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Low Frequency Oscillations in Power

System and Their Relation to Power


System Blackout
Authors: Pertha Pratim Dutta, Manik Dutta, Abul
Hasan Fahad (Graduated from Dept. of EE, BUET)

B. Local Plant Mode Oscillations

Abstract:
This document presents a complete overview of low
frequency oscillation phenomena in power systems.
Definition of low frequency oscillation and its
classification is clearly explained. Some power
system blackout incidents due to low frequency
oscillation and the lesson learned from those
incidents are given in the study. Widely used
methodology for studying low frequency oscillation
among power utilities is also presented. Damping
low frequency oscillation methods are additionally
discussed.

I.

Introduction

Oscillations in power systems are classified by the


system components that they affect. Some of the
major system collapses attributed to oscillations are
described.

II.

Nature
of
Oscillations

Machines on the same power generation site


oscillate against each other at 2.0 to 3.0 Hz
depending on the unit ratings and the reactance
connecting them. This oscillation is termed as
intraplant because the oscillations manifest
themselves within the generation plant complex.
The rest of the system is unaffected.

Local plant mode oscillation problems are the most


commonly encountered among the above and are
associated with units at a generating station
oscillating with respect to the rest of the power
system. Such problems are usually caused by the
action of the AVRs of generating units operating at
high-output and feeding into weak-transmission
networks; the problem is more pronounced with
high-response excitation systems. The local plant
oscillations typically have natural frequencies in the
range of 12 Hz. Their characteristics are well
understood and adequate damping can be readily
achieved by using supplementary control of
excitation systems in the form of power system
stabilizers (PSS).
In local mode, one generator swings against the rest
of the system at 1.0 to 2.0 Hz. The variation in speed
of a generator is shown in Figure 1.

Electro-mechanical

Electric power utilities have experienced problems


with the following types of sub synchronous
frequency oscillations [1]:

Intraplant mode Oscillations


Local plant mode oscillations
Interarea mode oscillations
Torsional mode oscillations
Control mode oscillations

A. Intraplant mode Oscillations

Figure 1: a typical example of local mode oscillation

The impact of the oscillation is localized to the


generator and the line connecting it to the grid . The
rest of the system is normally modeled as a constant
voltage source whose frequency is assumed to

remain constant. This is known as the singlemachine-infinite-bus (SMIB) model. The damping
and frequency vary with machine output and the
impedance between the machine terminal and the
infinite bus voltage. The oscillation may be removed
with a single or dual input PSS that provides
modulation of the voltage reference of the
automatic voltage regulator (AVR) with proper
phase and gain compensation circuit [8].
C.

Interarea Mode Oscillations

Interarea modes are associated with machines in


one part of the system oscillating against machines
in other parts of the system. They are caused by two
or more groups of closely coupled machines that are
interconnected by weak ties. The natural frequency
of these oscillations is typically in the range of 0.11
Hz. The characteristics of interarea modes of
oscillation are complex and in some respects
signicantly differ from the characteristics of local
plant modes [1][2][3].
This phenomenon is observed over a large part of
the network. It involves two coherent group groups
of generators swinging against each other at 1 Hz or
less. The variation in tie-line power can be large as
shown in Fig. 2. The oscillation frequency is
approximately 0.3 Hz. This complex phenomenon
involves many parts of the system with highly nonlinear dynamic behavior. The damping characteristic
of the interarea mode is dictated by the tie-line
strength, the nature of the loads and the power flow
through the interconnection and the interaction of
loads with the dynamics of generators and their
associated controls. The operation of the system in
the presence of a lightly damped interarea mode is
very difficult.

Figure 2: a typical example of interarea mode oscillation

D. Torsional Mode Oscillations


Torsional mode oscillations are associated with the
turbine-generator
rotational
(mechanical)
components. There have been several instances of
torsional mode instability due to interactions with
controls, including generating unit excitation and
prime mover controls [1].
Torsional mode destabilization by excitation control
was rst observed in 1969 during the application of
power system stabilizers on a 555 MVA fossil-red
unit at the Lambton generating station in Ontario.
The PSS, which used a stabilizing signal based on
speed measured at the generator end of the shaft,
was found to excite the lowest torsional (16 Hz)
mode. The problem was solved by sensing speed
between the two LP turbine sections and by using a
torsional lter [4][5].
Instability of torsional modes due to interaction with
speed-governing systems was observed in 1983
during the commissioning of a 635 MVA unit at
Pickering B nuclear generating station in Ontario.
The problem was solved by providing an accurate
linearization of steam valve characteristics and by
using torsional lters [6].
These modes are associated with a turbine
generator shaft system in the frequency range of 1046 Hz. A typical oscillation is shown in Fig. 3. Usually
these modes are excited when a multi-stage turbine
generator is connected to the grid system through a
series compensated line [9]. A mechanical torsional

mode of the shaft system interacts with the series


capacitor at the natural frequency of the electrical
network. The shaft resonance appears when
network natural frequency equals synchronous
frequency minus torsional frequency.

manner with non-linear loads giving rise to voltage


oscillations [11].

III.

Oscillatory Instability Incidents and


Lesson Learned

Though there have been many incidents related to


LFO, not an in-depth study has been performed to
see the real reasons behind many of these incidents.
Some of the incidents and the lesson learned are
summarized below to give an understanding of the
underlying problem.
Noteworthy incidents related to LFO include [11]:

Figure 3: a typical example of torsional mode oscillation

Control mode oscillations are associated with the


controls of generating units and other equipment.
Poorly tuned controls of excitation systems, prime
movers, static var compensators, and HVDC
converters are the usual causes of instability of
control modes. Sometimes it is difficult to tune the
controls so as to assure adequate damping of all
modes. Kundur et al. (1981) describe the difficulty
experienced in 1979 in tuning the power system
stabilizers at the Ontario Hydros Nanticoke
generating station [4]. The stabilizers used shaftspeed signals with torsional filters. With the
stabilizer gain high-enough to stabilize the local plant
mode oscillation, a control mode local to the
excitation system and the generator field referred to
as the exciter mode became unstable. The
problem was solved by developing an alternative
form of stabilizer that did not require a torsional
filter [7].
These are associated with generators and poorly
tuned exciters, governors, HVDC converters and SVC
controls. Loads and excitation systems can interact
through control modes [10]. Transformer tapchanging controls can also interact in a complex

United Kingdom (1980), frequency of


oscillation about 0.5 Hz.
Taiwan (1984, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992),
frequency of oscillation around 0.78 1.05
Hz.
West USA/Canada, System Separation
(1996), frequency of oscillation around
0.224 Hz.
Scandinavia (1997), frequency of oscillation
about 0.5 Hz.
China Blackout on 6 March (2003),
frequency of oscillation around 0.4 Hz.
US Blackout on 14 August (2003), frequency
of oscillation about 0.17 Hz.
Italian Blackout on 28 September (2003),
frequency of oscillation about 0.55 Hz.

Most of these incidents involved in a low frequency


of oscillation in the range of 0.1 to 0.7 Hz that is
considered as the most serious and could lead to
wide spread blackouts [11]. Apart from this,
oscillatory incidents in power systems in OntarioCanada, Sri Lankan, Malaysia and Bangladesh are
also reported in the literatures [11].
Most of the incidents had happened due to faults
triggered by some disturbances such as a tree
contacting with a transmission line, some
component failure, faults in transmission lines etc.
Because of the faults, these lines have been
disconnected from the grid. Then some other lines in
the network has been overloaded and sagged on

trees causing more earth faults. Those incidents


have been generated sequential line tripping and
generator tripping causing oscillation in power. The
tripping of transmission lines significantly modifies
the characteristics of the remaining grid with longer
distance (greater equivalent impedance) for the
power flow and consequent higher stability risk. And
also the modified grid may have less damping
compared with the original grid. The weak tie lines
and the nature of the longitudinal structure are one
of the causes for low frequency oscillations.
Concentration of outputs to major power plants with
insufficient reserve margins, heavy flow across
transmission interfaces due to seriously imbalanced
regional power and pumped storage units were in
pumping mode operation are common causes for
low frequency oscillation observed in some of the
cases above mentioned [11]. With the heavy tie line
power, low frequency electromechanical oscillation
modes have been captured the cases mentioned
above and decreasing the tie line power flow made
those modes disappeared.
Most of the events happened either during very cold
day during winter season or in a very hot day in
summer season [11]. The use of thermostatically
controlled loads, such as space heaters, coolers,
water heaters are increasing in these days. One of
the properties of these loads is to operate longer
period even during low voltage conditions. As a
result, the total number of these devices connected
to the system will increase in a few minutes after a
drop in voltage. Therefore there might be some
influence on low frequency oscillations from
thermostatically controlled loads [11].
In some cases, during postmortem analysis, it has
been identified that the past data of system
modeling has differences with actual values. The
analysis with past data has been showed positive
damping for power oscillations but in the actual case
it was negatively damped. There are various reasons
for this type of discrepancy. In order to avoid this
and to have a complete knowledge of the system,
components contribute to oscillatory problem need
to be modeled accurately and good understanding of

the phenomena under different operating conditions


are required. With this type of knowledge and
understanding a counter measure can be
implemented
easily
to
avoid
disastrous
consequences.

IV.

Power system modeling

Dynamic modeling of power system includes a set of


differential and algebraic equations (DAE). Low
frequency oscillation studies can be done in two
ways depending on the interest. If the interest is to
capture the local behavior related to an area or
particular power plant, then that area of power plant
can be modeled in details and the rest of the system
with simple models. If the interest is to capture both
local and global modes such as inter-areas mode
each and every machine in the system and their
associated controllers should be modeled in details.
It is important to include loads, controllers and other
power system components that would influence the
LFO. A general mathematical model of power system
is given by (1).

Where x is a vector of state variable; y is a vector of


algebraic variables; l and p are uncontrollable and
controllable parameters, respectively. Machine and
control dynamics will be included in the differential
equations while basic load flow and other network
equations will be included in algebraic equations.

V.

Eigenvalue analysis

The small signal stability or LFO study of the system


can be determined by system eigenvalues at an
operating point. The relative participation of state
variables and their contribution in certain oscillation
mode are given by the corresponding elements in
the right and left eigenvectors. Hence, combination
of left and right eigenvectors yield participation
factor matrix. The participation factor matrix can be
used to identify the dominant state variable in a
particular mode.

The following steps are followed in studying LFO of


power systems.
Step I: Finding equilibrium or operating point
Equilibrium point or operating point of the system
can be found by simultaneously solving differential
and algebraic equations given in (1). Assume the
equilibrium point is given by (x0, y0, p0) for a fixed
value of uncontrollable parameter l0.
Step II: Linearization DAE model around the
equilibrium point
Once the equilibrium point is known DAE model can
be linearized around the equilibrium point as given
in (2).
Here, the linearized model is considered valid as the
disturbances
considered
is
small
where
nonlinearities can be ignored.

Step III: Forming the reduced system state matrix


Assuming J4 is nonsingular, (2) can be rewritten by
eliminating algebraic variable as shown in (3).

That is, the linearized DAE system can be reduced to


a set of ODE equations as shown in (3). Matrix A in
(3) Is referred to as reduced system state matrix.
Step IV: Finding eigenvalues, eigenvectors and
Participation matrix
Small signal stability or steady state stability of the
equilibrium point of the system can be analyzed by
looking at the eigenvalues of A or reduced system

state matrix. Eigenvalues of A are given by (4) and


the number of eigenvalues depends on the
dimension of matrix A or the number of state
variables considered in the system.

Where represents eigenvalue and represents


right eigenvector. For non-trivial solution
determinant of [A-I] equals to zeros and the
eigenvalues can be calculated. Similarly, another
equation can be written to find out the left
eigenvector as given in (5)

In order for the system to be stable or oscillation


free, all the eigenvalues should be located in the
open left half plane. This means that real part of the
eigenvalues should be negative and damping ratio
should be positive with more than a pre specified
value according to utilities practice (typically
damping ratio should be higher than 0.05). If at least
one of the eigenvalues has positive real part the
system is said to be unstable. More specifically, in
oscillatory unstable cases, a pair of complex
eigenvaues will appear with positive real part [12].
Given an eigenvalue in complex format, -j, the
initial frequency of oscillation (f) and damping ratio
can be calculated using expressions given in (6).

Participation factor matrix


Once both right and left eigenvectors are known for
different eigenvalues, the participation factor matrix
can be calculated by combining the left and right
eigenvectors as shown in (7).

where

VII.

Where Pki=kiki; where ki is the kth entry of the


right eigenvector with ith mode. ki the kth entry of
the left eigenvector associated with ith mode.

VI.

Damping Low Frequency Oscillation

The traditional approach to address low frequency


oscillation problem is to equip PSS in the machines
which has tendency to damp out power oscillations
[1]-[8]. However, the present power systems are too
complex as many utilities around the world are
interconnected each other to deliver reliable and
cheap power from environmentally clean resources.
Moreover, introduction of competition had invited
many generating plants to be connected to power
system and started to dispatch power. PSS in some
cases founds not sufficient and even detrimental,
this has open the door for a number of FACTS
controllers applied to add damping on weak modes.
The remedial measures for oscillation damping can
be classified in two broad categories, one at
operational level and the other one is at planning
stage. Operational level approaches for power
system oscillation damping include re-tuning
excitation control system and PSS. Re-dispatching of
generators and adjusting of load changers can also
be considered. At the operational level, load
shedding can also be used as the last line of defense
to damp low frequency of oscillation [19],[20].
Planning level: At planning stage a number of
damping controllers can be considered for
implementation. New PSS, FACTS controllers [21][26], Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
(SMES) and fly wheel are some of them [27]-[30].

Conclusion

In this document we have discussed about various


power system oscillations and how to analyze the
power system to detect the oscillations. We briefly
showed the possible solutions to address the
oscillation problem. As far as we see, deregulation in
Power Industry will be generally accepted
worldwide. The loading of existing power systems
will further increase, leading to bottlenecks and
reliability problems. As a consequence of lessons
learned from the large Blackouts, FACTS and HVDC
will play an important role for the system
developments, leading to hybrid AC/DC systems with
better controllability of the power flows and to assist
in prevention of cascading disturbances.
References
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December 1996, J. Paserba, Convenor.
[3] Rogers, G., Power System Oscillations, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, 2000.
[4] Kundur, P., Lee, D.C., and Zein El-Din, H.M.,
Power system stabilizers for thermal units:
Analyticaltechniques and on-site validation, IEEE
Trans. PAS, 100, 8185, January 1981.
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[7] Lee, D.C. and Kundur, P., Advanced excitation


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[8] Lee, D.C. (1992). IEEE recommended practice for
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[9] Padiyar, K.R. (1999). Analysis of Subsynchronous
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Inter-area Oscillations in PowerSystem with Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Devices. PhD
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