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SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORTATION:

RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Christopher A. Kennedy,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
University of Toronto.

Contents:
Comparison of Public and Private Transportation in GTA
Role of Transportation in the Urban Metabolism
The Four Pillars of Sustainable Urban Transportation
Integrated Methodologies and Solutions

Greater Toronto Area


0

20

40

kilometres

Durham

N
!

York
Peel
City of Toronto

Halton
Lake Ontario

ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY

Global Air
Pollution

Local Air
Pollution

Energy and
Resources

Biodiversity
ECONOMIC
SUSTAINABILITY
Innovation

$
Wealth
Diversity

$
Internal Costs

External
Trade

~
~
~

~
~
~

Accidents

SOCIAL
Employment SUSTAINABILITY

Service/Accessibility

Quality of Life

Figure 2 Assessing the role of transportation in urban sustainability from economic,


environmental and social perspectives.

Private Automobile

Public Transportation

Economic

Cost per person-km (1996)


Cost per person-km in traded
dollars (1996), including
sensitivity.

Table 1.

$ 0.24 (+0.06)

GO transit: $0.24
local transit: $0.35
local transit: $0.07 ( 0.03)

Summary of the role of public and private transportation in the Greater Toronto Area
(Table 13 from Kennedy, 2002).

Environmental
Estimated impacts of air pollution
(City of Toronto only - upper
estimates)
Greenhouse Gas Production
Energy intensity

Table 1.

Auto. parts and assembly industry


accounts for $4.6 billion in the GTA
economy (1993)
$ 0.55

Private Automobile

Public Transportation

408 premature mortalities


1606 hospitalizations

1 premature mortality
6.5 hospitalizations

14.9 Tg CO2
approx. 170 g C /person.km
1.47-1.58 MJ/seat-km

TTC: 0.021 Tg CO2


3 - 14 g C /person.km
0.42-0.84 MJ/seat-km

Summary of the role of public and private transportation in the Greater Toronto Area
(Table 13 from Kennedy, 2002).

Private Automobile
Social
Level of Service
(estimates from EMME2 model)
Employment

Accidents (annual)
Insurance Costs (annual)

Table 1.

Public Transportation

av. speed: 47 km/hr.


50% accessibility in 37 minutes
67,000 in auto parts and assembly
(1993); 25,000 in auto. maintenance
(1988)
100,000 accidents producing 220
deaths and 42,000 injuries
$1.8 to 2.3 billion

av. speed: 12 km/hr.


10% accessibility in 37 minutes
TTC: 10,000
GO: 1,011
rare (crash in 1995: 3 killed and 30
injured)
TTC: $10 million accident claim costs

Summary of the role of public and private transportation in the Greater Toronto Area
(Table 13 from Kennedy, 2002).

CO2

CO2

32,700

17,542

Electricity

Electricity

14,000

4,800
Water

Wastewater
Water

183

GTA

157

138

1999
Food

BOD5

0.84
0.27

Residential
Solid Waste

0.9

Food

Wastewater

Hong
Kong

102

1997

BOD5

31

0.68
0.38

Residential
Solid Waste

Comparison of urban metabolisms: Hong Kong 1997


and GTA 1999 (all units in tonnes/cap, except electricity
MJ/cap, CO2 kg/cap, BOD5 kg/cap).

Category
INPUTS
Food
Gasoline
Diesel
Electricity (GWh)
Water Supply
OUTPUTS
Emissions
GHG (CO2 eq.)
CO2
Residential
Solid Wastes
Wastewater
Discharged
BOD5
SS

106t / yr
1987
1999

% change
(over 12 years)

3.4
2.9
0.65
38,505
752

4.3
3.7
1.1
46,121
931

+ 27
+ 27
+ 67
+ 24
+ 24

73
59

83
71

+ 18
+27

1.5

1.4

- 11

770
0.01
0.012

798
0.005
0.010

+4
-56
-16

Trends in selected inputs and outputs fluxes in the GTA 1987-1999


(Table 16 of Sahely et al., 2002b)

Diesel

2
FoodGasoline
1

Electr. Water

CO2
GHG
Wastewater

0
Solid Waste
SS

-1
-2

BOD

-3

Changes in the GTAs urban metabolism 1987-1999, normalized by


population growth.

ENVIRONMENT

ECONOMY

SOCIETY
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORTATION

NEIGHBOUR- GOVERNANCE INFRA- FINANCING


HOODS
STRUCTURE

Four Pillars of Sustainable Urban Transportation

Establish an effective body for integrated


land-use transportation planning
Create a fair, efficient and stable funding
mechanism
Make strategic investments in major
infrastructure
Support investments through local
neighbourhood design and policy

Governance

The greatest failure of our organization of


planning is its inability to coordinate
each agency has organized their governance
and funding structures in ways that may not
necessarily represent what theory would
define as an effective metropolitan agency
Yet the fragmented political authority in
most metropolitan areas makes it difficult to
address regional transportation impacts and
needs.

Governance
Representation
Local /
community

Higher level
government
Structure
Hierarchical

Decoupled

Democracy
Non-elected
professional

Elected

Market philosophy
Free market

Command
and control

Financing
Non-vehicle related

Vehicle-related

NonGeneral tax base


location- Local transportation levy
related

Fuel taxes
Vehicle license fees
New vehicle or vehicle parts sales
taxes
Vehicle use fees
Emissions fees

Location Development fees


-related Transit impact fees
Right of way fees
Leverage real estate assets

Road tolls
Congestion pricing
Parking fees
Transit user fees

Table 3.1 Potential sources of funding for urban transportation systems.

What is the Optimal Transit Subsidy?

EXPRESS

EXPRESS

Infrastructure

Transit Infrastructure: LRT vs. BRT?


How to design infrastructure for alternative
fuel vehicles?
ITS infrastructure?

Neighbourhood Design

Does pedestrian-friendly neighborhood design


actually encourage travel by sustainable modes?
Type of trip

Lafayette
(contemporary
neighborhood)
Shopping
2%
Social-recreational
5%
Work trips (main mode) 21 %
Access trips to BART for 13 % (walking)
work

Rockridge
(traditional
neighborhood)
19 %
17 %
37 %
31 % (walking)

Percentage of trips by non-auto modes by residents of two communities in


San Franciso Bay area (Cervero and Radisch, 1996)

Design for Pedestrians


Pushkarev, B and J. Zupan (1975) Urban Space for
Pedestrians, A report of the regional plan
association. The MIT Press: Cambridge.
Massachusetts
Tables and figures detail:
space per pedestrian at maximum flow;
coefficients of pedestrian flow equations;
speed-flow relationships;
speed-density relationships.

10

Jammed Flow (Figure from p.90 of Pushkarev and Zupan; space


per pedestrian is about 0.35 m2 on the lower end of the speedflow curve).

11

Four Pillars - Summary

What is the ideal form of regional


governance?
How should infrastructure be financed?
(location? vehicle? private vs. public?)
What infrastructure? (LRT, BRT, alt. fuels,
ITS)
Does neighbourhood design matter?

Integrated Methodologies and Solutions

Coupling of regional transportation and


economy
Sustainable design at micro and macro
scales

12

Generation of infrastructure investment alternatives


considering:
business competitiveness
environment
social equity
innovation potential

Infrastructure

Capital &
Maintenance
Costs

Management
System

Base case
scenarios

Labour
Productivity
Agglomeration

Regional
Economic

Growth

Model

GDP
Employment
Wealth

Land-use /
Transportation
Model

Income

Environmental
Impacts

Consumer
Surplus

Accidents

Figure 6. Summary of an urban infrastructure investment framework (Kennedy


and Miller, 2002)

Economic drivers of the demand


for transportation services

Transportation
Model

Regional Economic
Model

Changes in accessibility
impact the productivity of
different sectors

Figure 8. Feedback mechanisms between regional economic


and transportation models

13

Baetz & Churchill, 1999.

14

15

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