Contents

A1.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ...................................1

A.1 USES OF LOGS.................................................................................................................................. 1
A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY....................................................................................................... 2
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPTS....................................................................................4
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE EQUATION.............................5
A.5 DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 7

a) Formation Porosity ()...................................................................................................................... 8

b) Formation Resistivity (R)............................................................................................................................... 8
c) Formation Factor (F)...................................................................................................................................... 8
d) Water Saturation: S

w ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

e) Hydrocarbons Saturation

Shy)................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9

f) Clean Formations .......................................................................................................................... 9

g) Shaly Formations............................................................................................................................ 9
h) Key Formulas ............................................................................................................................... 11
i) Key Symbols................................................................................................................................. 11
A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS............................................................................................ 12

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A1.0 Introduction to Openhole Log

Interpretation

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A.1 USES OF LOGS

A set of logs run on a well will usually mean
different things to different people. Let us examine the questions askedand/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geophysicist:
Are the tops where you predicted?

Are the potential zones porous as you have

assumed from seismic data?
What does a synthetic seismic section
show?
The Geologist:
What depths are the formation tops?

Is the environment suitable for

accumulation of hydrocarbons?
Is there evidence of hydrocarbons in this
well?
What type of hydrocarbons?
Are hydrocarbons present in commercial
quantities?
How good a well is it?

What are the reserves?

Could the formation be commercial in an
offset well?

The Drilling Engineer:

What is the hole volume for
cementing?
Are there any keyseats or severe doglegs
in the well?
Where can you get a good packer seat for
testing?
Where is the best place to set a whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
How thick is the pay zone?
How homogeneous is the section?

What is the volume of hydrocarbons per

cubic meter?

Will the well pay-out?

How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
Where should the well be completed (in
what zone(s))?
What kind of production rate can be expected?
Will there be any water production?
How should the well be completed?
Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?
Will the well require any stimulation?
What kind of stimulation would be
best?

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Log evaluation can be many things to many

people. As the answers are sought each individual will possibly use the available data in a
different manner. The common approach will be
in reading the logs and understanding the
various reactions produced by formation char acteristics on our logging devices. The factors
influencing log reading and the information
they provide are what we wish to introduce to
you in this course.

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deposition is such that crossbedding structures,

channel patterns and gradational rock types are
common. In areas of freshwater deposition coal
beds may occur, indicating non-marine
conditions.
After deposition and with deeper burial of the
sequence, compaction occurs and the clastic
grains can become cemented together to form
sedimentary rock.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

In order to better understand log responses,
we should first review the types of rocks that
are found in the boreholes.
Common sedimentary rocks are
sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone,
dolomite and anhydrite
In general, sedimentary rocks are deposited as
either clastic sequences containing sand-stone,
siltstones and shales or carbonate sequences of
limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and shale.
(Figure A1).
Clastic Deposition
Clastic rocks are formed from rock fragments
and weathered particles of preexisting rocks.
These sediments are transported by wind and
water and are usually deposited in rivers, lakes
and oceans as relatively flat-lying beds. Current
and wave action later sorts the sediments such
that in high-energy environments coarsegrained sands are deposited and in low energy
environments fine-grained silts and clays are
deposited. The nature of the

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Carbonate Deposition
Carbonate deposition occurs in marine conditions by the precipitation of limestone from
organisms as fine particles, shells or massive
growths. Limestones are deposited either as
flat-lying beds on the ocean floor or as mounds
or pinnacle reefs.
Barrier reef chains that grow in this manner
may form restricted ocean basins landward, in
which dolomite and anhydrite are precipitated
by the evaporation of seawater.
When limestones form near shore, there may
be mixing of limestone and eroded clastic
material. In deeper ocean basins, limestone and
shale mixtures are common.
After deposition, later burial may cause
dolomitization of the limestone in which the
actual composition of the rock is changed to
dolomite.
Because of their brittle nature compared with
other sediments, limestones tend to fracture
with deformation, which increases permeability
and helps in the dolomitization process.

Figure A1: Clastic Deposition vs. Carbonate Deposition

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

In many parts of the world multiple sequences

of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate
sequences. Between each of the clastic and carbonate groups, erosional inconformities are
common and the nature of deposition within
each group is unique.
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION
CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous unique
physical properties associated with it. Only
those that can be measured and are useful will be
considered in this course. They are

a.
b.
c.

= porosity: the void space between

grains that is generally filled with liquids or gases.
S w = water saturation: the percentage
of the pore space filled with water (as
opposed to hydrocarbons or air).
R = resistivity: the resistance to electrical current flow presented by a unit
volume of rock.

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d.

e.

R W = water resistivity: the electrical resistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
k = permeability: the ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.

Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A2):

Cube A
If the porosity () is filled with water then, by
definition, the water saturation S W = 100%.
Cube B
If the porosity is 70% filled with water and
30% hydrocarbons, then, the water saturation
70
S W =_________ % = 70%
70 + 30
and hydrocarbons saturation

Cube A: porosity =
waterfilled SW = 100%

Cube B:
porosity = hydrocarbons and
water in
SW = 70%

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A2

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S hy = 1 - S w = 30%
Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
=S
w

The usefulness of resistivity logging rests on

the facts that
water is a conductor (low resistivity)
hydrocarbons and rocks are insulators
(high resistivity)
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A3):

For example: if = 20% and Sw = 70%, then

14% of the bulk volume is water and 70% of the
pore space is water filled.
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR
INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE
EQUATION
In the previous section we introduced a number
of parameters used to evaluate rock formations.
If we could build on the effects of resistivity in
conjunction with the other parameters to develop
a mathematical relation-ship, we would have an
extremely useful tool for our work with potential
hydrocarbon zones.

Cube C
The resistivity Rt of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (i.e. as Rw increases, Rt increases and vice versa).
Therefore: Rt . R w

(1)

Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
R increases with decreasing porosity (i.e. as
t
decreases, Rt increases).

The remainder of this section is devoted to

developing such a formula.

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Cube C
Constant
Current
Porosity =

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Cube D
Constant
Current
Porosity =

Cube E
Constant
Current
Porosity =

Figure A3

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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Therefore: R
t

1/.

(2)

Rw
R

(5)

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Cube E
Replace 30% of remaining porosity with
hydrocarbons. Resistivity Rt increases with
decreasing water saturation Sw (i.e. as Sw decreases, Rt increases).
Therefore: R
t

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1/ Sw .

(3)

Now, let = 1, then Ro

Rw .

Now, let F = constant of proportionality

defined as the form ation factor.
Therefore: Ro = FRw

By combining the above observations (1, 2

and 3), we can say

Ro
or F = Rw

(6)

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1
t

S
or

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Returning to Equation 5 and introducing porosity as a variable, it is clear that

1R R
w

Rw
Rt

(4)

S
w

To solve for the constants of proportionality

let us first limit the equation as follows:
Let Sw= 100% (i.e. there is no hydrocarbon present and the porosity is 100%
water filled).

This is
intuitively obvious as the relationship between
Ro and Rw is related to that particular
unit cube of rock and its porosity characteristics.
Through empirical measurements, it was
determined that

a
F =______

(7)

Then, define Ro = Rt (ie: Ro is the wet resistivity of the formation for the condition Sw =
100%):

where
a = constant
m = cementation factor

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

The cementation factor m relates to the porosity type and how it will transmit electrical
current to the actual rock (also called tortuosity).
Using the above equations
Recall Ro = FRw (Equation 6)

aR
R= R=
t

when Sw = 100%

aR

(9)

w
m

Equation 9 forms the Archie relationship that

is the basis for all conventional log interpreta tion techniques. Enhancements and refinements
may be applied for the more complicated rock
types.

The remainder of this course is dedicated to

measuring, evaluating and using porosity and
resistivity to calculate water saturation and
hence hydrocarbons reserves using the concepts of this equation.

A.5 DEFINITIONS

if Sw 100%, then

aR

or Sn =

R
t
m

a) Formation Porosity ()
Defined as the fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids, where

or R R
t

S
w

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R
or S

(8)

pore volume

100%

total volume

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Through laboratory measurements, it was

found that this relationship (8) is dependent on
the saturation exponent n as

R
t

FR
w

or Sn =_________
w

When the pore space is intergranular it is

known as primary porosity. When the porosity
is due to void space created after deposition,
(e.g., vugs or fractures in carbonates), the porosity is known as secondary porosity. When
shale is present, the pore space occupied by the
water in the shale is included with the pore
space in the rock to give total porosity ( T). If
only the rock pore space is considered in a
shaly formation, the pore space is called efec-

tive porosity ( e ).

b) Formation Resistivity (R)

Defined as the resistance offered by a formation to the flow of electrical current. It is
expressed in ohm-meter 2 /meter.
We use several terms to describe formation
resistivity under various circumstances of fluid
content.

R: Describes the resistivity of a for-

mation undisturbed by the drilling

process.

For Porosity
In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that the
relationship between formation factor and
porosity could be described by the formula

a
F=

where

a = empirical constant.
m = cementation factor.
Some recommended F and relationships are

R: Describes a special form of Rt. It

is the resistivity of a clean formation when all pore space is filled

with connate water (Rw ).
R:
Is the symbol for the resistivity of
w
formation (connate) water.

0.62

F =_______________

(for sands)

2. 1 5

0.81

F =_______________

(for sands)

c) Formation Factor (F)

For Resistivity
An important relationship exists between the
resistivity of a fully water saturated formation
and the resistivity of the contained water. The
ratio of these two values is called formation
resistivity factor (or more commonly, formation factor) where:

F =_______________

(for carbonates)

Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Interpretation Chart book is based on several different F- relationships.

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R
o

F=
R

F is a constant for the formation under consideration. The value of F for any particular
formation depends on:
- formation porosity pore distribution pore size
- pore structure.

d) Water Saturation (Sw )

Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with water where

s=
w

water filled pore volume

total pore volume

100%

e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (S hy)

g) Shaly Formations

Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled

with hydrocarbons where:

hydrocarbon-filled pore volume

Shy =

total pore volume

or

100%

Shy = 1 Sw .

This describes formations where some of the

formation void space (porosity) is filled with
shale.
Shale distribution is considered to be:
- Laminated: The formation is built up
of thin laminae of sand and shale.
- Dispersed: The shale particles are dispersed in the pore space.
- Structural: The shale replaces matrix.

f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those that
are shale free.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity

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10

20

10

50

100

200

50

100

20

500

1000

2000

5000

500

1000

2000

200

10,000

5000

10,000

F R, formation resistivity factor

This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best
determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:
0.62
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr =

0.81
or Fr =

2.15

0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr =

with appropriate cementation factor, m.

m

EXAMPLE: is 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor, m of 2 is appropriate

Therefore, from chart, Fr = 280.
Chart Por-1

Figure A4

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

h) Key Formulas
R
o

FR

where n is usually taken as 2

xo

R mf
a

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i) Key Symbols

BHT - bottom hole temperature in degrees

Celsius
di
- average diameter of invaded zone (Di)
bed thickness in meters
resistivity from the deep phasor induction
resistivity from the medium Phasor induction
resistivity from the Spherically Focused Log
resistivity of the mud
resistivity of the mud filtrate
resistivity of the mudcake
resistivity of the formation water
apparent resistivity of the formation
water
Rt
- resistivity of the formation
(uncontaminated zone)
R
- resistivity of the formation when
o
100% water filled
R resistivity of the flushed zone
h
xo
(close to borehole)
IDPH
Rsh resistivity of the shales
F formation resistivity factor
IMPH
porosity in percent
SFL
S - water saturation, percent of pore
w
space occupied by
water
in
uncontaminated
Rm
zone
R mf R mc
Rw
R

water saturation, as above, in flushed

zone
Shc

hydrocarbons saturation as percent of

pore space occupied by water
K
- coefficient in the sp formula
SSP
- static spontaneous potential - the
maximum possible for a particular
Rmf / Rw
PSP - pseudostatic spontaneous potentialthe SP
found in a thick shaly sand
k
- permeability in millidarcies
pore volume
porosity =
100%.
total volume
sonic porosity
S
xo

density porosity
neutron porosity

DN

total porosity
2

effective porosity
secondary porosity
volume of shale
photoelectric index

A complete list of symbols and subscripts is

included in Section J (Miscellaneous).

R wa

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS

a) Well logs provide a continuous graph of formation parameters versus depth.
Normal depth scales are
1:2401 m of log per 240 m of
measured hole depth. Each line is
1 m, with heavy lines every 5 m,
and heavier lines every 25 m for
ease of reading. Depths are
indicated every 25 m (Figures A5
and A6).
1:6001 m of log per 600 m of
measured hole depth. Each line is 5
m, with heavy lines every 25 m.
Depths are indicated every 25 m
(Figure A7).
Other scales are available. These
include 1:1200, 1:120, 1:48 and
1:5.
Log grids may be either logarithmic
(resistivity logsFigure A6) or
linear (porosity logsFigure A5).

b) If a caliper device is present or the log being

generated is a type of sonic log, event markers
are placed on each side of the depth track integrating the quantity of hole volume or transit
time recorded.
1. Integrated hole volumerequires caliper
device (Figure A5)
placed on the left side of the
depth track
3

small marks indicate 0.1 m

whereas large marks represent
3

1 . 0 m.
2. Integrated cement volumeRequires
caliper device plus future casing size
placed on the right side of the
depth track when space permits
and if sonic not present
3

small marks indicate 0.1 m

while large marks represent
3

1 . 0 m.

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3. Integrated transit timeRequires sonic

tool (Figure A5)
placed on the right side of the
depth track
small marks indicate 1 msec
whereas large marks represent 10
msec of time.
If the log is recorded using logging-whiledrilling
methods, event markers on both sides of the
depth track (Figure A6) represent the conversion
from time-based sampling to a depth-based
presentation. The markers there-fore indicate the
number of data samples per unit depth. In other
words, the larger the concentration of markers
over a depth interval, the greater the number of
data samples used to make the log.
c) Logs also have headings and inserts.
Log headings provide such information as
well depth, casing depth, mud params,
maximum temperature and other comments
pertinent to the evaluation of log data
(Figures A8 and A9).
Inserts provide such information as curve
scaling, coding, date/time of acquisition,
data curve first-reading points and constants pertinent to the logging run fo llowing the insert. Curve coding on the log
data indicates the deepest reading primary
measurement (long dashed) to the
shallowest reading primary measurement
(solid) when two or more measurements
are combined (Figure A10).

Figure A5: Linear Grid 1/240 Scale

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Logarithmic Grid 1/240 Scale

Data Sample Event Markers for L WD Curves
Figure A6

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Figure A7: Linear Grid 1/600 Scale

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A8: Log Heading (page 1)

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Figure A9: Log Heading (page 2) and Log Tail

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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