I. I NTRODUCTION TO WSN
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) have become critical in
the evolution of Telecommunications, its constant evolution
permits the possibility to implement devices with low cost and
energy autonomy, without periodic maintenance, to be capable
of obtaining environmental information, and for these reasons
Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Internet of Things (IoT), and
Smart Cities are new research topics based on technologies
like WSN, all of them are based in a similar infrastructure of
every heterogeneous networks where data must be transmitted,
processed, and finally enable people through any application
to monitor or to control objects [1][6].
Ecuador has a special interest to use WSN in volcano
monitoring applications, as it is located in the Pacific Ring
of Fire a place with high seismic activity. WSN systems are
Manuscript received July 5, 2014
R.A. Lara is with Wireless Communication Research Group (WiCOM)
and Ad Hoc Networks Research Center (CIRAD) of the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universidad de las
Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolqu-Ecuador, 171-5-231B e-mail: (see
http://wicom.espe.edu.ec/contactos.html).
A. Caamano and J.L. Rojo are with Information and Communication
Technology Department, Rey Juan Carlos University, Camino del Molino s/n
28943, Fuenlabrada-Madrid, Espana
M. Zennaro are with ICT for Development Laboratory , The Abdus Salam
International Centre for Theorical Physics, Trieste-Italy
much cheaper and reliable than bulky and energy-hungry traditional systems. Currently, South America lacks of permanent
monitoring systems deployed in active volcanoes, but some
WSN-based systems have been installed just in a couple of
weeks. Volcano monitoring using WSN still requires further
research in order to present information in real-time and to
launch an early emergency warning. The main constraint to
be considered as real-time systems is the time delay caused
by processing data, there are some solutions at Network and
MAC layer referred to data acquisition in-situ, data gathering
and data dissemination which significantly reduces time delay,
but it is impossible to give an early warning with this kind of
systems, because data are processed off-line in a far distanced
surveillance laboratory. The time delay related to digital signal
processing and the signal propagation must be solved within
appropriate processing and telecommunication techniques [7]
[9].
Our aim was to determine a number of sensors that maximize the network capacity, we considered as main metrics
throughput, time delay and packet loss in the WSN, and
then corroborated by an in-situ testbed deployed at Cotopaxi
volcano [10].
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section
2 summarizes previous research on the subject. Section 3
describes the performance evaluation of the WSN in detail.
Sections 4 and 5 describe the simulation results obtained
and the experimental study performed, respectively. Finally,
Section 6 presents our conclusions and future work [11].
II. R ELATED W ORK
Our interest consist in determining the network behavior,
for that reason we must study the performance network, this
can be evaluated by some Quality of Service (QoS) metrics
such as: availability, reliability, response time, time delay,
throughput, bandwidth capacity, and packet loss ratio. In order
to offer real-time in WSN with guaranteed QoS metrics, the
network must be analyzed in a different way than traditional
real-time systems, as far as WSN requires to need severe
challenges due to its wireless nature, distributed architecture
and dynamic network topology. The state of the art of realtime solutions currently developed have been presented with
emphasis at level of MAC, routing, data processing, and cross
layer, this denote a direct relationship between real-time and
QoS metrics, as well as new general concepts related to realtime WSN systems [12] [13]. Real-Time (RT) WSN could be
defined as a WSN capable of ensuring a Maximum Sustained
300
250
200
2^(n+1) (%)
150
100
50
0
0.12
0.1
80
0.08
60
0.06
40
0.04
20
0.02
Delay (s)
Fig. 1.
XXXXXX
groups: general parameters, power parameters, and node parameters, the rest of the parameters to simulate the network
model are detailed in the Tables I, II and III respectively.
TABLE I
G ENERAL PARAMETERS
Parameter
Radio Propagation Model
Routing Protocol
Raw Bit Rate (kbps)
Antenna Type
Simulation Time (s)
Simulation Time (s)
Value
Two-Ray Ground
AODV
250
Directional
260
220
B. Simulation Environment
There is a wide range of simulators that can be used to test
WSN in order to obtain several results to be analyzed based
on [29] we have chosen ns-2 as simulation tool.
In order to obtain the performance of the network through
simulation we have chosen two scenarios: tessellation and
randomly, for the first one we have chosen a triangular
tessellation pattern network {3, 6}, in the second one we
defined a random position of the sensor nodes placed on the
plane at a distance of 30 meters each (typical mean value for
connection in practice).
The number of nodes (n) in the triangular tessellation could
be obtained as function of the number of layers C, this is,
n = 1 + 3C(C + 1).
(1)
TABLE II
P OWER PARAMETERS
Parameter
Transmission Power (dBm)
Sensitivity (dBm)
Transmission antenna gain Gt (dB)
Reception antenna gain Gr (dB)
Trajectory loss (dB)
Value
0 (1mW)
-94
1.0
1.0
1.0
TABLE III
N ODES PARAMETERS
Parameter
Traffic type
Traffic direction
Package size
Number of Coordinators
Distance between nodes
Number of nodes
Beacon mode
Value
FTP
all to Coordinator
55 bytes
1 coordinator
30 m
1 to 45 nodes
Enabled
Beacon Order:3
Superframe Order:3
Tessellation topology
Normalized Throughput vs n
0.7
150
Coordinator
FFD Nodes
0.6
100
0.5
50
Position y (m)
0.4
0
0.3
50
0.2
0.1
100
150
150
100
50
0
Position x (m)
50
100
12
18
24
30
150
36
42
nodes (n)
48
54
60
66
48
54
60
66
Randomly topology
150
a) Tessellation Scenario
Coordinator
FFD Nodes
Normalized Throughput vs n
0.7
100
0.6
Position y (m)
50
0.5
0
0.4
50
0.3
100
150
150
0.2
0.1
100
50
0
Position x (m)
50
100
150
0
Fig. 2.
12
18
24
30
36
42
nodes (n)
T hroughput
RBR
(3)
PL vs n
EED vs n
x 10
500
450
400
3.5
350
3
EndtoEnd
Paket Loss
300
250
2.5
200
1.5
150
100
0.5
50
0
12
18
24
30
36
42
nodes (n)
48
54
60
66
a) Tessellation Scenario
12
18
24
30
36
42
nodes (n)
48
54
60
66
48
54
60
66
a) Tessellation Scenario
PL vs n
EED vs n
x 10
500
450
400
3.5
350
3
EndtoEnd
Paket Loss
300
250
200
2.5
1.5
150
1
100
0.5
50
0
12
18
24
30
36
42
nodes (n)
48
54
60
66
b) Randomly Scenario
12
18
24
30
36
42
nodes (n)
b) Randomly Scenario
WSN
Deploy.
Variables/
Platform
Number
sensors
Frequency
Sampling
(Hz)
100
100
1000
Duration
(Days)
3
16
5
Operation
frequency
(MHz)
2400
2400
900
[31]
[32]
[33]
Proposed
Work
Aa /Micaz
SAb /Tmote
SA/Imote2
Sc /Micaz
e Iris
16
2400
100
2
19
Abiding
a Acustic
b Seismo-Acustic
c Seismo
Fig. 6.
a) Throughput
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9. Short period noise seismic determined after digital processing signal
Fig. 11.
High frequency volcanic tremor event determined after digital
processing signal
[7] G. Werner-Allen, J. Johnson, M. Ruiz, J. Lees, and M. Welsh, Monitoring volcanic eruptions with a wireless sensor network, in Wireless
Sensor Networks, 2005. Proceeedings of the Second European Workshop
on. IEEE, 2005, pp. 108120.
[8] J. de Pedro Carracedo, Las tic en la prevencion de desastres naturales,
in II Congreso de Computacion para el Desarrollo (COMPDES09).
Acceso en: http://www. redusoi. org/docs/publicaciones/P11-Las 20TIC
20en% 20la% 20prevencion% 20de% 20desastres% 20nat urales. pdf,
2009.
[9] J. Zheng and A. Jamalipour, Wireless sensor networks: a networking
perspective. Wiley-IEEE Press, 2009.
[10] M. Kohvakka, M. Kuorilehto, M. Hannikainen, and T. D. Hamalainen,
Performance analysis of ieee 802.15. 4 and zigbee for large-scale
wireless sensor network applications, pp. 4857, 2006.
[11] I. Hammoodi, B. Stewart, A. Kocian, and S. McMeekin, A comprehensive performance study of opnet modeler for zigbee wireless sensor
networks, pp. 357362, 2009.
[12] Y. Li, C. S. Chen, Y.-Q. Song, Z. Wang et al., Real-time qos support
in wireless sensor networks: a survey, in 7th IFAC International Conference on Fieldbuses & Networks in Industrial & Embedded SystemsFeT2007, 2007.
[13] K. S. Prabh, Real-time wireless sensor networks, Ph.D. dissertation,
University OF Virginia, 2007.
[14] J. Gao, J. Hu, and G. Min, Performance modelling of ieee 802.15. 4
mac in lr-wpan with bursty on-off traffic, in Computer and Information
Technology, 2009. CIT09. Ninth IEEE International Conference on,
vol. 2. IEEE, 2009, pp. 5862.
[15] J. Gao, J. Hu, G. Min, and L. Xu, Qos performance analysis of ieee
802.15. 4 mac in lr-wpan with bursty error channels, in Mobile Ad-hoc
and Sensor Networks, 2009. MSN09. 5th International Conference on.
IEEE, 2009, pp. 252256.
[16] M. Imran, A. Said, and H. Hasbullah, A survey of simulators, emulators
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]