by the end of minting
the
the
era
gold at
end of
Slicher
of precious
metals were
when the supplies
van Bath 1966,31),
by trade with Byzantium or looted by Magyar and Saracen
depleted
invaders.

One of
for

model
land

is

the

Early

is

of

Middle

Ages,

we find

extremely

1974,13).
have

due

partly

This

Germany.

western

Kimmig's
dominant
logical

group

of

jewellery

Even

graves.
definition)

the

are

is

types

and weapon

in

smaller

this

at

time

and poor
land

conditions

density

rather

in

period

south-

graves
to

reconcile

the

in

the

different

tumuli,

is

Frsten

the

of

quantities

graves

certain

of

many non-Frsten
(the

objects
in

archaeo-

between

contents

and gold

the

with

difference

same or
in

an intrusive,

represent

graves

basis

which

of

are

Kimmig's

not

of Frsten.

graves

domestic
dominance

pottery,

viz.

equipment,

is marked continuity

there

In the case of settlements,

and building

in basic
In fact,

techniques.

in early

settlements
is no evidence
could

be said

settlements

for

in both

(1953)
is
by
Zurn
stressed
and others.
and practices
a distinctive
set of materials

There

tradition

to distinguish

in
benefits

material

life

or
of

and settlements

'individuals'.

the

D-

of Alb-Hegau

pottery

Hallstatt

and burials

graves

land

than

below.

inclusion

matched

arable

was under

population

Hallstatt

the

imports

southern

found

the

low

Late

difficult

in

either

Thus,

quantitative.

the

be shown below,

graves,

and other

usually

is

individuals

these

population

Frsten

the

that

land

over

be elaborated

will

Western
kilometre

density

under

assumed

control
to

in

was.

generally

that

As will

evidence.

Fllrsten

manpower

the

suggestion

however,

situation
for

disease

change,

that

square

per
the

feudalism

the

at

population

climatic

be appropriate

to

considered

to

Age Europe

Iron

Early

of

feudal

the

of

estimates

4.0% of

low

causes,

wealth:

we look

density

the

c. 3.5

due to

its

of

source

is

It

been

premise

population

Germany

when only

Whatever
the

in

if

But,
that

appropriateness

basic

the

The exceptionally

to

thought

was not

is

2.2,

at

estimated

is

wealth.

low:

the

against

society

basis

technology.

for

Hallstatt

real

are

(Duby

arguments

main

late
the

Europe
is

the

death

their
but

inhabitants

certain
from
contacts
cannot

the

beginning

with
be said

the
to

of
of

south

which

the Frstens'
Hallstatt
are

be limited

D.

The

recognised

in

to

certain.

their

302

With

nor

characteristic

in

organisation

the

of

members

As yet,

Since

it

society

while

is

an independ-

not

by

manipulated

aspects

other

their

of

cohesion

be deliberately

all

living

urban

settlement

organisation

cannot

ignoring

the

economic
of

observed

negating

settlement

system,

a social

is

for

The settlement

the

of

workshops

and are

as we can

tell

The

of

extent
yet

not

the

organisation

The enclosure

of

indication
be
an
may
buildings,

without

area

class

social

distance

trade

The mud-brick
Dehn

(1958)

copy

foreman
presence
domestic

the

Greek

the

the role

the

'Ionian'
at

the

world
is

IV

of

either

wares

route

of

the

for

(eg.

of

a large
area.

emergence

involved

in

Heuneburg

of

long

contact.

attempted

Greek'workers

- or

trained

by Greeks.

He cites

and the

use

Nyons,

Drome)

1962).

this

had

an

of

with

of

is

Heuneburg

the

habitation

example

far

phase

Dehn and Frey

the

be

features).

or

include

the

become

an obvious

'Bauherr'

area

of

to

wealth

LE PEGUE (near

explanation

extent

(as

any particular

to

may or may not

contents

eg.

as evidence

who had been

of the Rhone-Saone

is a popular
This
(1956,207).
Schiek

than

fortifications,

painted

architecture

methods,

graves

Heuneburg

workers

plateau

Mediterranean

that

suggested

- or with
of

of

entire

the

sufficient

the

with
wall

Frsten

with

to

- as published

structures

their

of

belonging

fortification
rather

the

Dehn regards
elite

of

habitation

accounts

occupation

which

from

available

the Heuneburg

buildings

with

undetailed
debris

the

known.

associated

usually

from

in

out

is

urbanisation
from

evidence

carried

activities

craft

for

evidence

no conclusive

D.

Hallstatt

of

he is

adoption

of

neither

different

of

on the

imitation

through

is

which

the society.

of

to

society

Mediterranean

the

of

variable

ent

a tribal

By insisting

organisation.

own social

city-state,

is

Kimmig

Frsten,

the

of

the

of

to

standard,

D Fllrsten

Hallstatt

aspirations

one aspect

organisation.

and political
the

'urban'

the

impose

to

attempting

by

to

regard

mud-bricks

a Greek
the

in

as confirmation

(1974).

the

appearance

of

FUrstengrRber,

eg.

303

The multiplicity
(eg.

by Dehn

The Etruscan
imports

with

prototypes

are

probable

use of

Hallstatt

D 1.

(1972).

(1972)

Eastern

and the

from

the

from

the

Middle

Burgundy

Hallstatt

of

Ages

the

beginning

the

Alps

until
of

Hirten'

This,

he maintains,

(eg.

opportunity

for

direct

Fairsten

the

nature
in

explain

the

the

ivory

to

contacts

the

of

learn

this
of

about

evidence for
in
particular
-

or their

he
'fiirst-

France.

southern

exceptional

the

Grafenblhl),

southern
and. the

architecture.

the recognition
Central

to those

significance

to

references,

Italy

to our understanding

contributed

to

shepherd

of

southern

Alb

activity

the

in

colonists

in

reports

made southward

Barbarians'

occurrence

are

Swabian

winters

rank

Hallstatt

transhumance

of

the

northern

found

in
Dehn

Late
there

and Homeric

Greek

in

of

of diverse
and Southern

either

the

participating

them.

With
indications

these

of its

'shepherd

And why should

thus

absent

he does not

to transhumance,

regard

Frsten'

D.
prior

an essentially
from

his

cite

Nor does he state

practice.

to have begun in Hallstatt

and

with

convincing

But he has not

of these

class

that

applying

on biblical

the south

with

of contact

France..

In

contact

krater,

Vix

Dehn has presented

routes

advisable.

the

elaborated

century

particular

Dehn specifies

would

the

this

The severe

-Drawing
the 'ruling

of

in

liche

objects

sheep

in

of

comparisons,

He notes
of

of

between

south.

herds.

the
members

envisages

Marseilles.

further
of

of

may be

early

is

unrelated
interaction

hinterland

populations,

accompanying

totally

explanation

herds

with

two

of

from

connections

bowls.

importance

the

passes

southern

bronze

as indicators

Alpine

discussed

he discusses

Dehn stresses

a novel

and sometimes

migration
Late,

basis

bossed-rim

bowls

distribution

is

conveyed

the

the

and

and Western

Northwest

area

known

of these

On the

proposes

Firsten

to

reference

- and their

An interpretation
Dehn

and items

used

imitations.
made

bowls

bronze

routes

Dehn 1965)

locally

or

these

of

people

any archaeological

whether

How are we to understand

to

the

fuedal
for

establishment
type

months

of

Frst

on end?

of
also

he envisages

it

the emergence of
southern
be the

These

contacts?
shepherd

questions

cannot

30A.

firstly

be answered
to

the

it

which

distinct

does

not,

practices

to

the

the

neither
their

their

the

nor

plans.

that

changes

in

of

was the

intensification
the

of

result

trade

with

the

of
the

of
this

the

mud-brick
of

panelling

This

could

local

have

'citadel'.

of

the establishment

from

Germany
it.

between

quite

transhumance

attribute

required

an

since

Nor

could

Ha D centres

the

caused

layout

'economic

be allowed
wealth
political

settlement

of a new dynasty

mentioned

of

details

with

with

establish

and power

of

conflicts
the

its

on the

floor

at

least

mud -brick

a base
the

ruling

which

led

own burial

layout

quarter;

wall.

ingratiating

mud-brick

for

and

craft

southerners

merchants,
to

the

of the

be.

as evidence

mud-bricks

of

a.

would

techniques
of

the

ie.

IV b3

of

building

use

by southern

the

layout

presence
the

that

following

as well

characteristics

the

with

Barbarenfursten',

are
the

settlement

c he believes

IV

The

the

the

can be correlated

centre'

south.

explain

the

interpret

to

During

pottery;

that

to

order

is

a 'wohlhabenden

the

arranged

the

because

taken

Southwestern

have

the

tower;

- would

been

to

relations

'urban'

southern

and destruction

the

imported

the

would

The following

wall;

have

dynasty

simply

be juxtaposed.

of

with

due course,

In

are

Heuneburg.

the

in

'dynasty'

and shepherd

changes

new role.

basis

on a seasonal

of

would

of

and secondly,

clear);

of

practised,

collaboration

First

from

in

He_suggests

a workshop.

of

were

far

became

trade

south:

it

is

main

the

which

if

the

about

concern

residence

centre,

political

(even

inappropriate

partners.

etc)

He suggests

Heuneburg

brought

economy

trading

role

here

explain

(1974

the

with

D inhabitants

possibly

Gersbach's

of

is

transhumance

seem appropriate

Hallstatt

southern

idea

cannot

therefore,

ecology

practice

and

roles

-they

societies,

It

have

colonists

and economic

social

the

concerned

would

and Greek

shepherds
the

we are

society

way in

the

because

in

the
their
Heuneburg

to

fortifications

the

burning
and

ground.

liveis
form
that
transhumance
migratory
a
of
general,
one can say
be
farming
would
which
practised
under
certain
conditions
stock
(b)
Germany,
(a) ecological
In the case of Southwest
or
economic.
introduced
is no ecological
been'
have
for
to
there
transhumance
reason
during
Iron Age.
In the Mediterranean
the Early
zone, on the other
in pre-Roman
is known to have been practised
times
hand, transhumance
it
'167)
for
(eg. Slicher
1966,
Bath
van
arrangements
and contractual
(Duby 1968,147).
in Southern
France
are known from the 12th century
Europe.
The same should
Central
not be assumed to apply
to temperate

* In

305

Gersbach

does,

in

relation

Heuneburg

in

fact,
its

to

the

recognise

to

need
but

surroundings

think

the

of

that

regrets

ber
'Leider
die Siedlungsverhaltnisse
wissen wir
im nheren
der Burg so
Umkreis
wie im weiteren
gut wie nichts,
so dass sich auch die Grenzen
des durch die Burg reprsentieren
Machtgebildes
Kenntnis
einstweilen
unserer.
entziehen'

(1974,200)

it

is

failure

this

an interpretation

at

limited

details

to

to

features,

but

southern

In
discard
complex.
the

contacts

his

were

applied

begin

Heuneburg

to

and often

includes

to

their

to

be evaluated.

area

Kemmig and Dehn) and

outstanding
the

context,

prominently

a larger

makes his attempt

inadequate.
His views

Heuneburg.

the

real

If

his.

material
impact

of

and
the

'Habilitationsarbeit'

unpublished

He also

the

of

restricted

not

equally

could

some popular,

aspects

material

on the physical

that

(from

derivative

are largely
of

detail

attention

history

of the settlement

contacts

on southern

of the Heuneburg

context

and social

environment

information

to use the available

Driehaus
held,
than

is

views.
usual

attempts
on the

to*
Heuneburg

when discussing

situation.

If the increased
of the Heuneburg is to be
economic function
increased
be
trade
the
then
this
to
with
south,
must
attributed
analyses of the material
on which this hypothesis
shown in quantitative
in situ find of a Greek sherd was on a
is based.
Since the earliest
in settlement
IV a7_1_(Lang 1974), the imported Greek
house-floor
be
in
found
the subject
the
could
settlement
not
of analysis.
pottery
Instead,
the features
contents would
plans and their
of the settlement
in minute detail.
For example, it would have to
have to be studied
be seen whether or not within
the phase IV c or IV b3 settlements,
found
content
arrangement
were
of
exceptional
material
or
which
areas
This would be
quarter'.
as the 'southerners'
could be interpreted
is
if
'southern
be
the
to
seriously
presence
of
workers'
expected
considered.
base'
fleuneburg
The location
the
of a 'merchants'
would also
within
have to be substantiated.
Evidence
for production,
and
storage
facilities
distinctive
The context
of
would be required.
of finds
bones (Kimmig
donkey. and chicken
1968) and their
may
associations
here but have not been fully
be relevant
published.

306

He points
'FUrstensitz':

sites

who even

(1970,125).

basis

graves

can be seen

size

of

He attempts
in

settlements

(1959,10)

Hallstatt

C, Driehaus

Frsten

wagons,
and

the

the

in

factors

large

the

also

charcoal,

wood, skins,

'Die

involved,

the

Fllrsten

of

the

in

centres

Ha D Frsten

(1969,81)
the

and
found

wagons
producing

high

craftsmen,

and

Following

in

the

graves

input

labour
are

Heuneburg.

important

all

These

(p. 276) - have to depend on

In addition

and raw materials.

production

of simpler

known to have been made in

'surplus'
wool and

Anlagen

212)

contents.

the

of

JankUhn

large-scale

supplies

from a large

(n. d.

265)

difficulties

products

armrings

on,

manufacture

of

inter-

Heuneburg

the

function

different

he envisages

on raw material

have to be obtained

the

would - he suggests
subsistence

(n. d.

graves

fact,

exceptional

of

and functioning

existence

be defined

craft

metal
of

collaboration

in

and emphasis
economic

for

not,

Heuneburg.

of

contributions

of

quantities

workshops

dependent

the

example

such as the bronze

items,

of,

Frstensitz

the

role

by Ztlrn,

Frsten

are

their

of

proximity

the

all

from

The technological

craftsmen
specialist
for
'customers'
their
to specialist

to

Frsten

followed

not

general

evidence

econouic

the

graves.

required

the

stresses

for

due

two

the

from

should

* in

finds;

a group

the

the

graves

recognition

(1970,120)),

the

form

(acknowledging

residences

and that

that

and

are

also

distance

to

graves

Frsten

of

Kossack's

in

of

interpret

terms

(1969),

definition

and gold

to

due to

(n. d. 271) insists

to

Frstensitze

the

near

'Frstengrab'

of

as Frstensitze

residences

with

on the

Zrn

ranks

The Hallstatt

dependent.

graves

Kimmig's

Driehaus

connected

are

is
the

related

rich

defined

are

This

graves.

rich

the

viz.

the

graves;

in definitions

the tautology

out

from long

distance

subsistence

area serving

the Talhau,

trade.

Iron,

commodities

would

the Heuneburg

(pp. 282-3).

[the

Flirstensitze]
reprsentieren
differenzierte
Gebilde
recht
offensichtlich
mit
Komponente,
wirtschaftliche
starker
weitreichenden
Hinterland,
Handelsbeziehungen,
einem grsseren
'
das der Versorgung
diente.

(P 284)
.

* This would apply

area, which will

mainly to the Hallstatt

be discussed below.

D2

finds

in

the Hohenasperg

307

He doubts

the

FBrsten,
shop

Thus,

the

the

Hohenasperg

dependence
case

He sees

explanation

of

the

contributed

to

the

the
at

been

in

used

c. 10 persons

(p. 272,

(p. 278)

per

tin

also

km2 (in

and silk,,,

He suggests

for

Hartman

through

'Nordkontakte'

far-reaching

trade

individual
of

ability

and choice

to achieve

recognise
high

the

connections.

'economic

rank within

their

and attributes
possibilities'
society:

organised-and
slaves

has

time

since

been

the

Alpine

Driehaus

have been

part
were
resorts

of

their

time

the

to a notion

the FUrstengrilber
of

area

increasing

Amber could

- which

estimated

beads,

and glass

ie.

would

and Vordertaunus);

Eastern

D.

and

raw materials

copper

Hallstatt

on

die

that

Hunsruck

gold,

depend

und Nahhandel,

were

the

of

- unspecified

Heuneburg's

who could

that

he

no adequate

or

the

origin

during

Fernspiegeln

via

obtained

the

the

and as

trade

He doubts

for

in

which,

would

of

and production

particular

were

terms
von

at

the

Auftreggeber'.

he can offer

Europe

northwest

Bohemian gold

use of southern
obtained

for

given).

and quotes

in

ie.

Furthermore,

commodities

southern

Heuneburg

(dagegen)

and Hohenasperg

kleinen

Fhrsten.

the

of

for

trade

no reference

possibly

existence

trade

which

km der

'Zentralen'

Kunst,

But,

because

interpretation,

Zusammenspiels

(p. 277).

density

population

Fhrsten

Handwerklicher

in
way

'30

des Reichtums'

the

away.

be expected

and-Switzerland.

zahllosen

further

288).

Heuneburg

der

of
des

Ergebnisse

Frstengrabausstattungen'

have

Rhine

extensive

who were

verraten

dominant

'Abstufungen

einheimischer,

mit

verbunden

Upper

goods

grave

'Die

production:

be the

the

found

to

Driehaus's

on the

Mglichkeiten

the

of

and work-

Frsten

manufacture:

(n. d.

zu den Zemtrum'

the

is

Bestattungen

gelegene

different

the

of

that

are

graves

of

part

graves

outlying

available

those

supplied

centre

main

D, would
in

'finanzieller

the

contents

been

he proposes

and whose

'Aussenposten'

sites

that

envisages

have

a significant

Hallstatt

of

would

entfernt

the

of

unknown

yet

the

Bezug

forms

This

Instead,

the

supplying

have

not

met.

the

with

deutlichen

einen

the

in

similarity

craftsmen

would

Frstensitz

the

at

connection

und von

easily

a Frstensitz

at

itinerant

of

raw materials

not

conditions

resident

not

the

since

workshops

of

possibility

to men
and use it

10Is

'Durchaus
verstindlich
erscheint
es, dass einzelne
Persnlichkeiten
die sich bietenden
wirtschaftlichen
Mglichkeiten
ihres
Zeitalters
erkannten,
sie
in bestimmte
Bahnen lenkten
plannvol
organisierend
der dadurch
und sich an die Spitze
entstandenen
'
Hierarchie
stellten.

(P 290)
.
With
the

accept
the

view
in

shift

of
living,

the

have

would

Frsten

the

is

conflict

have

the

dead

discussed.

not

c. 20 Frsten

been

use

been

dynasty'.

as an indication

of

the

(p. 266).

The

and
that

3-5

years;

and hence

contemporaries

cause

(p. 287)

120-140

within

a house

a settlement:

He estimates

graves

that

of

members

family.

one

Some aspects

terms

the

of

economics

all

interpretation

is not

of all

(cf.

'economy'
an

to isolate

is his

institutions

of the economic

attempt

of

adherence

Most important

possible.
ness'

integration

to

attempt

due to his

is
his

that

the

can be challenged,
see

Frsten,

but

the

Frsten

not

only

the

graves
those

a 'F{lrstensitz'.

it

However,

in

is

economic

with

associated

interpretation

Driehaus's

of

interpretation

his

of

value
in

for

a house

'new
a

and stresses

the

not

and others
of

grave-robbing

by

represented

appearance

Ftlrstensitz

the

at

conflict

therefore

would

for

evidence

as a tomb:

of

nature

there

the

tradition

the

does

Driehaus

(1959)

Schiek

represented

ground

internal

continuity

the

of

history,

settlement

(1969,1974),

Gersbach

burial

continual

for

Heuneburg

the

he emphasises

Instead,
of

to

regard

as-found

of formal

to the principles
coherent

is not

and explanation

failure

to recognise

Polanyi

1957)

the

and his

in societies

with

'embedded-

mistaken

a market

system.

of supply and demand, production

capacity
principles
and
to the organisation
of Hallstatt
acumen of individuals
society,

By attributing
business
he misses
economic

the social

for

control

and gold

subsistence,

results

control

and integrate

the different

processes.

Centralised
copper

mechanisms which

of

of Hallstatt

- and
are

pooling

over
the

imported

dependence

recognised

of

some members

by Driehaus

and redistribution

D economic

raw materials

organisation.

but

mechanisms

should
which

of

such

as tin,

society
be viewed
form

the

on others
as
basis

309

The debate
to

opposed

the
is

societies

economy,

which

results

(note

the

which

would

process

of

in

advance

are

not

In

order

for

stressed

Although
lack

work

and have

Firstly,

Paulus,

is

The

crucial

the

domain

found

in

the

recognition
of

must

be considered.

components

individual

misleading
economies

with

economic

(1957,

eg.
in

cohesion

(following
process:,

250).

He
institutions,

social

and stability.
the Ha D developments

of

do contain

they

power,
to

of

Polanyi

process

regularity,

must be used

allocation
societies,

the

of

economic

explanatory

develop

frame-

an alternative

phenomenon.

recognition

imports

of

and other

the

the

existence
of

centralised

Frsten

foreign

the

'dynasties'
Gersbach,

is

found

of
to

region

recognition
with

an area
in

individuals

the

Spindler

for

production

dynasties

status

Secondly,
of

Kimmig,

special

items

and others).

writings
of

quite

and concepts

are

pre-industrial

limited

and

theory

the

and

or

interpretations

the

concepts

demonstrated

etc

non-

the

Frsten

means. '

principles.

popular

Kimmig

settlements

specialised

work.

is

southern

(cf.

found

domains

there

graves

whose

are

the

explaining

have

and exchange
of

which

observations

for

3 main

currently

coherence

relevant

transfer

the economic process

give

which

of

o an

societies

commodities

of

these

'embeddedness'

the

market

'..

material

economy

those

empirical

and other

capital,

of

redistribution,

reciprocity,

viz.

in

distinguished

1954)

fixing,

price

movement

be analysed

mechanisms

market

for

environment,

satisfying

and others
of

(see

as

man and his

definition.

(1972)

the

concept,

want

non-industrial

detail

defines

'choice'

a 'formal'

along

the

of

understanding

our

organised

to

between

application

in

as

of

be discussed

resources',

Sahlins

substantive

analysis

substantive

supply

in

and demand,

as supply

the

of

'scarce

the

economic

(1957,248)

interaction

of

that

different

basis

the

of

cannot

Polanyi

be prominent

and do not

but

a continuous

(1957),

to

approach

1969).

absence

services

appropriateness

here,

the

convincingly

in

is

Polanyi

Nauss

formal

relevant

which

instituted

that

the

Humphreys

example

such

over

Driehaus's

of

territorial
and other.
exceeding

310

The formulation

is

It

Age in

(1960),

been

tested

power

political

of

high

assigned

and demonstrated
value

general

with

their

of

and the

organisation

the

Of course,
data

they

to

used

traditional

develop

their

and organisation.

prehistorians

provides

of

model

over

a long

have

been modified

and

substantiate
model

will

data

different

to

in
it.

time.

of

period

considered

a unique

for

this

terms

of

Finally,

be tested

against

their

the

case. *

The model

the

archaeological

the

explanatory
particular

differs

the

extend
in

constant

the

model

to

will

ethnic
to
application
conditions

be used

be described

in

one would

expect

data

and predictive
data

viz.

available

model

of

the

hypotheses,

data
both

the

from

and present

different

test

of

a model

of

their

to

The

framework

data

and test

defined

theoretical

European

The particulars

the

have

are

and political

and application

opportunity

case.

which

economic

documentation,

and to

goods

economies'.

models

But

The association

world.

foreign

archaeological

some historical

accounts,

formulations

Their
the

Sahlins

'prestige-good

Central

the

of

nature

(1972),

They

of

the
theory

and analysed.

formulation
the

by

of Meillassoux

work

to

the

of

anthropological

between

value

to

be achieved

of

access

on relations

the

understanding

Ekholm

parts

these

of

our

and others.

observed

distributions

the

(1972),

been

work

by

the

on the

over

economy

prestige-good

particular

explanatory

be demonstrated

will

on general

different

function

the

based

control

has

status

can only

(1971)

in

on cases

in

progress

Duprd

Strathern

economy

Germany

a model

and Rey (1968),

Duprd

a prestige-good

real

and in

(1963,1968,1972),
have

that

of

relations,

exchange

of

Southwestern

application

rigorous
of

a model

here

proposed

Iron

Early

of

of

the

power

of

here'

full
to
the

Southwestern

German Ha D case.

this
model was developed
with M. J. Rowlands
as part
of a
in Southwestern
La Thne developments
Germany.
of. Ha D and Early
study
Here,
Rhine.
and the Middle
a developed
version
of the model presented
in our joint
in September
1974 is used
Society
paper to the Prehistoric
in greater
detail
to demonstrate
than was then possible
the internal
in-Southwestern
Germany.
structure
of the Iron Age society

* Initially,

311

in which

From situations
in

is,

itself,
the

of

a model

a source
emergence

can be tested
The

general

of

is

model

external

time

and refers

to

the

have

focussed

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inter-lineage

in

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to

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being

for

or

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emphasis

objects

needed

payment

of

assumed

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exogamy

in

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defined

as the

the

formation

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value

symmetrical,
direction
opposite

to recompense

the lineage.

disjunction

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and therefore

bridewealth

only
It

able

in

locally

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well-

items.
of

and the

it

exist,

wealth

be

must

exchange

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group

exchange

of

women.

of some sort

the loss

permits

the valuation

in

must flow

the

fertility

of a member's

the confrontation

the

to

of unlike
in

of women and alliances

terms

of

goods.

At an early
together

reciprocal

over

material

by generalised

rules

lies

into
different
lineages,
in
marry
resulting
men and women
is
between
If
them.
exchange
of
women
alliances
not
of

As such,

objects

of

1972).

trade.

bridewealth,
to

of

system

general

including

presence

aspects

external

acquisition

one another

and those

control

the

to

against

and prohibitions

for

a structure

allied

are

groups

through

such

external

1972 and Ekholm

utilitarian

transactions,

debts.

1971),

and other

on controlling

placed

social

social

been

has

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manufacture

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of

exercising

required

over

above)

a prestige-good

be obtained

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through

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of

Germany.

hierarchisation

of

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(eg.

gained

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the

not

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(eg.

characteristic

advantage

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certain

formulate

to

possible

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anthropologists

leaders

is

in

as a process

gained

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resources

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of

control

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political

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writings

concerned

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to

of valuables

a 'prestige-good'

of

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by lineage

relations

exchange
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on the

is

D situation

an attempt

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it

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Hallstatt

structure

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and evolution

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in a tribal

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available

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-

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3IM

in

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the

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-

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only

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to

acts

capacity

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of
A

313

has

therefore

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wealth

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to

alliances
it

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to produce

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lose

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is

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come to

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to
a

of

to

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symbolically

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levels

debts.

(1972),

pay wealth

his

her

or

for

if

tendencies
its

structure:

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at

the

debt

of

becomes
women

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the cycle.

a dependent

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to

demographically

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lineage

- original

as taking

and continue

(1972)),

social
dominant

the

lineage

increase
able

poorer

the creation

own women as well

thus

to

pattern

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for

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of

group.

allies

to

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member
-

the

with

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exchange

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of

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kingdom

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to

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members

Kongo

or actual

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at

partners.

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lineages.

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endogamous,

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at

deliver

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person

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and specialities,

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himself

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to maximise

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activity,

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These

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aspects:

through

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head will

lineage

two main

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a system
tqp,

lineage
autonomy
lie"

through

the

314

formation

of

of

trade

of

creation

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distributing

wealth

At

this

the

internal

the

range

The use

items

of

or

his

own clan

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in, the

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lineage

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.
over

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for

select

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of

source

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the importance

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so that

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then

re-

bridewealth
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dominant

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to
evenly

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of metals,

be controlled

and the

hierarchy

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for

wealth

to be redistributed

who would

up

passed

partners.

will

found

controlled.

through
passed up as tribute
products
head,
lineage
or chief,
superordinate

The chief's

of exchangeable

a domain would

etc within

heads.

the political

of

his

within

segments

used

size

head

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then

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absolute

trading

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form the source

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the

commodities,
are

to

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insignia,

with

resources

stone

shells,

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over

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resources

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to emphasise

trade.

external

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from

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for

take,

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be devalued

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status

commodities

obtains

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and over

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control

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objects

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in

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and

equals,

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and at

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point

minor

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relatively

of

partnerships;

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use them in external

trade.

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when the

resources
over
There

such

production
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attainable

technical

as metal
is

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not

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be considerable
at

is

local

accessible

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incentive
level

for

required

skill

and

to
to

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to

over
develop

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the

working

actual.

specialist
use

of

certain

then

everyone,
the

of

control

sources.
skills

these

skills

not'
in

315

the
in

production

of

prestige

Tsengi-Nzabi

the

that

resources
limited

to

heads

exploitation
(eg.

techniques

capable

controlling

of

(1972)

by Dupre

observed

the

labour-intensive

lineage

(as

Alternatively,

system).

require

those

items

and status

certain

of

mining)

be

would

large

a sufficiently

workforce.

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goods to his

prestige
his

dependents.

but

reciprocal

with

chief

of another

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his

lineage

for

chiefs

this

to

ranking

to participate

checked

by the fact

that

ie.

a dependent

chief

equals,

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tribe.
wealth

heads,

the

while
it

objects,

is

to

to direct

or subchiefs,

to him.

given

on trade

then able

to
is

gain

and acquire

if

in

any point
the
to

this

productive

a new source

of

chief

of

foreign

dominant

wealth

wealth

position

chiefs

into

of
of

manages

strengthened

previously

process

capacity

new sources

a dominant

economically

with

relations

access

possible

to use his

at

between

a statis

ability

expansion

external

exists

equilibrium

and the

a monopoly

sufficient

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hierarchisation

further

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wealth

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in

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quantities

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in

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status,

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has to redistribute

chief

local

objects.
to maintain
objects.

to transform
internal

The formerly
dominant
and subordinate
rank.
of superordinate
chiefs would no longer be his status equals and would become vassal chiefs,
in
dominant
longer
to
trade
with
other
a
position
chiefs,
and would
no
relations

have to direct

From this
development

their

trading

state

of

the political

can be envisaged,

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unlimited
exclusive.
the formation
of new external

to the now paramount

activities

system,

although
expansion
political

over

three
time

possible

they

- particularly
alliances

is
-

chief.

lines

of

are not mutually

at the level
likely

to be

of

31G

checked

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and
of

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on warfare

labour.

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to

the

for

exploitation
into

need

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to

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for

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in

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needed

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to

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the

at

would

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emphasis

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foodstuffs.

lineages

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of

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trade

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if

example,
may be to

to

occur

maximise

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in

are

with

can be seen

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centres

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to expand at each other's

dominant

originally

if

Thirdly,
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because

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the above tendencies

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position

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over

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occurs,

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population

centres
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in

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to

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likely

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centre.

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to

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uniform

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since

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development

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chief.

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compete for

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over

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as a response*to

may regain

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representing
the

monopoly

external

on different

first

the

as the capacity

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of

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then vassal

paramount-chief's

to maximise

demand needs to maintain

external

would

the

organised

traders

advantage

outlets

for

particularly

system

monopoly

so far

returns

be broken,

to

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the

subvert

possibility

an economic

with

are

is

position
be at risk

trade

connections

of changes

of

in the external

in

the location

due
possibly
-

to internal

of

shifts

is
he
then
-

over

vassal

unless.

no longer

chiefs

they

the paramount

of

system with
trade

conflicts
able

routes

to establish

which
and

resulting

to maintain

and sub-chiefs.

are-able

chief

In turn,

his
their

independent

317

trade

external

their

supply

of prestige

domain will

political

This

type

dependence
internal

between

into

are linked

structures,

unit,

long-distance

set

of

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trading

partners.

through

an increased

as to cohere

existing

for

of

these

the

local

if

to

we are

understand

the external

conditions

and for

political

development

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play

of

force

level,
both

in

therefore,

therefore,

predict

contradictions

the
to

power relations

would

have no

centres

in which

a cycle

security

only
in

which

way to maintain
obtain

on external

intensification

by local

the

of local

the context

a dependence

such local

threaten

for

The internal

peripheries.

through

internal
that

local

increasing
and
Patterns
area.

form

immediate

instability

use

than

productive

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into

the

than

specialisation

demand can be satisfied

At

systems

relations

evolution

a state,

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control.

of

these

as production

larger

above are realised,

productive

bringing

create

well

and alliances

of external

external

risk

the

to a wider

of production

political

that,

internal

for

upon access

trade

or

As

relationships..

objects,

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a tribe

the incentive

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increasing

with

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may be a number of relays

of wealth

in

Its

control.

to mobilise

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worth

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existence

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effective

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feature

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at

of a eider

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always

intensification

centres

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be a constant

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it

of

in terms

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structure

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of

conditions

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in terms

both

on the capacity

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to

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at

down

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unstable

functioning

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political

internal

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with

appears

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fail

system over which

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dealt

therefore

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regional

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to lose

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means of control.
inwards as
from the periphery

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of structure
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goods and thus

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through

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example with

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for

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structure

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be subverted

of

labour

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as

3-18

local

by perverting

A pattern
One of

these

attempt

to

centres

position

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more

at

dominant

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But,

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entail

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of

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a point

of using

to maintain

the

resources

developments

to

area.

within

to

is

this

local-competing

of

emergence

core

of

more

at

of

expansion.

likely

exchange
centres

core

an external

control

to the

for

peripheries,

accumulation

of

related

of

expansion

is

level

local

the

of

between

alliances

terms

is

centres

duplication

of

development

the

situations

by competition

the

points

the

at

centres

stimulated
Since

these

in

think

understanding

of

reality

between

to

further

to

expense

The relations

dependent

terms-of

convenient

a pattern

emerge.

as a prelude

demand for

external

in

either

time,

other

of

the

and at

level.

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centre.

capacity

expense

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will

dominant

productive

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level

and warfare

exchange

each

centre.

local

the

at

centres

the

over

emerges at the local

therefore

centres

be the original

will

control

expand

originally

to

their

who would maintain

and by establishing

monopolies

of competing

extend

thereby

will

partners

structures.

stable

and

trading

of external

response

their

in

the core

area will

recognise

- known from experience

in the peripheral
contacts

In contrast

to the previous

to be
areas

phase of

in
heterogenous
existing,
which
exchange between core and periphery
items
is
in
found
were
used
now
situation
-a
sumptuary
which in an
interdependence
increased
has stimulated
to devote part
core centres
of

their

wealth

effort

productive
This

objects.

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to

adopt

to

the

development
a more

manufacture
would

specialised

of

coincide
role

a restricted
with
in

their

range

the'incentive
intervention

offor

19

between

and peripheral

core
in

exists

and facilitating

controlling

but

routes,

communication
supplying

the

traders.

With

hinterlands

manufactured
gradual
the

of

are

populations

between

exchange

that

such

the

acculturation

it

dependent

core

and periphery.

exists

in

in

populations

is

for

also

zone

into

the

specialist

immediate

formed

that

between

these
in

role

a middleman
is

is

directly

the

zone

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zone

peripheral

natural

primarily

can be expected

intermediate

the

along

items

on playing

already

goods

an intermediate

centres,

system's

position

of

largely

of

of

luxury

and

In many cases,

extension

spatial

flows

secure

goods

core

and periphery.

core

a more

function

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centres.

the

a tendency

for

peripheral

zone,

being

constantly

extended

outwards.
Finally,

two patterns
Firstly:

as a whole.
domains

combined

mediate

centres

seen

in

the

the

with

Hence,

we can expect

system

to

system.

regional

core

area

could

area,

but

also

in

the core

since

lead
the

not

to

only

for

are critical

periphery.

areas

in

complexity
3 zones.

all

one part

- other

parts
the

the

system,

crises

in

a shift
whole

dominance

system

in

the

in

the relations

of the

system as a whole,
only

minor

the

peripheral
A crisis

the system of dominance

Hence,

centres

core

dominance.

of

the

within

between

regional

the

of

relationship

represent

will

in

centres

dominance

undermine

the maintenance

the peripheral

of

the

of

collapse

on its

the

interand

considerable

of

indirectly

or

basis

the

area can therefore

has generated

in

However,
is

in

shifts

either

pattern

system

peripheral

among core

different

of

the

within

within

advantage

a regional

localised

areas

and peripheral

for

competition

directly

contradictions

and decline

expansion

affect

internal

generate

will

can be predicted

change

of

between

that

core

whilst

oscillations

it

centres
crises

of shifting

dominance.

Secondly:
in

occurs
tions

the

centres
which

the regional

between

stresses
of

the peripheral

core

thereby
peripheral
will

may in

system

centres

set

be at greatest

as a whole.

Increasing

could

disrupt

on. the peripheral

structures

be overshadowed
turn

domains will

threaten

at

the

zone would
Thus,

risk.

by. the

the regional

the

repercussions

existence

of

the

put
rivalry

risk

antagonistic

a crisis
rela-

system and the

the very
between

in. peripheral
core

if

centres.

survival
core
domains,

indicators

The archaeological

The processes

that,

characteristics
to

used

this

transformation

of

matching

of

the

to

be passed
of

vention

complexes

in

for

tribute

of

this,

items

and paramount

chiefs.

within

be controlled

technical

of

the

direct

their
in

their

simple

the esteem or value

production

of

paramount

level.

the

most

of

expect

basketry

at which
therefore

and domestic

household

level;

manufactured

grades

sophisticated

of

wealth
craft

up as

passed

over

requiring
be

the

objects
items

to certain

the political

control
that

pottery

is

utilitarian

- would

'
commodities
level;

and

insignia,

system

exercised

fairly

village

being

be a

should

attached
in

craft

certain

artifacts

low value
at

latter

the

of

As a correlate

there

conveyors

hierarchy

We might

ornaments

hierarchy

an ascending

Hence,

as status

both

and esteem could

between

at a domestic

or

value

local

of

include

part

those

and cloth.

the political

- such as woodwork,

in

to be exercised
high

of

support

production

pottery

significance

the

trade..

of

new crop

of

mobilisation

least

external

control

to which

skill

production.

manufactured

in

production,

resources

the

over the production

of correspondence
items;

is

inter-

the

expect

for

segments

it

would

introduction

the

not

foodstuffs

not

Local

is

power

Instead,

and at

and use

eg. metalwork,

as tools

hypothetical

in

subsistence

or

but

specialities,

likely-to

and the point

over

and

and subsequently

political

in

surpluses.
lineage

clan

particularly

attached,

craft

depth
to

available

we need

innovation

redistribution

activities,

degree

can be
meaningful

analytical

by definition

authority

increase

we can expect

degrees

a more

terms

is

what

model,

or

and local
more

the

Therefore

political

to

order

subchiefs

is

that

to

essential
form,

modelling

culture

so that

technological

occurs

foodstuffs

in

subsistence;

centralised
either

leaders,

in

general

material

expectations

up as tribute.

involving

resources

into

in

data
loss

made from

certain

culture

material

an inevitable

outlined

structure

linked

directly
not

material

into

archaeological

is

model

imply

model

record.

archaeological

In

is

transition
the

general

available

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point,

as the

precision

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the

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translated

when

reinterpret

At

way.

in

embodied

controlled

be
such
and

through

to-the
at

the

; 4. j

kind

This

at

production

certain

be greater

should
hierarchy

to

increasing

in

in

importance
specialists

primarily

of

number
which

involving

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basis

of

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more

representing
be both

a mixture

of

trade

foreign

locally

domain

should

show a high

effect

in

sense

wealth

objects

than

at

the

lower

that

degree
a more

can be anticipated
levels.

Hence. in

the
of

a strongly

surpluses,

(eg.

ranking

trade

in

partners

and wealth

heads

the

between

them may

raw materials
insignia

and status
of

uniformity

levels
hierarchical

of

traders

as exotic

objects

objects

Inter-regional

between

assemblage

higher

lineage,
evidence

and specialist

distribution

complex
at

links

wealth

capacity

burials).

as well

stylistic

or

food

What passes

items

re-

contingent

pattern

of

full-time

through

ultimately

resources

of
them

into

than

clan

of

relative

on the

rather
is

craft

internal

structure.

partners.

status

to

for

between

political

as a 'series

Internally,

redistribution.

this

and between

distant

be fashioned

could

which

domains

political

separate

of

can be seen

therefore,

trade,

cohesion

to

production,

'chiefly'

domestic

of

support

food

practice

exchange

exchange

reciprocal

part-time

storage

primary

external

of

settlement

burial

the

to

relation

discussed,

As already

for

in

burials

secondary

in

proportion

a chiefly

the

skill

productivity

therefore,

power

structures,

and possibly

areas)

in

both

the

in

land

to

into

absorbed

to

production

by

a greater

place

of

intensify

chiefly

materials,

lineages

depends,

labour

of

Hence,

domestic

of

and number

use of

or

be marked

should

would

craft

to

group

may be reflected

the

increases

exchange

dependents

level

The support

ratio

innovation.

technological

the

the

status

a function

of

support

by changing

high

clans

labour

external

chief's

a paramount

the

turn

largely

intensification

and for

distribution

is

hierarchy.

a chiefly

in

each

chiefly

demand for

and the

workshop

dominant

there
good

uniformity

in

Secondly,
craft

stylistic

This

craft

the

lower

in

in

down in

variation

dominance

the

hierarchy.

Thirdly,

settlement

intervention

or

a regional

sophistication

in

firstly,

control

production.

Since
groups,

support

is

in

on more

specialists.

(size

levels

greater

craft

responsibility

factor

political

technological

labour

on the

for

distribution.

regional

be reflected,

should

stylistic

rising

of

goods

of

situation

evidence

with

material

and

of

such

items

within

and a scalogram

of

status

in

a chiefly

insignia

structure,

and

hierarchy
vassals

322

and

so that

paramount,
to

access

linking

of

of

insignia

in

domain,

each

will

in

artefacts

The

the

with
The

status

hierarchisation

of

each

of

burials,

its
at

is
be found

will

values
and

head.

in

the

lesser

over

of

centralised

distribution
commodities.
different
hierarchy.

political

may be used

a group.

appears

chiefs

of a paramount.
at least

the

in a tumulus

burials

to

produced

as a series

At the most developed

The vassal

over

authority

them

by

an

uniformity

their

be defined

in

will

would

a number of village

in

stage

the

have a paramount
be linked

Below the vassal

one level

of sub-domains

by tribute
chief

of sub-chiefs

or

who could

heads or over

an

chiefs.

external

trade

is

a prerogative

of

the paramount,

to those resources
restricted
and items that carry highest
Control
or value in internal
and external
exchange transactions.

the control
status

to

sub-domains

tracing

each domain or sub-domain

one can anticipate

control

it

by the

domestically

within

structure
domain.

relations

of

by

levels

of secondary

to the sub-domain

Whilst

linked

materials

and contrasting
of

ranking

its

of
minimally

objects,

reflecting

political

level

is

different
of

of

settlement

insignia
that

definition

can also

sub-domain

chief

intermediary

the

categories

and raw materials,

combinations

variation

process,

have political

important
in

and

the

centralised

one domain

wealth

and distribution

or vassal

paramount,

in

effects

a single,

be anticipated

prestige

of

the political

a single

by differential

and compositional

more

than

be recognised

some cases the presence

the internal
to understand

within

the

of

different

could

In

Spatially,

to

more

in

and the

stylistic

greater

structure

ranked

a domain

manufacture

of

items

domains.

combinations

particular

technical

imports

could
in

context

archaeological

points

it

different

of

where

by

from

status

these

of

be situated

should

differences

cut

resulting

extent

case

foreign

of

although

be applied

the

Similarly,

clear

Both

craft

objects,

source

that

in

which,

chief.

common external
unlikely

dispersed

widely

their

of

be represented

will

be confirmed

turn

and wealth

a paramount

ranking
and regalia.

in

manufacture

insignia

obtain

political

should

evidence

to

insignia

status

distribution

point

likely

are

sub-chiefs

is

32

is

therefore

exercised

goods

that

Hence,

it

lesser

chiefs

those

their

through
in

the

continues

act

charters

of address,

behaviour,

external

trade

partners

level.

at a higher

controlled
at different

of goods or resources
levels

the

within

are legitimated
have a vested interest
they
,

and sub-chiefs

tribute/redistribution

as the

the structure,

will

also

in the framework

particularly
to resources

access

costume and other

network

functions

Ideological

position.

and ritualised

of mythical

exchange.

exchange

as long

and legitimate

to maintain

obtain

to a paramount

their

to maintain

to

of

external

what kind

vassals

structure

for

kind

on the

determines

external

relationship

maintaining

them

are in fact

In the sense that

hierarchy.

by limitations

to mobilise

for

therefore
into

can be channelled

but

able

goods that

itself

The structure

are

be impossible

should

and receive

by force

not

to modes

and rights

and ritual

ceremonial

paraphernalia.
Since

the

highest

of

exchange
external

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paramount,
burial

even

have

will

the

external

In

accoutrements

dress,

of

cultures

with

an

of

comprehended.

the

of

controlling

as a dependent

vaguely

on patterns
of

'characteristic

rites

on his
acts

a number

take

will

paramount

turn

may be only

structure

chiefs

same way as vassal

he in

goods,

status

whose

system

depends

a paramount

of

position

the
a

of

custom

and

whom he is

in

contact.

Finally,

certain

in

patterns

the

the

internal

example,

rival

witnessed
centre.

Such a state

exchange

relationships

pattern

of

emerge,

with

that

competing
each

had previously

within

in

hostilities

of

insecurity

at

from

If

external

levels

in

risk.
lower

centres

within

subdivision
characterised

put

the

the

at

as a whole.

the
of

In

tribute

paramount's
external
problems

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domain
the

and

be

their

then

by

it

could

solve

uniform

distinguished
domain

structures.

of

perpetuity

hierarchy,

our

between

or

change

partners

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now being

such

expansion,

the

the

from

intensification

the

and dynastic
would

in
clan

to maintain

order

of

at

links

by establishing

a dominant

resulting

required
evidence

inherent

contradictions

lineages,

and redistribution
in

logical

can be predicted

that

record

conflicts

aristocratic

can be made concerning

predictions

archaeological

of

understanding
For

tentative

should

'same criteria
time,

it
0

3a4

be possible

would

was previously'
in

establish

it

find

convenient
his

assert

to

links

with

The domain will

at

of

unstable

In

into

the

to

the

This

a small,

compacted

central

surrounded

by a hinterland
level

of

small

and competing

The application

of

the

to

model

the

have

both

Ha C and D1

burial

rite

characteristic

in

Ha C;

which
the
begin
the

population.

continued

1935-38;

use

Zrn

to

TANNHEIM.

those
But,

continuity

of

in

pottery

1943).

(eg.

trappings
related

in

of

Ha D of

TROCHTELFINGEN,
found
as is

in
well

the
the

of

obligations.

clans
available

contrasting

known,

and

with
disunified

for

and trade.

population

German

that

above

D case

Hallstatt

the emergence

than due to conquest

rather

in

recognised

Ha D,

ZAININGEN,

ie.

the

eg.
of

and possibly

at

tumulus

EBINGEN,

inhumation,

styles

the

the

area in Ha D was due to internal

eg.

to

sub-domain

in

result

which

the

Ha C origin

the
Dl

East
.

in

Southern

developments

cemeteries,

SALEM; in
is

(Paret

burials

DI-

or

seen

to

HEUNEBURG; and in

have

TRUCHTELFINGEN DOTTINGEN) which

burials

order

paramount's

will

other

as peripheral

resources

politically

settlement,

Some Ha C-

vassals

aristocratic

to indicate

is

burials,

the

to lower

Southwestern

is now considerable
evidence
in
IIeuneburg
the
chiefdom
a
powerful
" of
changes in the Ha C, Alb-Salem culture,
a change

since

domain

each

Continuity

situation,

the centre

more

process

There

in

and sever

redistribution

of

centres,

with

partners

as paramounts,

maintenance

dependents.

of

this

of

domains

and collapse

centre

conflicts

trading

towards

heads

response,

his

appearance

inwards

over population

primarily
of

risk

the

and ideologically

external

In

likely

who would

Frequent

meet their

able-to

- by

vassals

hierarchical

be at

to contract

be drawn

expense

village

less

will

his

dynasty.

encourage

on what

or'
more
.

settlement

structures.

domain

control

will

by one of

previous

other

either

continuity

ritual

paramount

run,

with

appear

be directed

the

the

long

organisation.

lineages

the

the

whole

lose

sub-domains

will

from

are no longer

and sub-chiefs

or

the

occupy

such

the

of

structure

levels

to

new links

establish

their

dynasty

in

might,

or

based

occur

or 'sub-chief,

a vassal

paramount

continuity

kind

this

of

genealogical

the

of

replacement

to

a reunification

a sub-domain

to

order

for

in

horse-

can be

Bavaria,
the

1933-35b,

eg.

Hueneburg

325

area

coincide

part

of

Central

the

via

'Heuneburg
the

within

colonies

Rhone valley

and

above

its

phenomenon',

wider

network

its

of

between

to

internal

eastern

emergence

its
and

structure

western

passes.

the

explain

western

the

Alpine

Western

the

the

in

and Etruscans

be used

will

links

trade

of

and Greek

described

The model
the

establishment

Europe

Mediterranean

of

the

with

position

(Mediterranean)

and southern

contacts.
The vast

in detail

analysed

of Ha D1

majority

below.

a break

representing

(only

1972)

HUbener

indications

are

D 1.

TALHAU is

that

unlikely

is

It

In

Forsten
in

the

only

100 secondary
is

of

finds,

that

Heuneburg-IVb

of

an open

the

fortified

each of these
the

represents

There
(eg.
in
its

but

settlement,

open

and

pattern

it
make

and function

standard

1971

etc

settlement

organisation
of

at the

and a).

'floors'

of

localised

we have

D1-

KAPF (Spindler

the

be

will

settlements

reports

a dispersed

representative

settlement.

settlements

top of the political

and their
hierarchies

the model.

case

of

the

MAGDALENENBERG (Spindler
In

grave.

burials,

of

the lineage

as paramount

the emergent

Heuneburg

the Magdalenenberg
MAGDALENENBERG does,

chief

in

structure

the

excavated

contents

of

found.

are

members of

paramount.

is

It

was a dependent
in

appear

to

squthwestern

there

been

was short-lived

however,

1971,1972a,

same tumulus

82 have

which

and inhumation

cremation

represent

the

variation

considerable

political

with

internal

whose status

this

corresponding

example

graves

one Frsten

and both

best

suggested

associated
described

is

it

and at

- of

complexity

situation,

graves

the

D2 - D3)

scattered

(1943))

by Zrn

There

D 1,

- viz.

cited

is

into

for

evidence

are the fortified

Ha C-

it

from burials:

The main settlement

with

HEIJNEBURG (continuing

is

evidence

probably

suggested

that

paramount

before

subordination

likely
of

that

first

Germany.

burials
these

chief,
to

most were buried

the Heuneburg

be the

over

secondary

the initially
his

there

and published.

these

is

It

are

1973),

when
The

paramount.

representative

of

32

"

Within
are

the

grave

designated

as men's

two

costume,

successive

no. 69 and 71:

simple

preceded

in

costume;

styles

recognised

are

band

status

of

indicated

by

considerable

certain

the
in

personal

case

of

burials,

overlapping
plaques

and decorated

belt

plaques.

quantities

glass

etc
The

members

is

clearly

and amber

or

gold

lineage

of

ornaments

women's

belt

and female

male

of

plain

earrings,

jewellery

ring

different

the

associations

or women's

ribbed

hollow

the

distinct

goods,

beads,
and

in

the

number

the

case

items,

such

vessel,

are

intact,

burial

(Paret

1935

confirmed
horse

early
(eg.

bits

of

Ha D (eg.

some of

the

Ha D burials
68 and 78;

1973,14,1972a,

early
are

a fur

or

1972a,

indicated
with

19;
graves,

pottery

covering,

Schiek

pottery
rite,

including

to

nails

(Spindler

1971).

but

this

the

spokes

and the

transition

from

the

1954,156,

especially

cremation

of

was

iron

with

covering

as dating

chamber

trappings,

spokes

The nature

by certain
the

horse

sheet,

leather

the

whilst

of

bronze

regarded

secondary

associated

robbed

fragments

excavations.

Spindler

Other

and razors.

and a miniature

and iron

bronze

generally

are

spear-heads

armbands;

graves.

all

1954 mention

by Spindler's

broad

neckrings,

fibulae,

small

secured

and Schiek

trappings

Ha C to
are

only

had probably

- which

daggers,

was thoroughly

leaving

crossings,

strap

almost

22),

to

armrings'and

in

found

iron

men:

as simple

The central
still

of

(up

earrings

of

note

the
of

has

16),

not

as
Some

cremations.
Alb-Hegau

grave

been

tradition

40, 'Spindler

17)*

20 +
* The tumulus
at NAUENHEIM, Kr. Donaueschingen,
cemetery
contained
(Aufdermauer
11
flat
1963; Sangmeister
least
1964;
graves
tumuli
and at
by Wamser have not always
Even the recent
Wamser 1972).
excavations
involved
the total
the
excavation
of a tumulus
and for that
reason
ie. M and
In 2 tumuli,
detailed
are not totally
satisfactory.
results
N, Wamser reports
the excavation
of graves with
wagon remains,
which
iron
from the hubs and some iron
bronze
coverings
or
sheet
of
consist
(his
fittings
Taf. 9,10-15,
cylindrical
also
and Taf. 16,2)
as
nails,
D1 wagon burials.
Their
known from other
association
with
amber ring
beads,
glass
and gold pieces
and the general
association
of these graves
bronze
belt
iron
bow
fibulae,
containing
others
plaques,
snake
and
with
indicate
lignite
band
armbands,
ribbed
earrings
etc
would
spearheads,
to the same range of items
as found in the MAGDALENENBERG graves.
access
is no evidence
for a local
At this
and
stage there
centre
manufacturing
it is -suggested
that
the MAUENHEIM graves
dependent
of
represent
chiefs
The simple
bronze
the MAGDALENENBERG paramount.
or vassal.
arm or foot
in
found
Tumulus Q, grave 2those
as
cf:
rings,
which are described
having
locally
be
by
a very rough,
unfinished
surface
contrast
- would
be proposed
This cannot
'barrel'
for the bronze
possibly
made.
(Tum. U,. grave
2) or the standard
items mentioned
Dl bronze
armbands
above.

327

Connections
by:

suggested
belt

the horse
(graves

plaques

81 is

grave

Slovenian

of

The existence
indirectly

with

emerging

1973,1972b).

At

this

dominant

and

exchange

which

the

it

stage,

Magdalenenberg

with

Mediterranean

(1)

in

that

firstly

paramount;
and

Centres

chief

wooden

chamber,

locally

made)

of

features

flow

the

control
to

dominate

thirdly,

to

take

gold,

were
in

chief

of

his

in

place

to
the

exchanges

into

enter

this

valuables

and subordinate

indirectly

thus

exchanges

Heuneburg

the

65

be surmised.

can only

Eastern

the

the internal.

the

western

are

is

for

characteristics

the Heuneburg

this

four

evidence

Greek

of

burial

1959;

Ruoff

and Etruscan

gold

cloth,
are

in

burial
imported

imported

quantities

(Kossack
of

of

trappings,

drinking,

wine

and inhumation

status

of

by inhumation

defined

and horse

large

thread,

The wagon
chiefly

On the basis

a wagon

vessels

structure

can be defined:

This

status

and gold

and coral.

indicators

and

networks is
in
belt-hook
grave
of

secondly

hierarchy

containing
bronze

silk

objects,

in

trading

of

to

and

for

evidence

the political

Paramount

amber

him

to the west

of the exchange by which

domain comes from burials.

levels

horned

arrange-

network.

The primary
political

fibula

type

intervention

was the

Rhine

by Spindler

double

Mediterranean

of an Acebuchal

paramount;

Upper

the

(cited

and its

and copper were obtained

it

are

of decoration

chiefdoms

The direction

enabled

Magdalenenberg

with

can be suggested

that

the

region

the decorated

Kilian-Dirlmeier

parallels;

western

(Spindler

lignite

burial;

the central

by the type

of'connections

by the presence

amber,

Alpine

origin.

indicated

glass,

in

which

Hallstatt

or

or even Eastern

trappings

to be related

Bavarian

to

went

Bavarian

71,72,78)

believes

1973,13)

the

with

(or

imported

burial

but

and

sheet

glass,
Ha C

traditional

1974)

the

custom

other
and

status.

(2)

Vassal

burial
However,

by

chief

status

inhumation
many of

the

with

This

is

a wagon,

imported.

defined
horse

sumptuary

by a similar,
trappings
items

but

simpler,

and bronze
including.

the

vessels.
gold,

the

328

the amber and coral - are lacking.

Instead,
bronze weapons and jewellery
sophisticated
are found;
to indicate
that they were produced at the paramount

of glass,

quantities
technically
is

evidence

there

settlement.

(3)

Sub-chief

by a part

usually

a wagon

of

include
may

Contents

defined

items,

lignite

or

by

associated

imported

bronze

belt-plaques,

is

This

status

the

also

or

by inhumation.

burial

with

a wagon

of

presence

daggers,

bronze

elaborate

manufacture

and

the highest

status

has been shown by Kossack

(1959)

armbands

of

centralised

of all

three

distribution.

The distinguishing
is

levels

the presence

the eastern

of a wagon which

indicator

to be a traditional
in

characteristic

level,

during

status

zone north

and western

Below the sub-chief

of high

of

the Hallstatt

period

the Alps.

of

two other

status

can be

levels

recognised:

(4)

Minor

chiefs

chiefs

or village

is

status

defined

from

by exclusion

imported
However, some of
of
sumptuary items.
and absence
items
the centrally
produced
- such as daggers, belt plaques and armbands - are found in some burials,
as are the widely distributed,
small
items of bronze jewellery,
Other items,
such as earrings
and fibulae.

wagon burial

which

appear

rings,

iron

(5)

to be locally

produced,

weapons and pottery,

Most of

the burials

below

to have been recorded

likely

secondary

burials

in

such as simple

arm- and foot-

are among the contents.

the first

four

and are usually

The usual

tumuli.

bronze

status

levels

known to occur

contents

are less
as poorer
by simple

are represented

ornaments,
such as a fibula
or armring,
an iron implement
or
knife
In many cases, however, it can still
a spear-head.
as a

bronze

that

certain

have

been

level.

'

items
redistributed

like

the
through

fibulae
the

- were
chiefly

centrally
hierarchy

produced
to

this

- such
be said
and must

low

status

3Z9

Figure

26

SCALOGRAM OF GRAVE CONTENTS OF PARAMOUNT, VASSAL AND SUB-CHIEF

HEUNEBURG DOMAIN, Ha D1

7
"1

V)
4

to
p

0
1

Cl)
d

Site
No.

to

>

"
CY
0 a
o
bo
H
c

'
N
0
o
1+

Gi

BURIAL

41

.0

HORMICHELE I

HOHMICHELE VI

12

VILSINGEN

15

BUCHHEIM

X- .x

34

WINTERLINGEN

EBINGEN I

21

SULZ a. N.

52

EGGINGEN

37

GROSSENGSTINGEN

65

'URACH'

ERTINGEN

63

IIAILTINGEN

26

EBINGEN

29

TRUCHTELFINGEN

'27

(r' "r4

V)
bO
r4

Cd
V-4
a

co
V.

O
0

41

r- 4

F1 3

"

'Q

oo

co

.0

. -+

xx

.a

.a

to
4J
0

(1)

to

r-4
p

to
0
0

Cd a

4)
N
r.
0
S4

3
0
0
N

ca

C)
C)
,J
a)
N
N
N
A
"
,C
+-1 "v m 0 r. G g
O
60
0
0
0
ca
r+
0
$4
i"i
i"+
14
"r4
1-4

'x

M
10 A

.a

"rl

cd
q

.a

38

MEIDELSTETTEN

42

MARBACH

46

BJTTINGEN

13

ENGELSWELS

32

BITZ

47

BERGHLEN

54

EMERKINGEN

33

GAUSELFINGEN

11

SIGMARINGEN

14

RINGENBACH

40

ST JOHANN

04

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
?

LAIZ

D,

C)
Z+
N
Q)
q iJ
0 4J
N
0

x
x

Cd
4)

x
x

IN

THE

3 (0

Using
in

contents

form

tabular

to

in

represent

differential

ranking

validity

these

combinations

chief

based

1970);

Zrn

his

of

EBINGEN (Kr,

1961,254);

1935-38);

GROSSENGSTINGEN (Kr.

1954);

EGGINGEN (Kr.

three

other

Rochna

in

the

domain

appear

or
of

access

to

difference
Whilst

and the

appear
in

function

the

the lower

six

at

all

levels

indicative
all

social

political

of

of

the

adult

adults.
rank

items

but

rank

social

order

more

these

therefore,

order

in

functions

jewellery
the

represented
to

commodities
items

are found

interpreted

as items

be acquired

to

be used

cloth,
rank,

with

levels
simply

needed

items.

of bronze

these

and seem better

and clearly

items

at all

lower

table

vessels,

basis

sets

degrees

reflecting

bronze

Instead,

general

objects

different

these

the smaller

10 out

prestige

variation

to

in

The

horse-trappings,

levels.

social
status
They could not,
performed

which

raw materials.
of

their

through

other

high

attached

expect

Heuneburg

the

on a presence/absence

then one would

least

predicted

necessitating

pattern

in
particular
-

at the lower

mainly

occur

each

and armrings - occur

if
these polythetic
words,

In other

insignia,

status

(wagon,,

1954;

pattern

within

fibulae

such as earrings,
hierarchy.

value

Schiek

and at

as foreign

imported

co-vary

items

order

or

1935;

(Schiek

the

status

items

status

a second

items

of

interpreted

display

to

glass/amber/coral)

gold,

to

sets

use

fit

to

relationship

of

(Paret

centres.

ranks

polythetic

1935-38,1961,255;

1956,132),

status

produced

centrally

first

the

in

be defined

skill

also

well.

quite

1935,1933-35b,

Stockach)

initially
seems
All

1952,
Paret

1954;

Horb)

(Schiek
-

justifiably
be
can

technical

would

unidentified

access-to

14 cases

(Paret

Reutlingen)

Reutlingen)

evidence

to

differential
of

(Kr.

- as yet

indicators

(Paret

Balingen)

Ulm). and BUCHHEIM (Kr.

'URACH'

The empirical

(Schiek

Bailingen)

domains

(Schiek

Sigmaringen)

SULZ AM NECKAR (Kr.

1962);

1954;

Paret

(OA.

the

of

Vassal

27.

26.

be confirmed

subdivisions

Figure

(Kr.

on VILSINGEN

WINTERLINGEN

Schiek

the

to

Figure

seem to

would

vassals,

here

assumed

hierarchy,

political

subdivisions

1933-35b;

1935);

the

map showing

and those

can be recognised
1956;

in

is

what

grave

of. descending

effect

in

goods

the

reorganise

possible-to

elite

on a distribution

when plotted
paramount

of

of

is

show a scalogram

frequency

The general

"

it

definitions,

these

by'

to'indicte

within

the

society.

BLANK IN
ORIGINAL

.;.

'33 2

-,

Figure

1
2
3
4
5
9
11
12
13
.
14
15
16

27:

List

of

HOIIMICHELE,
KLEINE

sites

Hundersingen

BETTELBHL,

Hundersingen

'RAUHER LEHEN'
Kr.

Kr.

ERTINGEN,

Saulgau

Sigmaringen

SIGMARINGEN 'ZIEGELHOLZ'
VILSINGEN,

Kr.

Sigmaringen

ENGELSWEIS, Kr.

Stockach

RINGENBACH, Kr.
BUCHHEIM, Kr.

Sigmaringen

Stockach

LUDWIGSTAL, "Kr.

Tuttlingen

WURTINGEN-ST JOIL4,NN

Gem. Wtirtingen

Gem. Heiligkreuztal

I10IMICHELE,

LEIiENBHL,

LATZ,

40

Gem. Heiligkreuztal

41

STEINGEBRONN, Kr.

42

MARBACH, OA. MUnsingen

43

OBERSTETTEN, OA. MUnsingen

44

INDELHAUSEN,

45

ZAININGEN,

Kr.

MUnsingen

46

B3TTINGEN,

Kr.

MUnsingen

47

BERGHLEN, Kr.

48

ASCH, OA. Blaubeuren

49

TOMERDINGEN, Kr.

Kr.

MUnsingen

MUnsingen

Ulm

BEIMERSTETTEN,

Ulm
OA. Ulm

--50
51

ERMINGEN, OA. Blaubeuren

52

EGGINGEN, OA. Blaubeuren

54

EMERKINGEN, Kr.

55

PFINGEN,

63

HAILTINGEN,

64

BUCHAU, OA. Riedlingen

65

'URACII',

66

TBINGEN 'FLURGEIGERLE'

67

WOLFENHAUSEN, Kr.

68

SALZSTETTEN,

(Schmiechatal)

69

IIOCHDORF, Kr.

27

EBINGEN, Kr. Balengen

(3km SW of Ebingen)

70

UNTERTALHEIM, Kr.

28

EBINGEN,

17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

MAGDALENENBERG, Villingen
MAUENHEIM, Kr.

Donaueschingen

BARGEN 'ZIMMERHOLZ'

Kr.

,
Balingen

DAUTMERGEN, Kr.
SULZ-AM-NECKAR,

Kr.

Konstanz

Horb

DURRENMETTSTETTEN, OA. Sulz

DORMETTINGEN, Kr.
BUBSHEIM, Kr.

Tuttlingen

ROSSINGEN, Kr.
EBINGEN,

Balingen

Kr.

Balingen
Balingen

Kr.

Balingen

(Degenfeld)
29

TRUCHTELFINGEN, Kr.

30

HERMANNSDORF, Kr.

31

BITZ,

33

CAUSELFINGEN, Kr.

34

WINTERLINGEN,

'35

HARTHAUSEN AUF DER SCHEER,

Kr.

Balingen

Sigmaringen

OA. Bahngen

Hechingen

OA. Bailingen

Sigmaringen

36

GROSSENGSTINGEN, Kr.

Reutlingen

37

GROSSENGSTINGEN, Kr.

Reutlingen

38

MEIDENSTETTEN,

39

'BURRENIIOF'

Kr.

Nlrtingen

Kr.

MUnsingen

ERKENNTSBRECHWEILER,

Ehingen

OA. Ehingen
OA. Riedlingen

Kr.

Reutlingen

Kr.

Tibingen
Horb

Horb
Horb

333

But,

is

there

considerable

ie.

distributed,
indicate

would
uniform

their

interpreted

The way in
to

each

detail.

have

pointed

that

the

all

the

details

of

the

similar

hub

with

a bronze

the

'Mittelstuck'

graves

Among these
described

tyres

to
found

spoke

at

covering

strap

from

(1954)

felloes*.

come from
have

crossings

a single

types

VILSINGEN,

found

at

are

found

VILSINGEN
in

HOHMICHELE I,
tyres:
(Schiek
1956,135)..
others

LAIZ,

iron

rings
to

the

aboye

had bronze

hub-

all

Schiek

1954).

iron

nails

semi-

All

the

wagons
iron
fittings

and cylindrical

and HGELSHEIM;

IIOHMICHELE VI,

D1

the

fixing

he

that

so alike

HUGELSHEIM and LAIZ.

(large-headed):
Iron
VILSINGEN,
nails
GAUSELFINGEN, ENGELSBACH, ENGELSWEIS,
(Paret
1935,25).
Iron

are

workshop.

of

ie.

and WINTERLINGEN are

'special
a
group'
within

construction

large-headed

Different

HOHMICHELE VI,
is

their

of

describes
WINTERLINGEN

in

wagon

in

'Nabenhals'

the

found

has

similarities

(1956,132)

1935,21;

HGELSHEIM, VILSINGEN
as forming

(1954,1956)

marked

joining

(Paret

(n. d. )

elements

of

URACH area:

is

are

and Driehaus

VILSINGEN,

The Vilsingen

SULZ a. N.

details
have

ring

the

bronze,

with

(1956,133)

must

in

An iron

covered

A) have
Schiek

in

levels

status

of

linked

can be shown

Schiek

HJGELSHEIM,

location

unknown

the

the

type
Thus,

the

are

composed

skills.

(his

HOHMICHELE VI.

wagons,

the

D1

wagon

by Schiek

listed

of

in

the

they

of

covering.

by Schiek

believes

wagons

(hub)

A because

Type

specialist

construction.

sheet

as did

caps

artifacts

forms

various

hierarchy

(1959)

of
support

indicators.

highest

three

style

pattern

status

chief

As Kossack

complex

of

the

paramount

of

of

in

of

would

for

required

and

uniformity
This

as political

the

above,

arrangement

and also

the

kinds

their

and a grave

graves

to

are

and general

levels

a wagon.

these

out,

different

requiring
shown

of

not

different

' As stated

by possession

linked

are

the

which

and ultimately

other

greater

items

as prestige

and transactions,

exchange

social

manufactured

and distribution

manufacture

band

the

even

and distribution.

production

and centralised

value

centrally

form

of

that

suggest

were

complexity

non-local

being

their

and bow fibulae

and snake

earrings

to

evidence

Bronze

and various

types

BUCHHEIM, EBINGEN and KAPPEL.

HGELSHEIM, SULZ a. N., BUCCIIEIM,

EBINGEN, BITZ, MAGDALENENBERG

IIGELSHEIM,

VILSINGEN,

KAPPEL and

334

Ha D 1,

In
be

the

to

attributed
fragments

tyre

and materials

these

LINGEN and ERTINGEN.

VI

(ie.

distinctive

HOHMICHELE VI

forms

certain

These
further
iron

of

the

discarded
in

noted

The most

11,

10 and
settlement

bronze

by the

Large

scale

in

levels

and

IV

is

in

working

by Kimrnig

(Hiebmesser),

and finds

still

and their

* Only the exceptional

Etruscan
type bronze
v. Vacano 1973).

the

fibulae,

(1966,1971),

of

of

of

bronze

to moulds

evidence

many
debris,

given.

33-4,
within

Taf.
the

fragments,

tyre

and scrap
l975).

and other

are

(1951;

a trench

iron

of bronze

the
casting

knife

(1968,

bronze,

iron-working

the

from

share

and Rieth
ie.

included

Kimmig

and the nature

unpublished

production

and Rieth

pieces

sheet

refer

are

(Bittel

of

material
it

and

Taf. ll)

The extent

the site.

the burials,

of

and Gersbach

(1951,32ff,

iron

which

Bittel

of

They

chiefs

Although

details

at

and whetstones.

indications

here.

and illustrated:

described

knife

that

still

burial

1933-35a;

bronze-working,

few

very

beads

and cloth

the

WINTER-

particularly

paramount

centralised

relevant

are

the

are

and paramount

pottery

BUCHHEIM and IIOIMICHELE

and glass

for

HEUNEBURG.

in

VILSINGEN,

ERTINGEN (Paret

sub-vassal

evidence

connections

HEUNEBURG sub-domain.

amber

painted

Phase

of

at
the

pendants,

Abb. 5a and b)
is

contents

within

between

data

the HEUNEBURGis
in

is

many publications,

a thrusting

and Rieth

grave

in

There

strap-crossing).

settlement.

STEINGEBRONN, without

in

occur

must
iron

'Hiebmesser'

found

are

the

show further

iron

(and

wagons

Significantly,

from

goods
are

vessels

fittings

castings,

detailed

there

sub-chief-burial

objects,

areas'

moulds,

from

the

connections

in

'workshop

to

in

which

and lignite

Bronze

of

strengthened

1951,50)

is

types

and the

1954,1956)

Schiek

bronze

Harness

similarities

striking

grave

and WINTERLINGEN

imported

Similar

other

example,

VILSINGEN

n. d. ).

known

are

these

of

Driehaus

nails

of

for

graves:

HOHMICHELE VI,
wagon).

HEUNEBURG (cf.

the

and large-headed

The form
between

and distribution

manufacture

even

and nail.
are
*

referred
Bittel

casting

and ironworking

and has to be deduced from

evidence
on

the finds

interpretation.

mould fragment from the base. of the handle of an

flagon has been published
(Kimmig and
in detail

3v

beads

Bone spacer
have

to

taken

(1943)

pottery

According
made locally

of

the

the

scale,

production

link

distribution

in

from

this

found

in

the

large

and

contained

elsewhere

As mentioned

in

whilst

items.

At

the

many local

pottery:

(ZUrn

period

at

manufactured
note

that

kinds

of

all

of

ironwork

items

funerary
chiefly

wares
in

1943),

that

ritual

this

time,

were

to

contrast

and distributed
the

items

were
appear

hierarchy.

from

found

and pottery

in

be mainly

Also,.

the
the

of

graves

found

as Driehaus.

objects
distributed
and are

eg.

bead

necklaces,
the

wagon),

contrast

the

during

Alb

decorated

of

redistributed

domestic,
for

It

the

local

is

with
craft

domestic

forms

every

to be of

that

of
to

evidence

should

HEUNEBURG.

importance
those

evidence

of centrally

primarily

richly

can be said

considered
to

the

direct

quantities.

on the

produced

contrasting

and covering

pattern

is

pattern

Hundt

sub-domain

in style,

present

1962;

thus

amber

chamber

this

some

sub-domain,

much smaller

the indicators,

that

and wealth

each

beads,.

cloth
with

The objects

Heuneburg

400 glass

in

found

insignia

showing marked uniformity

in
locally
the
produced,
variation

regional

the

are

is

centre.

(lining'the

cloth

that

and Hundt
item,

was

loom weights

of

and technical

within

items

prestige

Hence,

more

than

the

at

graves

we know

there

status

the

the

embroidered

graves,

stylistic

quantity

within

cloth

(Riek

paramount

only

of

quantities
they

in

vary

also
numbers

HOMICHELE'I

the

to

the

words,

the

of

finds

of

located

we know

as a prestige
other

in

numbers

sites,

quality

as the

of most

sub-domains

centre

large

In

as well

large

the

Ftlrsten

distributed

made material.

workshop

found

extremely

and variety
been

found

glass

and from

high

range

characteristic

1968,78).

and open

the

as ZUrn

the

of

known

also

addition,

involved,

the

From

in

found

was probably

locally

the

Heuneburg.

threads

the

of

Kimmig

1968),

was on a large

was of

It

with

at

(eg.

In

production

basis

1951;

fortified

cloth

1969).

Kimmig

the

is

working

1968).

techniques

on the

golden

or

for

firing

to

and jet

Kimmig

on the

and Rieth

found

and needles
production

1962,

has,

D1

lignite

centre

specialised

(Bittel

Heuneburg

the

of

and the

there

silk

(Rochna

place

had predicted,

painted

found,

are

Ha D1
that

were
to

significant

rank,

certain

only

manufacture.

to

be disposed

were

distributed'

(n. d. ) and others

of

in

through
have

noted,

t; 19aPU

were. invested

skills

craft

technical

considerable
to

workshops

of

the

at

as

beads

in

If

then

correct,

regard

there

is

Uracher

Alb

(eg.

in

has

were

domains.

Furthermore,

where

especially

control

for
iron

thus

imports,

or

the

item

a grave

of

is

passed

southern

it

would

the

Bern

* Rochna regards
Wurttemburg as
of Switzerland
as of a later

in

the

from

likely

the

tribute

paramount.

In

iron-working

the

worked

Bavaria,
have
area,

been
Alsace,

area

(1962).

by Rochna
to
the

lignite

have

vassal
was used
in

and westwards,
further

distributed

and west

of

the

of

in
the
to

Freiburg

being
this
on the

as specialist
Alb.

EBINGEN subseems

worked

chiefs

is

on the

It

been

as

chief

can be proposed

working

by

to

objects

of

evidence

to

(Balingen)

up as tribute

1933-35b).

paramount

prehistoric

lignite'known

iron'and

such

EBINGEN and

at

prestige

by the

chiefs

demonstrated

been

Heuneburg

(from

political

196):

lignite

the

that

eastwards,

distribution

be evidence

earrings,

sheet

MAGDALENENBERG graves.

can be expected

to

of

in

1924)

of

in

bead

neck-rings,

EBINGEN (Paret

from
value

status

or manufactured

bronze

pendants

The

technique

GROSSENGSTINGEN and WINTERLINGEN sub-domains

the

already

therefore,

and horns

and vassal

Paret

exploitation

domain

of

hollow

acquisition

in

complex

bronze

the

of

sub-chiefs
said

ie.

also

level.

local

imported

either

bronze

1 glass

eg.

more

lignite,

beads,

the

quantity

confirmation

up from

The

been

or

rosette

extension

passed

activity

sheet

interpretation
the

are

raw materials,

increased,

this

reflecting

items

and

and the

the

at

required

down were

passed
skills

be replicated

DURRENMETTSTETTEN (Paret

from

craft

that

raw materials

of

being

were

complex

glass

with

small

be considerably

that

and may have

bronze

items

of

combinations

not

imported

fibula

snake

others

could

and pendants,

found

Where

over

of

armbands

the

control

from

centre

'barrel'
amber

items

made locally

than'those

production

and distributed

produced

centrally

ie.

that

raw materials

the

expertise,

produce:

chiefly

of

symbols

in

of

these

external
Upper

at

likely,
the
sub-

exchanges:
Rhone

centres

Switzerland,
i.

Br. ). *

found
in
broad
Southern
the armrings,
armbands
narrow and
in
D1 material;
the more distant
their
regions
occurrence
and Alsace are generally
regarded - by him and others (mainly D 2) date (1962).
He stresses
the location
of

finds
in Bavaria,
the lignite
on river
crossings
association
and their.
haracteristic
background
the
:
pottery
with
with
on a white
red painting
(cf.
1959).
Kossack
He also emphasises
the
the problem
of locating
in
lignite
in
least
3
Dl,
use.
of
that
types
and suggests
sources
were
at
The lignite
found in TAILFINGEN-TRUCIITELFINGEN,
material
of armbands
ERTINGEN, DOTTINGEN and TANN!IEIP1 is the same.
the pro os,ed
This supports
the
from the HEUNEBURG, despite.
centralised
manufacture
and distribution
fact
found there
that
is of a different
some material
type

3!;
v

inclusion

The
in

HOIIICHELE

interpreted

by his

the

on his

domestic

the

perform
extent

by the

a paramount

in

of

land

The-large

a paramount's

comparison
of
at

the

within
have

been

rough

estimate

lesser

chiefs,
burials

a Fllrsten

with

MAGDALENENBERG hierarchy,

other

combined

Frsten
with

the

to
size

grave

are

there

(Spindler
graves

robbing

well

and dated

were

distorted

and destruction

10 secondaries

by poor
of

or

graves

partial
in

excava-

burials

Ha D 1, whilst

level
in

in

a tumulus,

each

of

the

of

two

Wamser 1972).

1973;

the

recent

100 secondary
to

and

household,

in

principally

of

(phases

consumption

more

as a sub-chief

1971,1972a,
are

the

size

produce

settlement

a paramount
over

conclude,,

hierarchy.

the

for

labour

system,

therefore'

a paramount's
from

'retainers'

chiefdoms

on the

of

supply

or

powerful

and

grain

of

to

One must

levels

store

to

other

largely
-

flows

agricultural

Heuneburg

interpreted
be
can

at NAUENHEIM, which

graves

fortified

can be gained
with
associated

MAGDALENENBERG there

the

wagon

of

labour

craft

foodstuffs

new tools.

lower

at

needed

the

depended

specialist

capacity

of

of

ultimately

a considerable

support

development

or

Heuneburg

ability

to

that

no evidence

more

households

other

secondary

associated

to mobilise

order

granaries

to

to

position

1 and 2) would

seed.

and probably

complexes

than

A very

productive

by intensification

the

external

The paramount's

and its

the

that

nor

the

determined

is

There

together

their

organise

been

new crop

of

in

household

on more

foodstuffs

as tribute

that

have

possibly
of

and redistribute
to

paramount

to maintain

resources

and

household

his

objects,

that

the

do so depended

to

domain.

seems to

household.

terms

his

to

responsibility

capacity

goods,

flows

material

wealth

primary

-to store

of

was accompanied

therefore,

for

bronze

can be

to

relationship

necessary

centre,

with

demanded

Ha DI

the

prestige

size

his

to

either

with

in

graves

given

predicted

of

his

then

resources

specialists

attached

tions

tribute

a hierarchical

was the

functions

these

Na

the

at

the

redistribution

vassals,

and foreign

products

craft

the

to mobilise

activity

his

(mounted

tusk

paramount

of

confirm

in

materials,

to his

ability

craft

viz.

if

basic

more

to

sub-domains

Clearly,

paramount

in

in

ore pendant

representations

appears

evidence

chief.

were

boars

vassals.

articulate

of

and fleeces,

and an iron

VI)

as symbolic

This

with

hides

of

Figures

excavation
antiquity.

tumuli

CJ v

Tumuli

belonging

intact

and tend

in

ranking

with

the

insignia

to

access

and wealth
inter-lineage

the

some extent

lineages/households

The hypothesis
different

for

was the basis

distribution

the

confirms
such
to
of

formed
of

the

his

centre

that

(mainly

a paramount

(at

number

their

and size
pares',
exchange

small
the
as of
of

following,

successful

chiefdoms
heads

of

which

paramount

(ie.

exchange,

only

than

would

is
he
as

area

networks,

through

subordinate

chiefs

external

particular

relatively

one

to
to
be

access

can acquire.

predicts

of

superordinate)

to

Germany

self-sufficient

recognise

access

terms

Southwestern

of

in

able

paramount
in

his

with

effectively

so long

hierarchy

(dependent

superordinacy/subordinacy

competitive

for

(ie.

also

The Heuneburg

competitive

pattern

levels

27,

a dispersed

of

centre.

a large

a paramount

and redistribution
partners

in

part

appear

different

Figure

graves,

into

items

the

with

26

Figure

of

alliances

not

The spatial

Heuneburg)

by success
of

if

integrated

relationships

determined

were

political

and equivalent

politically

the

of

a network

of

of these

at

and socially),

economically

consistent

of

do divide

categories

rank

semi-autonomous

of

area

highest

Baden-Wrttemberg).

system

trading

the

residence'

subordinates

partners)

Since

'in

Heuneburg

and acquired

of

exclusivity

in

the

use

be

would

contexts.

different

that

this
the

to

access
of their

and other

goods

to

as a whole.

if

burial

The distribution

persons
not

and were

in

goods

domain

that

and

that

replicated

the

then

in

25,

and control

production

internal

that

the model predicted

power relations,

and

distributed

and status.
that

within

centralised

wealth

groupings

been

rank

shows

such

Ha D1

predicted

have

of

of

that

found

manipulating

by"evidence

confirmed

ranking

goods was regulated

of prestige

sets

the

the

of

lineage

within

in

presented

existed,

objects

associated

analysis

Figure

be

seem to

burials

A simple

so that

does

there

HOHMICHELE indicates

the

survived

secondaries

dependent

numbersof

in

sometimes

3-5

unreliable,

hierarchy.

burials

have

these

an average

themselves

political

these

within

ranking

with

declining

of

secondary

surviving

in

are

pattern

an overall

than

categories

be associated

to

figures

the

although

lower

to

their

status.
each

other

trade

external
'primus

dominate
to more

is

inter
the

powerful

local

339

for

Hence
his

a paramount
trading

external

enlarging

his

different

patterns

dependent

chiefs

network.

contain

gifts

goods
of

the

as symbols

the

bases

dependents

in

and as payment
(such

commodities
to

as the

exchange

labour

the direct

of

the labour

Instead,

than

these

greater

provider
incorporate

items

of any of his

his

household

children
as direct

total
that

dependents
through
immediate

act

likewise

would

give

acceptance

(? )slaves

him

refining,

saved

etc.

group

can be

to be redistributed,

the labour
dependents

and slaves
producers.

the

costs

demand for
in order

as a prodigious

he would

which
being

(transport

his

be these

would

whilst

to

of

etc)

dependent

these

the

His

It

partners,

and the organisation

women to produce
into

prestige

and he therefore'acts

requirements
for

that

their

of

immediate

As can be envisaged,

trade.

of external

turn

one of

likely

and

to

exploitation,

extraction,

is

his

only

that
of

generosity.

wool,

trading

of a paramount's

it

them

in

not
form

them

obligations.

lignite,

external

their

of foodstuffs,

production

iron,

they

predict

to

resources

signs

items

as part

with

They

reciprocal

the domestic

used to produce

far

his

with

the

sub-chiefdom.

of

also

valuables

chiefly

have

turn,

and specialities'as

resources

authority

is

each

of

to

Hence,

alliances

marriage

and as acts
then, ` in

dependents

local

of

that

access

categories.

be giving

would

paramount

would

two

other

system.

such

dependent

to

might

indicative
-

domain

would

external

contain

as prestige

rank,

gaining

paramount

the

hospitality

feasting,

their

from

act

The model

a chief.

of

formation

the

through

insignia'

through

also

exchange

which

that

partners

will

of

and his

paramount

but

wider

items

prestige

paramount's

chiefly

but

linking

Heuneburg

the

power

relations

social

use

of

circulate

would

the

a particular

power

of

in

burials

Firstly,

exchange

paramount,

'status

case,

his

of

Heuneburg

own position

within

act

burials

the

within

Heuneburg

the

Heuneburg

the

first

circulating

from

two potentially

with

record.
status

and

maintaining

presented

high

contain

would

for

therefore

and extending

confirming

critical

archaeological

Secondly,

found

the

the

that

partner's

In

items

in

from

- not

We are

principally

trading

is

partnerships

position.

be derived

can

Heuneburg,

the

at

mainly)
a paramount

to satisfy
recruiter

and clients

to

and

340

In the second case,

for

be selected

their

a paramount's
for

be governed
to latch

been able
of

the Heuneburg paramount's

that

will

world'

by the wider
In this

on to.

(although

equivalence

by both

to

partners

it

convert
in

into

trade

could

of women, and would act as the-basis

(eg. Heuneburg tribute
for
resources

on which

is

be seen

is

likely

likely

desirable

be

to

the exchange

of different

exchanges
imports)

Upper Rhine

one

and would

relationship

exchange and very

he has

that

the relation

The partnership

nature).

prestige

network

and would

a dependent

by gift

and maintained

established

it

will

We can predict,
'outside
his
with

however,

case,

partners

necessary

relations

regional

potentially

be competitive

therefore

to provide him with

internal
redistribution.

capacity

goods and raw materials

therefore,

trading

external

be

could

affected.

It
network
must

is

important

of

it

which

it

although

resources

large

Copper

time.
for

the

Central

Europe

would

sheet

the trimmings
of which

Salzburg

high

of
bronze

to

are

with

for

needed

particular,

these

basic
in

connections,

ie,

developments.
the

bronze

items,

including

the

manufacture

of

bodies.

for

a long

quantities
large

the

vessels

Salt

easily

and

supplied

raw materials
increasing

could

copper

had

which

ever

and distribution

the acquisition

larger

MAGDALENENBERG, we

subsequent

dominant,

and possibly

on wagon wheels,

the

within

Western/Southern

dominate

required

status

the

of

in

area

been

have

case

were probably

the

production
of

amounts

that

the

as the

as well

contacts

of
of

parts

As in

part.

latter

the

Eastern

Initially,
salt

is

is

HEUNEBURG structure

the

view

Eastern

the

consider

to

for

and

was a commodity

be controlled

by

a paramount.

During
indicated
are

by the finds

(Hatt

KASTENWALD pyxis

dated

to

Ha C in

Mediterranean
Bavaria
Southern

this

links

strong

can be recognised

contacts
the

Ha C, whilst

area.

from
in

the area south

the HALLSTATT cemetery,

the

1956;

with

western
Frey

part

1957)

The earliest

is

Bavaria

in

the

only

Europe has been studied

on Central
(1959).
He recognises
the peripheral
relation

to the centres

in

tentative

only

Europe,

Central

(Ha C) phase

centres

by Kossack

of

the Alps

of

certain
of

impact

in

viz.
import
of

Southern

situation

the Salzach-Enns

of
area,

341

the

Alpine

south-east

(pp. 113ff)

He tried
technically
ing

association
for

produce

the

control,

materials

from

(p. 115).

The extent

is

salt,

probably
the

not

in

ie.
-

context
increasing
of

goods

These

wagon

status

The earlier

the

Ha C) high

(mainly

types)

(achieved)

are

indicated

indicators

burials.

in

tombs

During

'the
Ha D

a dagger,

(p. 129)

and when

use

loosely

structured

complex

and the

Ha culture

in

of

southern

connections
Bavaria

rank,

3,

graphite,

the

development

burials

highest
A 13

some A III
Kossack

the local

with

connections
service

western

with

centres

between

east

grave
in

mainly

indicated
were
-

drinking
the

of

20 different

- which

status

with

(1959,93).

the

A III

burials

and horse-

load-bearing

Ha C (types

(contrasting

of

by the

4,

chiefs

have been connected

distinguish

A II

by

these

exceptional

social

in

them

noted,

distinguished

rare

status

type horse-trappings

and sword

to

are

in

for

trade

of raw materials

has

wagon

the

has

raw

contemporary

greater

- would

them with

burials

to have been of temporary

of Eastern

status

Ha D (types

in

found

are

more

found

Kossack

and has used

high

those

and correlated

associations

'class',

with

quantities

Bavaria,

southern

concerned

even

ie.

in

(As Kossack

too.

denoting

transport

involved

the

of

swords

and Bohemia,

and certainly

and that

The existence
iron

under

be indicated

should

wagons,

Bavaria

Ha C and D are

speed,

this

For

but

of

with

obtain

'expeditions'

beads.

and amber

and ores

could

connections

economic

Northern

amber

wagons

capacity,

of

Ha C in

chief

would

was directly

production

the

goods

a 'Gemeinschafts-

where

by organising

burials,

These

produce.

specialist

area

glass

to

Bavaria

only

the

IAALLSTATT cemetery,

the

the

his

inhumation

in

Southern

agricultural

exchanging

unable

and where

of

of

from

trappings

of

beyond

beyond

distribution
known

were

furthermore

a chief's

the

they

of"'

by postulat-

Bavaria

Southern

within

west.

and distribution

appearance

a 'Familienwirtschaft'

was found

wirtschaft'

the

and further

Alb

Swabian

the

bronzework

of

areas

for

account

goods

come from

have

to

sophisticated

the

and later

area,

with

terms

status.
and A II
4)

2)

(pp. 122ff).

considers

by the use
Urnfield
western

and wagon
declined,
and west

centres

as status
the
collapsed

was ended. *

in this
Early
La Thne period
* In the. following
area Kossack
sees a
ie.
from the east,
of local
elements
combination
and influences
Bavaria
Northeastern
Alpine
and the Southeast
associated
area - mainly
between
the
trade
the Alps and Northeastern
Bavaria.
salt
with

9x')

The Heuneburg's
between

zone

the

distributions

of

lignite'(Rochna

1962,

and the

increasing'similarity

in

1959)

copper

westwards,

been

learnt

from

were

Heuneburg

the

in
made
its

through

would

exchange

seem likely

that

1972 has
the

of

of

belt-plaques

burial

by

glass
rite

of

have

would

may-have

working

Alpine

or

by Ha D 1,
exception

(Spindler

the

of

ie.

daggers,

Graves

that

suggested

Magdalenenberg

with

daggers.
to the

Heuneburg

Through

'Goldgruppe'

had established
through

who became

some of

a series

IVa,

b)

the

to

insignia

of

on the
the

Frsten
access

(Driehaus,
to the Eastern

intermediary

indicates

evidence

the

and with

women's

and possibly
It

of

throughout

Heuneburg

descendents

the Magdalenenberg,

of

found

in

large-

graves

are

beads etc.

dependent

the

band-earrings,

pins

at.

the

the

the

status

from

This,

the

the

the

and from

which

like

paramount.
settlement

background

include

of social

67 represent

reaching

partner

- especially

was linked

amber and coral

39 or

paramount

buried

and were

glass,

exchange

fortified

the

armbands

costume,

used the same insignia

headgear,

western

1971,1972,1973).

of

ie.

Po Valley,

pottery

phases

and considers

Magdalenenberg

the

on white

Magdalenenberg

some items

the

the

'Tonnen'

the HOHMICHELEglass

partners.

contents

where

for

come, from

pottery,

Iieuneburg

and

domain

been

compared

painted

that

with

Heuneburg

partners

have

connections

MAGDALENENBERG tumulus

access

Abb. l),

Southeast

the

and the

eastern

their

pots

antenna

Etruria

for

KAPF (HUbener

rank,

sheet

HALLSTATT cemetery

and the

would

daggers,

that

parallels

chief

settlement

the

the only

indicated

and graphite

bronze

of

from

Heuneburg

bellied

the

Bavaria

probably

it

The evidence
the

gold

artifacts

or

cites

from

Initially
of

craftsmen

as coming

the

and possibly

and techniques

(1962,166)

they

the

and the

areas.

Riek

that

centres'is

materials:

passed

beads

Eastern

intermediary

various

been

Danubian

hierarchical

centres

Salt,

chiefs.

less

this

with

Western

(Kossack

and amber
local

connections

political

may even be
of

the

Heuneburg

sub-chief

paramount

status,

ie.

the Heuneburg

gained

n. d. P. 208).

Thus the

and Western

alliances.

exchange

343
I

As evidence
the

HUGELSHEIM (Kr.
in

similarities

This

and WINTERLINGEN.
wagons

manufactured

SCHLATT (A.
Haute-Rhin)

but

Heuneburg
imported

that

reciprocal

and VILSINGEN,

and the

indications

these

is

It
in

do not

with

Marnian-like
Thus,
activities

for

that

for

there
this

from

and those

VILSINGEN

these

of

centrally

KAPPEL*

is

It

partners.
(Kr.

Lahr),

and ENSISHEIPM (Arr.

independent

- were

and exchange

in

found

earrings

of

jugs

bronze

the

Upper

deposits

early

Ha D situation.

Late

pottery
Is

settlement

this

and Kimmig's

wheel-made
Ha D2

the

represent

I,

Heuneburg

the

which

trefoil

'Kahn'

golden

correlates

communication)

burials

The

emphasised

has

Freiburg)

giving

them.

at

exchange

- of

Heuneburg

the

Gebweiler,
the

of

domestic

and

in

found

KAPPEL

HOILNICUELE XI

are

exchanges.

unfortunate

Breisach

(Kr.

gift

1911,

burial
wagon

distribution

the

centres

chiefly

linked

resources

of

Rhine

the

this'wagon

and external

vassals

other

represent

of

indicate

IHRINGEN

Staufen),

from

(1954,1956)

detail

would

Upper

the

that

suggested

to

is

centres

construction

(Wagner

between

relations

exchange

Schiek

Rastatt).

chiefdoms,

Freiburg)

is

there

'Ha C/D 1? 1.

to

of

Rhine

Upper

and the

paramount

at

indication

The clearest

Rhine

GUNDLINGEN (Ldkr.

(1954,165)

by Schiek

dated

the

of

emergence

wagon, burial

earliest

52ff)

the

of

Upper

'Vixien'

La Tene
(1969)

sherds

and Ionian/Pseudo

evidence
Rhine

Ha/Early

for

centre.

from

the
Its

southern
role

the

MUNSTERBERG

R. Dehn
level
are

Ionian

at

the

MIINSTERBERG

associated
amphorae

and western
during

(personal

Ha D1

with
sherds.

exchange
is

not

yet

clear.

'Ic

is
like
HUGELSHEIM,
that
* The KAPPEL chamber,
said to have been lined
of
in
is
(Schiek
1954,156)
bronze
the
only
replicated
which
sheet
with
domain in Ha D2 at GIESSUBEL 3, but the strapcrossings
Heuneburg
are
The KAPPEL bronze
like
those found in the HOHMICHELE VI.
vessels
are
by Kimmig and Rest (1954)
the Upper Rhine via
to have reached
thought
for
flagons,
the trefoil
Marseille
and the Rhone route
parallels
since
in
(shown by Frey 1963 to-be
found
Etruscan
are
southern
of
manufacture)
belt"
include
decorated
bronze
The other
finely
France.
contents
sheet
a
Eastern
Alpine
decorative
to
and Southern
elements
according
- with
bowl
Kimmig and Rest (1954)
and a bronze
- and gold neck and armbands,
to be of local
thought
manufacture.

34 41

There

however,

are,

Alsace.

Upper

for

centre

significant

valley,

enable

the

Rhone

the

of

briefly

iron-working,

described

HEUNEBURG: iron
pottery

shows

(HUGELSHEIPN) and with

wagon

IRRINGEN,

All

except

SCIHLATT (not

listed,

1954,

(Frey

of
1957;

Dehn and Frey

(1956)

Schiek

fibulae

snake

134-5)

noted

the

RAPPEL,

especially

Tumulus

4.

Also,

the

contents

in
spoke

grave
in

D1

also

similarity
the

from

fibula

the

with

Rhine

graves

thought

are

Abb. 6)

with

(ENSISHEIM,
be of

to

date

D1

is

and HATTEN, -which

a beaked flagon

include

1962).

among the

KAPPEL and IRRINGEN are

are

which

material

contents

HJGELSHEIM and S3LLINGEN

dates
found

its

since

Upper

bronze

and rich

KAPPEL).

date

D1

much

including

Many finds
the

the

contain

serpentiform

the

of

SOLLINGEN,

a later

would

between

the

etc. *

SCHLATT,

by Schiek,
certainly

gold

believes

castings

in

vase,

distribution

in

deposits

vessels,

a polychrome

the

slag,

parallels

miniature

arrow-head,

28

habitation

between

out

passage

and weaving.

have

would

sittilae,

Figure

the

(1972c)

barrd',

(1972)
the

control

in

Illfurth

(1970,1971,

'Eperon
an

is

ingot,
an
-

bronze-working

carried

Stahl-Weber
to

site

possible

by Spindler

by Schweitzer

The site

Furthermore,

etc

described

and excavation

that

another

of

BRITZGYBERG, near

the

published

a situation

Rhine.

- moulds

disc,

briefly

(1972).

occupants

for

rejects

in

the

and

evidence

of

been

and Stahl-Weber

Largue

only

The sondages

and 1971 have

1973)

Ha D at

early

The BRITZGYBERG has been

'F{irstensitz'.
as a
1967

indications

significant

contents,

some details

coverings,

RAPPEL tyre

and

(p. 191).

date

of

with

fragments

D1

to

the

on the

suggests

But,
wagon

evidence

that
(pp.

he himself
construction

of

LUDWIGSBURG and HUNDERSINGEN,

differ

from

the

D1

standard

construction.

Driehaus
exception
Breisach

of

(n. d.

270)

HATTEN -

to

dates
D1

these

all
and,

'FUrsten'

following

MUNSTERBERG as a 'FUrstensitz',

graves

-. with

(1969)

accepts

Kimmig
but

not

the

dominant

the
the,

centre.

* The continued
in D2 is shown by the crossbw
use of the site
(in level
A) and Attic
Black Figure
(3)
sherds
and 1 Massaliote
in
level
B.
sherd
-,

of

fibulae
amphora

34

this

group

'Heuneburg

group'.

Upper

the

of

Rhine

whose

The nature

Upper

the

their

independence

they

certainly

in

were
the

contents

different
in
This
in

there

which

trade

to
of

phase
status

dominate
at

the

this

would

at

between

including

to

economic

As will

centre.
ie.

'Goldgruppe',

insignia

of

highest

to

them

to

external

rank

may have
centre
a later

may represent

the

of

below,

the
to

were

Ha D2

to

than

partnership

arm and neckbands,

political

control

rather

be discussed

gold

existed

'Goldgruppe'

the

HATTEN burial

The exceptional

bands. )

probably

the

found

not

gold

attract

of

by the

viz.

exchange

dominance

etc.

chiefdoms

activity

similarity

items

a situation

and continue

northern

indicated

independent

between

although

vessels,

insignia,

but

retained

others,

by the

is

equals

the

the

bronze

level,

Figure

may have

paramount

highest

the

in

paramount

Hohenasperg

the

To summarise:
eg.

even

counteract

the

of

the

status

their

south.
more

items

high

direct

to

fact

structure

as seen

dominate

bands,

The Heuneburg-HGELSHEIM

established

further

of

chief.

who in

as indicated

gold

Heuneburg

the

place

to

but

chiefdoms

to

able

viz.

graves,

these

exchanges,

own hinterland

partners

a competing

in

was competition

their

to

access

'Goldgruppe

the same social

these

that

one being

graves,

of

took

exchange

been

the

domain,

Heuneburg

that

of

suggests

involved

combination

the

different

were

distribution

without

of

rites

the

that

the

than

was earlier

suggested

Rhine

independence

(Their

burial

believed

groups.

the

of

(p. 208)

Driehaus
graves

He also

by both

be represented

along

Frsten

of

came to dominate.

28,

(p. 288).

Fllrsten

of

in

Bavaria,

by Kossack
Heuneburg
to

appear

independent

although

area

is

local

chief

who was able

seems

to

particular
paramount

the
of

be dealing

occur

in

and expressed

(1959),

scale

was able

chief.
to

order

become

chiefs

of
In

achieve-a

magnitude.

In

expansion

in

of

activity.

This

external

relations

external

relations

dominant,

position

in

the

the

words,

we

formerly

which

his

of

in

D1

other

as dependents

the

insignia

status
during

economic
in

of

recognised,

development

incorporated

changes

terms

of
of

control*their

had been

categories

political

conditions

as a result

local

of

similar

a different
with

to

differentiation

rank

a dominant
development
of

the
local

Heneburg
regional

940

0
rsisheiri

Brit7gyberg

10

'iuurc

28:

Distrib,

ition

of

Frsten

graves

in

the

Upp, r

Rhine

vjlLeey.

347

Eastern

economy.
direct

their

He in

trade

to

intermediary
north

same function

the

blocked
to

by his

depend

their
is

between

the

of

the

external

and possibly

be able

domain

Heuneburg

would

have

to

perform

links

were

be

would

but

no alternative
been

have

also

for

stimulus
established

connections

Indirectly,

to be to

seen

developments

these
with

mouth

of

Italy

(Po Valley)

the

Greek

for

connections

and

acculturation
bastions,

(via

Heuneburg

represented

by

centred

Hallstatt

area'-

correctly

notes

of

7th

century

BC in

the

use-of

Western
which

- and eventually

that

of

brought
the

one

grave

in
and

could

France

noted

Alpine
of

- of

these

graves,

dishes,

of

Etruscan

1965

'heart

of

Alpine

area.

the

of

the

finds

(1965,51ff))

intermediaries
dishes

paramount

by

and 1971,

by Bucchero

rim

with

wall

funerary

evidence

bossed

of

in

Southeast

passes

the

route

degree

the

mud-brick

the

by

a Heureburg

by

(in

by Benoit

at

Rhone

the

Europe

be further

coral

services

(Dehn

demonstrated

amply

Eastern

or

Central

1971,84)

southern

bronze

rim

gold,
and I.

Mediterranean

of

distribution

this

the

earliest

and Northern

and probably

of

the

enterprises

Central

wine-drinking

France,

(as

in

construction

The bossed

Dehn

route

use

exchanges

inclusion

on southern

Rhone

the

the

HOHMICHELE VI

can be judged

contacts

in

eg.

Greek

centres

passes

interesting
an

shows

the

and adaptation

adoption

paramounts.

manufacture,

the

Alpine

of

as the

such

with

Etruscan

these

and the

in

Europe

be expected,

reflected

Heuneburg,

the

vessels

was linked

the

is

Central

of

As would

chiefs

at

points

resources

Rhine.

Rhine

bronze

and with

intensity

The

Upper

existence

Heuneburg

Rhone

the

and the

passes
the

and certain

(Ha C) relay

date

Upper

these

paramount's

the

customs,

Alpine
along

with

thread

and silk

Late

west

would
as their

as act

Once these

therefore

dependence

the

He would

the

would

an early

established

external

Abb. 2)

from

that

trade

too).

They

wider

to

chiefdoms.

network,

as well

partners.

within

Ha D, ' the

the

Rhone,

the

being

phase

in

further

trade

smaller

of

world.

We know

were

equals

this

In

be found

Etruscan

the

but

demands

to

advantageous

redistribution

connection.

western

monopoly.

on him,

extended

trade

more

a number

partners'

Rhine

his

former

advantage.
to

Upper
for

his

established,

eastern

long-distance
his

it

found

rather'than

a more

the

for

through

him

through

satisfy

have

would

by controlling

turn,

be able

partners

into

in
the

the
-Dehn

Etruscan
of

the

or

else

the
possession

(HO}MICHELE VI). -

348

late

During
the

levels

occupation

and then

uity,

dynasty'

True,

crisis

and burial

settlement
dominance
previously

vassal

indications

of

burials
any

domains

the

significant
vassal

domains.

shows

(Fischer

1967,

of

the

of

and
This

ranking

hierarchy

map of

the

authority

would

fit

distribute

to

domains.

The paramount

political

independence

'Frsten'
changes
the
at

in

the
status

the

Heurieburg.

lines

in

their

at

the

and the

the

of
area

for

but

rather

former

chiefs
of

development

structure

of

and the

in

have

has
been

the

control

lost

model
their
their

over

his

maintained

own sub-domain
survival

of

certain
were

4 Talhau

older

been

from

goods

area

undermined.

in

and possibly
the

the

but
its

29,

about

to have

sub-chiefs

concentrate
is

Figure

lose

However,

previously

this

his

3 phases

domains

would

material

disappearance

D 2/D

shows,

to

these

burials.

prestige

appears

to

significant

predicted

Heuneburg

D2/3.

detect

any
the

the

appears

obtain

Wagon

and D3

D1

the

vassal

dependents

during

now appear

Evidence

the

no clear

are

D2

immediately

area

settlement

Whereas

they

the

able-to

to

continuity

had occurred.

sub-domain,

to

no longer

imply

graves

ranking

vassal

paramount

be seen

high

such
the

not

in

were

and between

within

throughout

occupied

over

one of

areas

that

areas
there

of

in

shift

and one cannot

contents

reflected

Control
of

chiefs

when vassal

this
these

now contracted

centre.

grave

both

hierarchy.

sub-domains

does

distribution

paramount

these

the

political

1952)

Zrn

remained

control

D1

the

in

general

paramount,

distributions

population

has

Heuneburg

the

from

complex

in

As general

The Heuneburg
as the
of

in

variation

former

emigration

in

with

and

centre.

changes

a more

Ha D2

of

are

Hohenasperg

Ha D2-D3,

of

continuation

burials

'new

the

of

contin-

Talhau

on the

ground

with

the
settle-

in

a break

showing

now dominant

both

The open

constructed

associated

the

of

but

continuity.

These

coincides

most

re-occupied

burial

as the

In

found

tumuli

of

the

level.

no longer

are

to

patterns,

local

the

at

also

Heuneburg,

the

at

re-occupied,

in

levels
2nd,

the

is
in

Heuneburg.

and can be related

the

.2
Following

show a break

(1969)

the

at

destruction

of

settlement

A group

by Gersbach

now reigning

date

D3

briefly

abandoned.

interpreted

are

the

phase,

TALHAU is

the

at

evidence

HEUNEBURG.

the

at

fortifications

and the

ment

is

there

destruction

extensive,
layout

Ha D1

- as can

burials

of

significant
dispersed

within

be resident

tumuli

at

the

3O
Figure

29: List

of sites

GIESSBEL - TALHAU, Gem. Heiligkreuztal

HEILIGKREUZTAL

'SPECKHAU',

HEILIGKREUZTAL

'ROSSHAU',

10

SIGMARINGEN 'ZIECELIIOLZ'

58

M5RSINGEN, Kr.

59

UPFLAMR, Kr.

60

INNERINGEN,

61

VERINGENSTADT, Kr.

62

JUNGNAU, Kr.

Kr.
Kr.

Saulgau
Saulgau

Kr.

Sigmaringen
Sigmaringen

Sigmaringen

Saulgau
Saulgau

3r0

w
(3)
0) U
OC

}4

cd 1m

NI

'
t

-41

OWN

cV
Cd

cC
Ei
0
b
00

C)
0
a
N

C'
N
v
s
o,

/13

r
3.

foot

Heuneburg.

the

of

graves

(eg.

wealth

of

Schiek
the

be interpreted
(eg.

Zrn

hierarchy
of

minor

previously

defined.

status

to

the

the

with

the

rupture

contents'

the

absorption

of

the

few Heuneburg

Zrn
Stromburg

burial
the

hilltop
the
its

has defined

area,

eg.

Hohenasperg

(1969).

of

the

of

during

Ha D1-

seems

the

this

grave

(Goessler

to

status

with

Alb

the

For

area

its

crisis

coincides

sub-domains.

to maintain

loss

tumuli

edge

of

here

and the

example,

probably

have

been

into

one

Ha D2

there

and

is

are

are
at

(Paret
has

been

unfortunate

the Alb,

area.

for

Schwarzwald,

As in
in

continuity

the

case

the

of

population

and

MHLACKER, DECKENPFRONN and possibly

Once again,

too.

graves
It

Hohenasperg

HIRSCIILANDEN,

HOHENNAGOLD, Nagold

Kimmig

the

onto

should

poor

also

was part

evidence

which

settlements

surrounding

Heuneburg

the area between

as the
is

there

and dispersed

small

Talhau

domain

chiefs

vassal

the

Heuneburg

peripheral

paramount

in

domain

area

characterises
'relatively

the

is

be linked

could

the

insignia.

(1970)

places,

at

Hohenasperg

and Schurwald,

Heuneburg

D2

- whose

the

to

Hohenasperg

with

at

in

the

some of

iron

supplying
of

crisis

of
It

and the

caused

burials

Heuneburg

Hohenasperg

domain

that

relations

burials

of

Asperg.

Hohenasperg

the

of

have

primary

BURRENHOF sub-chief

the

Heuneburg

the

trade

the

of

ranking

dominance

emerging

boundaries.

the

of

here

Heuneburg

its
on

Hohenasperg,

the

development

the

the

of

the

the

the

an arc

the

other

a number

contraction
to

at

and would

for
This

penetration

general

the

within

within

in

in

and must

whilst

these,

dispersed

The development

reported

to

contrast

be related

external

a wagon

status

situated

of

of

'Ftlrsten'

as

as exceptional

a paramount,

found

still

regarded

sub-chief

situated

domain

1923,208-218).

of

to

contraction

of

Heuneburg

the

presence

political

sub-domains.

with

and the

In

fact

north,

that

significant

in

the

1 is

and the

in

can

classified

Tumulus

significantly

burials

D 2/3

new centre

vassal

are

perhaps

generally

place

correspond

The Talhau

coincide

burial

1970,108)

sub-domain,

in

but

contents

as the

chief

domain

1959)

grave

4 are

All

the

majority

2 known
the

settlements

- and presumably

HOHENASPERG (Zllrn

1933-35b,

1935-38).

the

status

were

fortified

1970,120)

and

The Ilohenasperg

as a Firsten

classified
that

of

of

residence
this

site

and
by

cannot

by excavation,

be confirmed

HOHENASPERG and HOHENNAGOLD of

The Hohenasperg
gold-work,
with

often
bronze

applied

must

have

been

be shown

below.

prestige

goods

the

It

or

and the

that

on the basis

likely

highest

attest

the

1 In

contrast

be more

in

absolute
for

reserved

the

neck

graves

'exotica'

of

and

the

controlled

will

manufacture
took

objects
(1970)

ZUrn

of
place

has

eg.

in

southern

centre.

from a southern

wagon

appears
is

burial

also

contain
to

restricted

GRAFENBUILL, to be a collection
age and are

not

representative

be viewed

as a

intermediaries

to

They should

the accoutrements

of

southern

civilisation.
2 Vassal

chiefs

can be recognised

graves

paramount'
contain

bronze

Kimmig

and Rest

(Schiek
1970)

1954,
are

the

the

inclusion

ZUrn
graves

Zrn

1970)-and
of

of

the
gold

burials
neck

BAD CANNSTATT I

cauldrons:
1954;

in

the

1970,122ff),

share

and armbands;

and II

(Paret

DUSSLINGEN (Kr.

BAISINGEN
vassals

which

of

(Kr.
the

Horb).

(Schiek

3 domains

to

one exception
They

- also

power or his

need for

chief's

viz.

chiefs.

imports

and even

origin

1974)

Schiek

paramounts

and - with

lesser

the

biblio-

with

1970;

Zrn

these

of

status
for

1970,

period:

chiefs,

The Southern

different

the paramount

this

lesser

found

- appear,

of gifts

satisfy

to

not

of any one particular

collection

That

wealth

1966;

status

political

and armbands.

paramount

the

relation

is

of

jewellery

amber

trade.

foreign

for

status

highest

(BAD CANNSTATT I)

coral,

centralised

and Herrmann

Heuneburg,

the

distribution

bronze

RtMERHUGEL (LUDWIGSBURG) (Zrn

political

to

gold,

the

to the HOHENASPERG
can be attributed
settlement
found in the area about it.

and GRAFENBHL (ZUrn

graphy)

by the

Hohenasperg.

the

both

was centrally

the
of

at

of the quantity

of

sherds.

external

that

distribution

gold-working

the

La Thne

defined

items

these

of

from

and sophisticated

through

settlement

The graves

is

reports

Of these,

gold.

obtained

seems

paramount's

suggested

gold

amber

and distribution

collection

at

domain

glass,

coral

are

Ha and Early

political

jet,

coral,

there

since

of

the

with
they

also

1935,1935-38;
Tubingen)
1956,

Zrn

Bad Cannstatt,

of

c,i

Figure

30:

List

of

sites

MHLACKER, Kr.

GUNDELBACH

KLEINBOTTWAR, Kr.

BEIHINGEN a. N.,

GRAFENBHL, Asperg,

R$MERHUGEL, Pflugfelden

KLEINASPERGLE,

BHL, MBglingen,

OSTERHOLZ, Asperg

Vaihingen

a. N.

Marbach

Beihingen

Kr.

Kr.

Ludwigsburg

BAISINGEN

37'

ROTTENBURG, 'BIRTENLEH'

38

DUSSLINGEN,

Kr.

39

NEHREN, Kr.

Tubingen

40

BELSEN

Asperg
Kr.

Ludwigsburg

10

KORNWESTHEIM, Pflugfelden

11

HOCHDORF, Kr.

12

SCHWIEBERDINGEN, Kr.

13

SCHCKINGEN, Kr.

14

HIRSCHLANDEN, Kr.

15

GERLINGEN,

16

KORNTAL, Kr.

17

BAD CANNSTATT, Stuttgart

18

FELLBACH

19

UHLBACH, Kr.

20

ESSLINGEN

21

SIRNAU,

22

BIRKACH,

23

ECHTERDINGEN, Kr.

24

WOLFSCHLUGEN

25

NEUENHAUS, Kr.

Nrtingen

26

AUS,
NEUENF.

Kr.

Nrtingen

27

SCHLAITDORF,

28

BURRENHOF - ERKENNTSBRECHWEILER, Kr.

29

ROMMELSBACH, Kr.

30

TBINGEN - WALDHAUSEN

31

WEIL IM SCHONRUCH

32

WEIL IM SCHBUBU;;H

33

DARMSHEIM, Kr.

34

DECKENPFRONN, Kr.

35

'KRAUTBHL'

Vaihingen

Kr.

Ludwigsburg

Leonberg
Leonberg

Leonberg
Leonberg

Stuttgart

Esslingen
Stuttgart
Esslingen

Nrtingen

Kr.

Reutlingen

BUblingen
Calw

'BUHL',

36'

Nrtingen

Kr.

Horb

Tbingen

TEXT CUT
OFF IN
ORIGINAL

67 31

680

do
1

......
2-2
41
A,

LzarnNeckar
r

Grosse

21

i1

V
11
"30

H2O

23
1332
2g
W
28
L.

25!

_w

inL(

( LL'J
34U

26

EIngan

.....
"

2a

gdalene

....

berg

12 ..i
`il

Buchheim
0w

Figure

27:

Map of

Heuneburg

domain

(Ha D 1)

3 r)

DUsslingen
of

and Baisingen.

large

the

Vaihingen

3 Within

in

tumuli

area would

each

the

of

paramount,
by a small

quantity

listed

each

the

of

beads,

(Paret

the

7),

note

the

is

defined
eg.

earrings,

of

1962),

Maier

one

Hohenasperg

status

form

the

1938-51;

(1935-38,63-4,

of

that

other

items

dependents

and the

feature

which

simple

many

on

and their

domains

jet,

amber

as

such

and glass

IIIRSCHLANDEN 7 and

the

of

hierarchy

finished:

poorly

was probably
See Figure

the

the

under
31 for

Hohenasperg

the

of

have

access

production

of

the

local

control

a table

is

It

sub-domain

had greater
to

connection

also

be the

giving

striking

access
case

between

the'exceptional

should-like
maps, Figures

thus

the

30.

Figure

of
the

of

graves

that,

sub-domains

to thank Anne-Elise
27 and 30.

of

a wagon

Martin

for

in

during

a vassal

her

help

linear
the Hohenasperg

prestige

BAD CANNSTATT and Hohenasperg

inclusion

of

by the need to

within

and other

its

and

The orientation

North-South

sub-chiefs

other

Neckar

the

influenced

a roughly

to goldwork

of

follow

roughly

seems to be strongly

valleys,

distribution.

in

level

each

often

items

therefore

the river

closer

at

the Ens and the Schmiecha,

tributaries,

appear

centre,

1962);

by

characterised

contents.

The sub-domains

control

(Riek

is

the

inlay,

hierarchy

political

1970,53ff).

HIRSCHLANDEN 3.

eg.

chief,

it

from

coral

with

the

sub-chief:

Leonberg)

(rings)

bronze

of

distributed

chiefs

of

the

of

often

jewellery

to bronze
these

below

(Zorn

level

another

sub-domains,

Leonberg)

5 Lineage

*I

that
Their

in

usually

GERLINGEN 1 (Kr.

eg.

11 (Kr.

seen

rank.

of

that
in

of this

including

gold:

jewellery,

bronze

rich

would

area

and another

can be recognised.

by Paret

possession

these

seems probable

burials

contain

Leonberg)

can be recognised
the

also

it.

30. *

Figure

4 In

Mittelstadt

the

of

SCHCKINGEN (Kr.

addition,

sub-domains,

sub-chiefs

sites

In

goods than
D 2.

can also
chief's

in

The
be
grave.

preparing

the

3S

Figure

31

SCALOGRAM OF GRAVE CONTENTS OF FI RST FOUR .ANKS IN THE

HOHENASPERGDOMAIN, Ila D 2
0

N
N

o ld
p r-4,

y
14
o

-,-4
1W
(1)
>

00
r.

bo

"H

d
C)

14
H

C+

0
to

BURIAL

q
4
1.1

1.4
.a

oD

bO

0o

GRAFENBHL

RrfERHGEL

BHL

BAD CANNSTATTII

38

DUSSLINGEN

36

BAISINGEN

17

BAD CANNSTATT I

13 *SCII8CKINGEN

to o
CO

`4
1

U
0

U
"n

r-4

P.

0)
C+

.0

to
r4

10
to
4)

.0
P

-H
44

to
Cl)

a
o
N
N
0 0

cn
0

$44

t$4

$4

$4
,

.0

.n

"'+

x
x
x

KLEINBOTTWAR

r4

..

bO

iJ

V
r+
W

ae
u

1J

0
o
44

11 *HOCHDORF
3

r4
P

w
0)
r. to
Cl) Cl)
N
$4
.
0
10
0
'b
'd
0
0
0
0
0
y

to
to

14

Site
No.

$4

to

N
0i

bO

0
0
C,

x
x

x
x

27

SCHLAITDORF

39

NEHREN

31

WEIL

32

WEIL

29

ROMMELSBACH

28

BURRENHOF-

x
x

ERKENNTSBRECHWEILER
25

NEUENHAUS

23

ECHTERDINGEN

40

BELSEN

30

WALDIIAUSEN

14 *HIRSCHLANDEN 11
15

GERLINGEN 2

34

DECKENPFRONN 1

OSTERHOLZ 5

BEIHINGEN

* within

the Hohenasperg

x
x

sub-domain

r,
ai

Lacking

evidence
indications

settlement,

indirect

of
in

than

are

more

the

DUSSLINGEN sub-domain

of

jet

the

The iron
D1-

Alb

the

the

Furthermore,

chief.

Sch8nbuch;

the

fleeces.
from

the

evidence

in

in

Urach

the

political

survival

the

for

the

1970)

BURRENHOF subhighlands
hides

with

of

and

cloth

status

where

have

would

the

high

of

(ZUrn

chamber)

for

paramount

production

area

the

can be suggested

area.
inas
-

this

of

that.

exploitation

Balingen

the

Hohenasperg:

the

supplied

the

likely

cloth

with

gold

as having

been

under

out

the

was found.

industrial

between

similarities
be part.

high

The use of

coral,
to

application
centralised

simpler

by the

marked

found

vessels,

bronze
the

small

types,

eg.

pins

basic

types

in

whilst

external
fibulae

have been under

local

contrlled,
throughout

the

as inlay
fibulae,

chiefs'
since

as

implies

items,

This

would

be

and armbands

the working
and tin

and also

of

the amber

would have

and the manufacture

plaques

simpler

or

foreign

Both copper

and belt

centre.

these

neck

exchanges

The

where

were used in

of

facilities.

workshops

larger

in

the domain.

the manufacture

available

into

had

have

would

paramount's

quantities
and

the

cloth-production

the

at

in

similarities

neck-rings,

certain

by craftsmen

and worked

through

may have been centrally

generally

out

workshop

the

and the

working

and woodworking
that

that

B) came from

Type

and iron

this

suggests

and gold

throughout

had to be obtained

could

cloth

that

metal

the same techniques

that

centralised

of

available

supported

bronze

complex

of

production
were

and coral

suggest

carried

amber

materials

the fact

two

status
been

have

also

would

a larger

of
for

the

at

believe

(Schiek's

bronze

the

of

carried

(1956,133)

and Schiek

The complexity

same workshop.

evidence

(1935)

Paret

and hence

control,

LUDWIGSBURG and BAD CANNSTATT I

of

wagons

can be suggested

activities

paramount's
Both

Hohenasperg.

not

to

have

is

(1962)

in

collection

is

It

involved

exploited

stock-rearing
would

Hohenasperg

rings,

the

GRAFENBHL (central

Certain

to

to

this

There

thread

the

basis

economic

been

by Rochna

directly

passed

Hcuneburg.

the

of

Hohenasperg

the

and tribute

production

have

was probably

and possibly

been

the, case
would

from

activities

centralised

indicated

resources
of

industrial

of

items,

control.
Zdrn notes

the Hohenasperg

of

would have been

bronze

such as plain
The working
that
area.

of

iron

the. ores were

..

The stylistic
indicate

that

distributed

from

Similar

centre

in

to

denoting
have

in

has

and all

graves

1,2,3,4)

Talhau

Rhine

access

to

that

gold

centres

would

Rhine
have

exotica

found

in

parallel

is

believes

that

from

other

Upper

they

are
but

in

in

products
is

as well

as an Upper

Rhine-Hohenasperg

are

found

were

in

reported

Switzerland,.
to

have

the

of
of

is

gold

represented
in

represented

(1962)

Rochna

Hohenasperg

the

the

Hohenasperg

the

centres.

has
and

eastern

large,

contained

of

assortment

(Dehn

Alpine
link.

area
Schiek

hollow-headed

that

the

similar

graves
pins.

gold
of

Mediterranean

The

1971).

that

only

bronze

or

other
(1971)

Dehn

northern
distribution

their

and the

Upper

(1956,78)
pins

and
the

a shallow

Alpine

is

amber
between

of

1957).

a southeast
here

paramounts

probably

exchanges

Bohemia

significant

the

but

jet,

gold,

the

Hohenasperg

the

HATTEN (Frey

Southern

between

for

(including

Ha D2

The RMERHGEL contains

connections

parallels

in

reflected

implies

best

being

were

Hohenasperg

that

by reciprocal

workshop,

what

not

the

of

are

between

in

Exchanges

the

types

is

and Urnfield

type

between

existed

Italian

the

jet

for

one found

a grave

Rhine

authority.

Ha D1

graves

indicates

This

that

commodity

period.

are

like

both

in

gold

A second

this

of

contexts

sources

gold-rich

But,

GRAFENBHL.

the

Ha D2

the

important

paramounts'

(as

time
of

one type.

facilitated

been

exchanges

handles

the

chiefs.

chiefs;

with

analyses

clearly

these

dish

this

relations

Upper

this

and coral

was particularly

and control

in

as

and amber

Hohenasperg

distant

was exchanged
in

to

more

the

the

Gold

in

'a common

quantities

small

and bronze)

found

KAPPEL.

at

was through

Exchange

glass,

eg.

in

used

gold

at

period.

gold

Rhine

and the

this

of

area,

suggested
Upper

be of

to

a few graves

Upper

from

shown

suggest

the

the

Europe

Central

materials

access

that

shown

Hohenasperg.

other

and the
of

to be the

and

at

worked

and similarities

items.

bases

the

was being

assumed

bronze

was obtained

Hartman

paramounts'

in

has

traded

times).

status

types

gold

and coral

(silver

metals

the

of

amber

was also

simple

one of

but

Rhine-gold,
widely

base

political
been

and these

Gold

is

which

on jet,

used

gold

embellish

(1970)

Hartman

in

to more

used

must

were

range

domain

the

within

centre,

manufacture.

applications
were

a single

produced

of

found

gold

techniques

items

the

the

limited

and the

evidence

from

Rhone,

notes

that

SC118CKINGEN

IRRINGEN and GUNDLINGEN

3; 9

The extension
is

Rhine

1969).

coastal
(Jura),

CHATEAU, Salins
wares

are

trade

in

gold

which

the

in

burials

which

are

4 and HOCHDORF (Kr.

according

to

single

in

found

Frsten

on to high-ranking

passed
There

are

wares

and southern

Since

the

Hohenasperg
derived

have

both

alliances

with

his

and also

southern

produce

in
his
consumed

Hohenasperg
what
the

in

was formerly

bronze.

vessels,

burials

that

foreign

(as

east

himself

and establish
exchanges

with

of high

- not necessarily

latter

the

have

may

chief

him

enabled

in

high

like
-

in

above)

the Upper Rhine

status

have

would
through

would

Figure

Black

The Heuneburg

which

been

dominant

described

centres.

the

pins

settlement).

the

materials

involved

partners.

the

the

so alike,

have

(although

to

in

and

would

from

in

of

TALHAU III

exchange

known

are

Rhine

with

facilitate

the Hohenasperg
for

the

wine which

was

settlement.
Ha D2

paramounts

Hohenasperg,

Upper

alliances

small-headed

to be subordinate

been

own sub-domain

ranking,

As' found

the

etc

and other

have

would

his

maintained

to maintain

imports

only

by the

Talhau

are

as products

these

gold

found

heads

1935-38)

4,

are
the

them

TALHAU I,

be unlikely

would

the

insignia

rank

amber

Presumably,

the

appear

it

southern
but

in

of

Paret

the

members

sherds

chiefs

paramount,

his

Heuneburg,
exchange

amphorae

Heuneburg

from

lineage
imports

no southern

(eg.

cites

no. 5.

burial

LUDWIGSBURG, secondary

for

route

contain

which

he regards

Schiek

as coming

graves

tumuli

decorated

with

that

Phocaean

and even

and Heuneburg

elements

Vaihingen)

Furthermore,

workshop.

Rhone

Hohenasperg

important

(1956,79),

Schiek

CAMP DE

of

site

Upper

the

be a likely

also

Talhau

The 4 pins

between

Iberia.

the

the

such

TALHAU I,

Lower

of

came from

MNSTERBERG, Breisach

exchanges
'is the

would

between

domain.

Hohenasperg

This

possibly

the

and armbands

neck

a variety

1967).

relations

shown by

in

relations

exchange

the

Marseille

near

where

(Dayet

found

The exchange
clearly

intermediary

region

Rhine

from

material

A possible

and the

Upper

the

of

'Vixien'

by the

suggested

(Kimmig

westwards

his
the
gold

in

Heuneburg

the

was to

be undermined
The

sub-domain.
KLEINASPERGLE,
ornaments,

vases

the

area,

last

contains

authority.

of

domain

limited

and his
of

the

and other

items

which

to

burials

paramount

a combination

the

of

imported

are

clearly

at

3G0

Schaaff

1969;

reduced

domain

1970,118

burials

HIRSCHLANDEN Grave

D 3/Early

during

his

there,

stela
(eg.

domain

Jet

the

1935-38;

The most

and

the

1965;

examples
contents

1970:

and others.

the

of

the

and

HIRSCHLANDEN figure
1965 and

Zrn

paramount,

domain

Hohenasperg

reduced

notable

KLEINASPERGLE grave
carved

the

of

1970)

Ziirn

31 show the

the

Kimmig

role

the

within

RBMERHGEL and GRAFENBHL, also

on Figure

La Thne.

are

new contacts

within

1935-38;

graves

redistributive

SIRNAU (Paret

circles

Other

references).

with

continuing

13,

(Paret

paramount

the

of

a re-alignment

and represent

the

confirm

The open

date

Hohenasperg

the

of

ZUrn

secondary

in

ha D 3)

connections

external

eg.

(or

La Tene

Early

from

Beck

paramount's

evidence

of

his

within

1974).

the external
relations
of the
jet
As Rochna (1962,62)
beads are
Hiohenasperg paramounts.
points
out,
in the Southern and Central
frequency
Wurttemberg
found in greatest
area,

and their

Lake

Constance.

indications

distribution

the

in

KLEINASPERGLE and the

the

is

there

DURRNBERG, near

- now probably
Germany
(1973)

and the
evidence
in

elements
and amber

would

Early
Middle

Early

an extension

another

Hallein.

of
the

been

centres

of

lignite

this

This

indication
the

of

material

the first

southern

trading

area

is

the

44 of

grave

continued

exchanges

supported

by Schwappach's

and

of

of

southwestern

'eastern'
in

these

salt,

stylistic

system

tin

copper,

alliances.

the dominance

connections,

of the regional

1965).

in

Exchanges

stage

the

(Keller
in

near

paramount

'western'

bases

in

found

found

to

dominant

the

of

Ingbert)

of

dominant

Salzburg

other

St

area
further

are

emergence

type

of

ornamentation.

of the periphery

(Kr.

Rhine

* there

armrings

ring

combination

La Tene
have

the

the

with

Lower

the

La Tene),

REINHEIM

- between

chiefs
for

large

of

La Thne represents

Rhine

(Early
links

the

grave

indirect

through

extends

paramount's

chiefdoms

Furthermore,

of

Ha D3

During

of

Rhine

Middle

most evidence

provides

of

corresponding
centred

the
with

on the Central

(D
3)
the
* The inter-relationship
D
final
Hallstatt
and
the
of
phase of
beginning
(eg. Zrn 1952 and 1970;
of Early La Tene is much disputed
Haffner
1976; Lang 1974, Uenze 1964).

36

Mediterranean,

the core area of Etruria

in

developments
decline

Marseilles

of

importance
Adriatic,

traders

not

possible

to

in

centres

this

the

exchange

in their

traders

indigenous

In

dependent
centres,
traders

used
centres

to

addition

of

on exchange
north

of

representing

the

emergence

core

in
of

among core

the

competing

extension

- and the

emergence
core

establishing

in

the

bronze

and maintaining

vessels)

which
relations

exchange

new periphery.

the

nature

Southwestern

relations

(mainly

centres,;

intermediaries

their

or

new
the

of

new dominant

of

centres

commodities

in

the

and

centres

involved

it

the

Mediterranean
predicted

early

of

evolution

developments

certain

Alps,

the

competition

the

the

of

and monopolise

of

development,

head

to establish

elucidating

D society

Hallstatt

patterns

of

ie.

found:

attempts

involved

production'

specialist
with

These

the

of

Central

the

increasing

ADRIA and SPINA.

many features

that

are

and the

at

phase

of

increasing

periphery,

predictably,

also,

this

with

note

form

- geographically

periphery

'mass

deal

P valley

the

to the

and the

century

established

were

to

social

partners.

in

peripheries

it

intermediaries

their

the

Suffice

of

evolution

the

in

the'6th

the end of

centres

Greek

here.

states

in

Etruscan

Age societies

Iron

they

towards

where

is

It

the

of

must be related

6th and 5th centuries

the late

These

Greece.

and Greater

has been

shown

internal

the

Germany,

established
and with

of

that
with

and predicting
its

evolution

other

the-intermediaries

Mediterranean-centres.

structure
certain
was

indigenous
or

specialist

of

UA

CONCLUSION

is

It

not

the

underlying

East,

has

been

merely

core

regional

system.

It

function

of

the

core

is

the

consider

of

The Phoenician
and took

system

the

cities

European

contacts

Iberia,

can be seen

they

Pharaoh

Egyptian
local

leaders,

ivory

and alabaster.

on the

part

of

the creation

indigenous
tion
south

of

coast.

technology,

This

to

king.

surpluses

Thus,

such as cloth,

dyes,

internal

the

we are

as
to

able

and their

Asiatic

largely

dealt

and Egypt.

of

They

trading

into

lack

have

boosted

and kingship,
of

regarded

sphere.

when

Southern

would

they

the

highly

with
Thus,

of

power

the

remaining

expansion

so doing,

Iberia.

regional

whilst

as they

reveals

a vested
it

an

the
viz.
interest

as a base

In order

to obtain

and instigate

the Phoenicians

by introducing

major

context,

populations

In

of a new specialised

resources,

Asia

symbols

in

the

states

century

'rulers'

the

strategy

core

functions

had

indigenous

treat

Phoenicians

production

local

the

of
of

that

western

8th

the

Western

them classic

giving

the

to

in

an Asiatic

or

the

of

cities

with

establishing

the

and

areas.

Phoenician
states

centralised

of

regional

done,

economic

Prior

the

periphery,

developed,

part

on semi-peripheral

'independent'.

politically

for

were

Eastern

models

these

of

new peripheral

Near

bounds

the

have

'expansion'

regional

inhabitants

broader

the

and Finley

the

the

detailed

within

Larsen

into

semi-peripheries

by formulating

the

of

of

Near

the

interrelated

of

material

into

drew

in

be emphasised.

will

impact

Instead,

material.

systems

indigenous

on the

states,

nature

of

the

increasingly

Diakonoff,

Oppenheim,

comparisons

states
they

areas

with

the

or

observed

Europe

by dealing

we can understand

Mediterranean

of

developments

the

and Central

with

contents

body

this

of

of

that

shown

representatives,

peripheral

analysis

Mediterranean

not

societies,

the

the

either

summarise

connectedness

Aegean,

It

in

drawn

conclusions

to

proposed

or encourage the exploita'factories'

established
on the

Phoenician
dried

fish,

categories
oil,

of material

unguents,

fine

and

wares

between Phoenician
merchants and
and metalwork,
exchange relations
fine
indigenous
it
been
that
has
be
shown
rulers
could
maintained:

3v

and jewellery

bronzework
before

south
With

these

commodities,

be created

could
carried

treating

political

commodities

or

the south

due to

coast,

to dominate

the

it_was_not

or monopolise

commercial

and Mediterranean
to

the

the

subsequent

and 7th

Asiatic
also

north

in order

established

Phoenicians,
Central

the periphery

had

etc.,

Thus,

declined

it

exchange

Central

of the Greek dominated

the Carthaginians

could. of the Phoenician

foundation

of Greek establishments
of Iberia

dominated

late

Western

a part

- but

relations

cutting

with

were

out

resources
that

the Western
to the

the Western

Europe was incorporated

Central

Mediterranean.

were attempting
Atlantic

on the northern

intensified.
was

the

such as copper, tin,

area (where new

no coincidence

when Western

in

the

relations

of many of these
is

in

and
Etruscan

and their

Greek/Etruscan

from a new peripheral

suppliers

connected

Mediterranean

remained

thereby

centres.

intrinsically

by changes
always

of

centre

as observed

resources,

be established),

coasts

up the Atlantic

cities

sphere,

only

certain

what they

coast

it

which.

to obtain

By the 6th century,

Levantine

not

These

the former

sphere

Central

Alps.

the

of

Mediterranean.

Phoenician

the

of

of exchange could

rates

in

intensification

amber,

metals,

precious

into

increasing

been

Western

the

of

of

system-

have

Greek'

along

area of Eastern

to

'Greater

was limited

centuries,

Europe,

Central

colonies

the

of

The duration

regional
by the

Greek

of

evolution

counterparts.
8th

and appears

to

the Phoenician

with

to connect

served

of

there

were

indigenous

sphere was an important

activity:

the

over

merchants

any single

exchange relations

networks

establishment

they

and Mediterranean

for

it

take

clients.

the-production

Phoenician

of

but

into

them

to

organise

resources

presence

possible

The Western-Phoenician
Phoenician

the

of

to

nor

society

elite,

turned

Phoenicians

as the Atlantic

as well

Iberia,

Southern

leaders,

fact

leaders

indigenous

existing

the

network.

indigenous

the

of
the

in

the

of

part

exploitation

Similarly,

obtain.

'kings',

as

local

of

boosted

trading

the

with

in

supply

short

Atlantic

the

levels

other

thereby

on the

authority

in

relations

with

'leaders'

the

was no interest

There

the

contractual

and exchanges

and in

esteemed

intervention

The Phoenicians

out.

whilst

were

Phoenician

the

highly

trade,

to salvage
whilst

Mediterranean

The 'Iberian'

culture

the
and
of the

a.

southeast,

strongly

seen to control
Atlantic

the southeastern

the establishment
-suggest
successful,
-Punic
the

in

of

Atlantic

Morocco,,

7th

with

representatives
needed

the

of

the

to

is

powers.

hierarchisation
were

part

before

important
zone,
,

important

to

an extensive

their

note

degree

with
that

Central

of

through

connected

observed
exchange

exploitation
are

the

of hierarchisation

of

beyond

the

in

southern

increased
6th

the

in

and large

century

which

craft

scale
features.

characteristic

up the regions

socially

exchange

system

Mediterranean

Europe,

to

access

societies-whose

is

bronzeworli
into

the

and was -

Central

of

South-

representing

be -

representatives
these

in

intermediaries

through

societies

European

resource

same framework

partners

could

obtained

account

when

developments
trade

with

to

Iberia,

The

peripheries

development

incorporation

exchange relations

and a certain

some areas.

along

and other

place.

distribution

ie.

network,

and distribution

production

increased

on the

Southern

century

indigenous

certain

and Greek,

Phoenicians

southern

the

and their

specialised

specialisation,

Thus,

from

and economic
of

6th

phenomenal

reached

them

regional

It

south

craftsmen,
took

cities,,

'prestige-goods',

commodities,
existing

further

of

came to be associated

authority

political

corresponding

the

of

merchants,

supplies

Thus, - in

monopolised.

vital

the

where

access

and where

was

of the Western Asiatic

of certain
and functioning

Age societies

Eastern

the

and Etruscans

Greeks

impact

Phoenician

explain

Germany

western

Iberia
with

Phoenician

the

'ephemeral'
century'Iron

contact

to

of

context

structure

in--particular

--component
for the relatively

is

date

from the Southeast,

Atlantic

and probably

to the general

system and the internal

indigenous

century,

the

Africa.

societies,

direct

4th

the

until

We have had to refer

regional

in

to enter

and the late

to the Atlantic

involvement

is

world,

and attempt

of Greek material
routes

Carthaginian

least

activity
coast

of overland

the
at

ore resources

But the rarity

system.

that

by the Greek Mediterranean

acculturated

regional

of this

system,

peripheral
in
has been recognised

305

It
of

has

been-attempted

Ist

early

Europe

concerned

possible
to

evolution
the

the

a single

to

link

and Western
by the

ated

this

substantiate

the

by drawing

Secondly,
Barnett

and others,

as well

as their

structure

of

they

this

of

were

to

organisation

and evolution

the

system

In the works
of

and Winter

could

of Childe,

world

provides

astutely

relates

Asiatic

system

we can go beyond this

in

Although

to

literary

attempt
to

references

Diakonoff,
individual

the

of

to

predict

Eastern

world

work

on exchange

Sahlins

and others,

incorporated

states
the

envisage

the

by developing

Muhly,

the Eastern

time

their

of

certain

conse-

and the

strategies

a model

of

by Mauss,

theory
the
into

internal

the

periphery

a legitimate

cultural

the exclusion

the 7th century

thesis

we

Mediterranean,

the Greeks

of

It

BC

(1973,

unit'

of contacts

(1975,422).

the Western

1st millenium

and-others,

and Western

the establishment

with

this

Winter

in the 2nd and 3rd millenia

that

and consider

of the early

states

and hence

Coldstream,

considers

Westeri

core

be examined.

Muhly

Europe corresponding

Asiatic

at

a society

between

Central

European world
'world-economy'.

on the

the links

to the extent that

'the Mediterranean
180);

of

corrobor-

city-states

Near

the

Ekholm,

is

was possible

Furthermore,

based

the

and Greeks

Oppenheim,

of

it

periphery

employ.

Thus,
of

no need

vague

structure

beyond

extension

Rey and Duprd,

are reminded

works

commercial

European

the

subsequent

expansion.

internal

on the

economy,.

regional

the

upon

Meillassoux,

of

westward

Phoenician

likely

'prestige-good'

with

inter-connectedness,

the
of

penetration

of

picture

it

1974),

penetration

therefore,

was,

areas

each-other.

Western

the

of

There

and inception

nature

quences

tendencies

cohesive

century

by Phoenicians

Mediterranean

interdependence.

and their

and 7th

the

and their

powers,

and

Mediterranean

(Wallerstein

and to

study

Eastern

Near

by viewing

situations

8th

of

evolutionary

Western

'world-economy'

regional

record

the

Firstly,

expansionist

major

the

the

to

approaches

between
of

populations

contacted.

of

archaeological

Central

to

they

as part

has been

and the

states

and Central

two

combine

interrelationships

millenium

Mediterranean

here-to

is

with
from

the

hoped that

Asiatic/Mediterranean/

BC in terms
represents

of a single

a preliminary

step

12

in

this

Eastern,
systemic
of

direction,

it

is hoped-that

further

Near

work to re-integrate

Aegean and Prehistoric

European studies will
confirm the
interrelationships
proposed here and that the explanation

developments

and economic
correspondences

in

different

structures
- will

areas

of

Europe

and interrelationships
be facilitated.

in

terms
- rather

of

their
than

political
material