Vivekanand Education Society's Institute of Technology

Department of Computer Engg.

Subject: Mobile Communication and Computing

Assignment No.1
Roll no.:01
Question : Define the following Terms: Frequency reuse, Multipath propagation,
Fading, ISI, Equalizer, Co channel Interference

Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse is the process of using the same radio frequencies on radio transmitter sites
within a geographic area that are separated by sufficient distance to cause minimal interference
with each other. Frequency reuse allows for a dramatic increase in the number of customers that
can be served (capacity) within a geographic area on a limited amount of radio spectrum (limited
number of radio channels).
To ensure that the mutual interference between users remains below a harmful level, adjacent
cells use different frequencies. In fact, a set of C different frequencies {f1, ..., fC} are used for each
cluster of Cadjacent cells. Cluster patterns and the corresponding frequencies are re-used in a
regular pattern over the entire service area.

Frequency reuse plan for C = 3, with hexagonal cells. (i=1, j =1)

Frequency reuse plan for C = 7 (i=2, j =1).

More clear view of frequency reuse plan

Multipath propagation
Multipath propagation is a fact of life in any terrestrial radio scenario. While the direct or line of
sight path is normally the main wanted signal, a radio receiver will receive many signals
resulting from the signal taking a large number of different paths. These paths may be the result
of reflections from buildings, mountains or other reflective surfaces including water, etc. that
may be adjacent to the main path. Additionally other effects such as ionospheric reflections give
rise to multipath propagation as does tropospheric ducting.
The multipath propagation resulting from the variety of signal paths that may exist between the
transmitter and receiver can give rise to interference in a variety of ways including distortion of
the signal, loss of data and multipath fading.
At other times, the variety of signal paths arising from the multipath propagation can be used to
advantage. Schemes such as MIMO use multipath propagation to increase the capacity of the

channels they use. With increasing requirements for spectrum efficiency, the use of multipath
propagation for technologies such as MIMO are able to provide significant improvements in
channel capacity that are much needed.
Multipath radio signal propagation occurs on all terrestrial radio links. The radio signals not only
travel by the direct line of sight path, but as the transmitted signal does not leave the transmitting
antenna in only the direction of the receiver, but over a range of angles even when a directive
antenna is used. As a result, the transmitted signals spread out from the transmitter and they will
reach other objects: hills, buildings reflective surfaces such as the ground, water, etc. The signals
may reflect of a variety of surfaces and reach the receiving antenna via paths other than the direct
line of sight path.

Fading
The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel
distance. This might be so severe that large scale radio propagation loss effects
might be ignored.
Multipath Fading Effects
In principle, the following are the main multipath effects:
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath
signals.

Types of Small-Scale Fading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel depends
on the relation between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the
channel parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence we have four
different types of fading. There are two types of fading due to the time dispersive
nature of the channel.

Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

Flat Fading
Such types of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than
the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the
signal is more than the rms delay spread of the channel, then the fading is flat fading.
So we can say that flat fading occurs when
BS << BC
where BS is the signal bandwidth and BC is the coherence bandwidth. Also
TS _>>
where TS is the symbol period and is the rms delay spread. And in such a case,
mobile channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth.
Frequency Selective Fading
Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence
bandwidth of the mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols duration
of the signal is less than the rms delay spread.
BS >>BC
and
TS <<

At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the transmitted signal, all attenuated
and delayed in time. The channel introduces inter symbol interference. A rule of
thumb for a channel to have flat fading is if
/TS 0.1
5.3.2 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread
Fast Fading

In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
symbol duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency
dispersion leading to distortion. Therefore a signal undergoes fast fading if
TS >>TC
where TC is the coherence time and
BS >>BD
where BD is the Doppler spread. Transmission involving very low data rates suffer
from fast fading.
Slow Fading
In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much
less than the transmitted signal. We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in
which channel is almost constant over atleast one symbol duration. Hence
TS <<TC
and
BS >>BD
We observe that the velocity of the user plays an important role in deciding whether
the signal experiences fast or slow fading.

Illustration of Doppler effect.

Doppler Shift
The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave for an
observer moving relative to the source of the wave. In classical physics (waves in
a medium), the relationship between the observed frequency f and the emitted
frequency fo is given by:
f =((v vr)/(v vs ))f0
where v is the velocity of waves in the medium, vs is the velocity of the source
relative to the medium and vr is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium.

Interference caused by multipath propagation

Multipath propagation can give rise to interference that can reduce the signal to noise ratio and
reduce bit error rates for digital signals. One cause of a degradation of the signal quality is the
multipath fading already described. However there are other ways in which multipath
propagation can degrade the signal and affect its integrity.
One of the ways which is particularly obvious when driving in a car and listening to an FM
radio. At certain points the signal will become distorted and appear to break up. This arises from
the fact that the signal is frequency modulated and at any given time, the frequency of the

received signal provides the instantaneous voltage for the audio output. If multipath propagation
occurs, then two or more signals will appear at the receiver. One is the direct or line of sight
signal, and another is a reflected signal. As these will arrive at different times because of the
different path lengths, they will have different frequencies, caused by the fact that the two signals
have been transmitted by the transmitter at slightly different times. Accordingly when the two
signals are received together, distortion can arise if they have similar signal strength levels.
Another form of multipath propagation interference that arises when digital transmissions are
used is known as Inter Symbol Interference, ISI. This arises when the delay caused by the
extended path length of the reflected signal. If the delay is significant proportion of a symbol,
then the receiver may receive the direct signal which indicates one part of the symbol or one
state, and another signal which is indicating another logical state. If this occurs, then the data can
be corrupted.

How intersymbol interference can be avoided

One way of overcoming this is to transmit the data at a rate the signal is sampled, only when all
the reflections have arrived and the data is stable. This naturally limits the rate at which data can
be transmitted, but ensures that data is not corrupted and the bit error rate is minimised. To
calculate this the delay time needs to be calculated using estimates of the maximum delays that
are likely to be encountered from reflections.
Using the latest signal processing techniques, a variety of methods can be used to overcome the
problems with multipath propagation and the possibilities of interference.

Equalizer

In telecommunication, the equalizer is a device that attempts to reverse the distortion incurred by
a signal transmitted through a channel.
In digital communications, its purpose is to reduce intersymbol interference to allow recovery of
the transmit symbols. It may be a simple linear filter or a complex algorithm.

o-channel interference or CCI is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters using the same
frequency. There can be several causes of co-channel radio interference; four examples:
Cellular Mobile Networks: In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for
instance), frequency spectrum is a precious resource which is divided into non-overlapping
spectrum bands which are assigned to different cells (In cellular communications, a cell refers to
the hexagonal/circular area around the base station antenna). However, after certain geographical
distance, the frequency bands are re-used, i.e. the same spectrum bands are re-assigned to other
distant cells. The co-channel interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to this
phenomenon of Frequency reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from with in the cell, signals
at the same frequencies (co-channel signals) arrive at the receiver from the undesired transmitters
located (far away) in some other cells and lead to deterioration in receiver performance.

Adverse weather conditions: During periods of abormally high-pressure weather, VHF signals
which would normally exit through the atmosphere can instead be reflected by the troposphere.
This tropospheric ducting will cause the signal to travel much further than intended; often
causing interference to local transmitters in the areas affected by the increased range of the
distant transmitter.

Poor frequency planning: Poor planning of frequencies by broadcasters can cause CCI, although
this is rare. A very localised example is Listowel in the south-west of Ireland. The RTNL UHF
television transmitter systems in Listowel and Knockmoyle (near Tralee) are on the same
frequencies but with opposite polarisation. However in some outskirts of Listowel town, both
transmitters can be picked up causing heavy CCI. This problem forces residents in these areas to
use alternative transmitters to receive RT programming.