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FIVE IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF MATHEMATICS FOR JEE MAIN

1. EQUIVALENCE RELATION
A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if and only if
(a) R is reflexive, i.e, aRa a A
(b) R is symmetric, i.e., aRb bRa
(c) R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc aRc
Partial order relation :
A relation R on a set A is a partial order relation if and only if.
a A
(a) R is reflexive, i.e. aRa
(b) R is antisymmetric i.e., aRb and bRa a = b
(c) R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc
aRc.
Relation of congruence modulo m :
Let m be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo m if a b is divisible by m.
We write a b (mod m)
Thus. a b (mod m) [Read as a is congruent to b modulo m]
iff a b is divisible by m; a, b .
For example :
(i) 25 5 (mod 4) because 255 = 20 is divisible by 4.
(ii) 23 2 (mod 3) because 23 2 = 21 is divisible by 3
(iii) 20 / 3 (mod 5) because 20 3 = 17 is not divisible by 5
The relation congruence modulo m is an equivalence relation on I.
SOME THEOREMS ON EQUIVALENCE RELATION
1. If R and S are two equivalence relations on a set A, then R S is also an equivalence relation on A.
2. If R and S are two equivalence relations on a set A, then R S is not necessarily an equivalence relation
3. If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then R1 is also an equivalence relation on A.
2. DIFFERENT METHODS OF SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS BY FACTORING
Example :
Solve : 2 cos x cos 2x = cos x.
Solution :
The given equation is equivalent to the equation
cos x (2 cos 2x 1) = 0.
This equation is equivalent to the collection of equations
cos x
cos 2 x

Answer :

1
,
2

2x

n,

n,

2 k,

I,

i.e., x

(n, k

I)

k k

I.

2
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Example : Solve the equation 3 cos2x 10 cos x + 3 = 0.
Solution : Assume cos x = y. The given equation assumes the form 3y2 10 y +3 = 0.
1
, y2
3

Solving it, we find that y1

3.

The value y2 = 3 does not satisfy the condition since| cos x |

1
; x
3

Consequently, cos x

Answer :

1
3

arccos

arccos

2 n (n

1
3

2 n, n

1.

I.

I)

SOLUTION OF HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS AND EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO HOMOGENEOUS

FORMS
Equations of the form
a0 sinnx +a1 sinn1 x cos x + a2 sinn2 x cos2 x +.....+an1 sin x cosn1 x + an cos n x = 0.
(where a0, a1, ......, an are real numbers), are said to be homogeneous with respect to sin x and cos x. Such an equation
is solved by dividing the equation by cosn x.
Example 1 : Solve the equation cos 3 x + sin 3 x = 0
Solution : sin3x = cos 3x.
Since the values of x for which cos3x is equal to zero cannot serve as roots for the given equation, we divide both
sides of the initial equation by cos3x and obtain an equation, equivalent to the initial equation
sin 3x
cos 3x

cos 3x
, or tan 3x
cos 3x

Hence, 3x

Answer :

n; x

12

1.

,n

12

, n

I.

Example 2 :
Solve : 6 sin2 x sin x cos x cos2 x = 3
Solution :
6sin2 x sin x cos x cos2 x 3 (sin2 x + cos2 x) = 0.
Removing the brackets and collecting like terms, we get 3sin 2 x sin x cos x 4 cos2 x = 0.
Since the values x

n are not roots of the equation and cos x 0, we divide both sides of the equation by cos2 x :

3 tan2 x tan x 4 = 0,
Whence tan x = 1, x

and tan x

Answer :

4
,x
3

arctan

4
3

n , arctan

4
3

n,

k,

I.

k (n , k

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS BY INTRODUCING AN AUXILIARY ARGUMENT

Equations of the form a sin x + b cos x = c is solved by dividing the two sides of equation by
a
a

cos

and
a

b2

sin

a2

b 2 and substituting

3
Example :
2

Solve the equation sin x + cos x =

Solution :
1

sin x

sin x cos

cos x

cos x sin

2 n (n

Answer :

1, or sin x

4
I)

2 n (n

1,

2 n (n

I)

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS BY TRANSFORMING A SUM OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS INTO A

PRODUCT
We take the help of the formulae sin C + sin D = ......etc.
Example :
Solve the equation cos 3x + sin 2x sin 4x = 0
Solution :
cos 3x + (sin 2x sin 4x) = 0
Transforming the expression in brackets into product form we obtain
cos 3x + (2 sin x cos 3x) = 0, or cos 3x (1 2 sin x) = 0
The last equation is equivalent to the collection of equations
cos 3x = 0 or sin x

1
2

Consequently, x

The set of solutions x

( 1) k

( 1) k

k (k

k (n, k

I) .

I ) belongs entirely to the set of solutions x

(n

I ).

Therefore this set alone remains as a set of solutions.

Answer :

(n

I ).

SOLVING EQUATIONS BY TRANSFORMING A PRODUCT OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS INTO

A SUM
We use the set of formulae 2 sin A sin B = ..........etc.
Example :
Solve : sin 5x cos 3x = sin 6x cos 2x.
Solution :
We apply formula of 2 sin A cos B to both sides of the equation :
1
(sin 8x sin 2x )
2
sin 2 x sin 4 x

2 sin x cos 3x
x

sin x 0
cos 3x

1
(sin 8x sin 4x ),
2

3x

n,
2

n
k, x

I
k

,k

4
n,

Answer :

(n, k

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE USE OF FORMULAS FOR LOWERING A DEGREE

Example :
Solve the trigonometric equation sin2 x + sin2 2x = 1
Solution :
We have

1 cos 2 x
2

1 cos 4 x
2

cos 2x cos 4x

2 cos 3x. cos x

0.

The last equation is equivalent to the collection of two equations

(a) cos 3x = 0, 3x

(b) cos x = 0, x

n,

k, n

, n

I.

I.

The set of the solutions of equation (b) is a subset of the set of solutions of (a) and, therefore in the answer we
write only roots of equation (a).
Answer :

(n

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE USE OF HALF ANGLE FORMULAS

Example :
Solve : cos x 2 sin 2

x
2

Solution :

2 cos x 1 0

cos x (1 cos x) = 0
cos x

1
2

Answer :

2 n (n

2 n (n

I)

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH THE USE OF FORMULAS FOR DOUBLE AND TRIPLE ARGUMENTS
Example 1 :
Solve : sin 2 x

2 cos x.

Solution :
Using formula, we obtain
2 sin x cos x

2 cos x

It is impossible to divide both sides of the equation by cos x since it would lead to the loss of solution which are
roots of the equation cos x = 0.
We transfer

2 cos x to the left - hand side and get

2 sin x cos x

cos x

2 cos x

2 sin x 1

2 cos x( 2 sin x 1)

x
x

2
( 1) k

n,

n
k, k

I
I

5
Answer :

n, ( 1) k

k (n, k

I)

Example 2 :
Solve the equation
2 sin

x
x
cos 2 x 2 sin
sin 2 x
2
2

cos 2 x sin 2 x

Solution :
The given equation is rewritten as
2 sin

x
(cos 2 x sin 2 x )
2

cos 2 x sin 2 x.

Replacing the expression cos 2 x sin 2 x by cos 2x , we get

2 sin

x
cos 2 x
2

x
cos 2x 2 sin
1
2

Answer :

x
cos 2 x cos 2 x
2

cos 2 x or 2 sin

, ( 1) k

cos 2 x 0
x 1
sin
2 2

2 k

(n, k

( 1) k

2 k, k

I.

I)

SOLVING EQUATIONS BY A CHANGE OF VARIABLE

(a) Equations of the form P (sin x cos x, sin x cos x) = 0
Where P (y, z) is a polynomial, can be solved by the substitution.
cos x sin x = t
1 2 sin x cos x = t2.
Let us consider an example .
Example :
Solve the equation
sin x + cos x = 1 + sin x cos x
Solution :
We introduce the substitution sin x + cos x = t.
Then (sin x + cos x)2 = t2,
1 + 2 sin x cos x = t2

t2 1
2

sin x cos x

The initial equation in new variable is

t 1

t2 1
or t 2
2

i.e., sin x + cos x = 1,

(t 1)2 = 0 or t = 1,

2t 1 0

sin x

cos x

2
cos

2 n, n

I, x

2 n, n

cos x sin

sin x

2 n , 2 n (n I )
2
(b) Equation of the from a sin x + b cos x + d = 0,
Where a, b, and d are real numbers, and a, b 0, can be solved by the change

Answer:

1
2

cos x

2
2

6
x
2 , sin x
2 x
1 tan
2
1 tan 2

cos x

2 tan

x
2

x
1 tan
2

+ 2 n (n

, x

I).

a2

Note that such equations can be solved by dividing by

b 2 as well.

Example : Solve the equation 3 cos x + 4 sin x = 5

x
2
Solution : 3
2 x
1 tan
2
1 tan 2

3 3 tan 2

x
2

x
2

4 tan

4 tan 2

tan

1
2

x
2

2 tan
4

1 tan 2

8 tan

x
2

x
2

1
2

x
2

x
,
2

5 5 tan 2

1 0

2 tan

Answer : 2 tan

x
2

2 n, n

2 tan
1
2

x
1
2

2 n, n

(c) Many equation can be solved by introducting a new variable :

Example :
Solve the equation
sin 4 2x cos 4 2x

sin 2x cos 2x,

Solution :
The given equation can be written as
(sin 2 2x cos 2 2x) 2

2sin 2 2x cos 2 2x

sin 2x cos 2x ,

2 sin 2 2x cos 2 2 x sin 2 x cos 2x 1 0.

We introduce the substitution sin 2x cos 2x = y.

1
2

The last equation assumes the form 2y2 + y 1 = 0, or 2 ( y 1) y

We pass to the variable x and obtain
(1) sin 2x cos 2x = 1
(2) sin 2x cos 2 x =

4x

Answer :

1
2

sin 4x = 2

sin 4x = 1

2 n,

2 sin 2x cos 2x = 2

(n

8
I)

7
3.

MULTINOMIAL THEOREM

Use of expansion to evaluate number of combination

RESULT-1 : The total number of ways of dividing 'n' identical things among 'r' persons, each of whom can
receive 0,1,2 are more ( n ) things is
blank box is allowed).

n r 1

Cr

(Alternatively, n identical balls to be distributed in r boxes, when

Let us consider 'r' brackets corresponding to 'r' persons.

We take in each bracket an experssion given by 1 + x + x2 + .... + xn , where the various powers of x; namely 0, 1, 2,
...., n correspond to the number of things each persons can have in the distibution.
The required number of ways
= coefft. of xn in the produt (1 + x + x2 ..... + xn) ( ) ( )...... repeated r times
1 xn 1
= coefft xn in
1 x

(1 x n 1 ) r (1 x )

= coefft of xn in

coefft of xn in (1 x)r

(n 1)(n 2).......(n r 1)
1. 2 . 3.....(r 1)

n r 1

Cr

RESULT-2 : The total number of ways to divide 'n' identical things among 'r' persons when each gets at least one
thing is

n 1

Cr

1=

coeff of xn in ( x + x2 + ....+ xn-r+1)r

= coeff of xn r in (1 x)r
RESULT-3 : The total number of selections of 'r' things from 'n' things where each thing can be repeated as many
times as one can is

n r 1

Cr .

The required number of ways = coefficient of xr in

(1 + x + x2 + .........)n
= coefficient of xr in

1
(1 x ) n

(r 1)(r 2).....(r n 1)
(n 1)!

coefft. of xr in (1 x)n

n r 1

Cr

RESULT-4 : Number of ways of dividing n identical things into r groups such that no group contains less than m
things and more than k (m < k) things is coefficient of xn in the expansion of (xm + xm + 1 + ..... + xk)r
RESULT-5 : The number of ways of selecting r things out of n things of which p are alike and are of one kind, q are
alike and are of second, s are alike and are of third kind and so on, is
= coefficient of xr in
[(1 + x + x2 + ..... + xp) (1 + x + x2 + ..... + xq) (1 + x + x2 + ..... + xs) .....]
RESULT-6 : The number of ways of selecting r things out of n things of which p are alike and are of one kind, q are
alike and are of second kind and rest (n p q) things are all different is :
= coefficient of xr in
[(1 + x + x2 + ..... + xp) (1 + x + x2 + ..... + xq) (1 + x)n p q]
RESULT-7 : The number of ways of selecting r things out of n things of which p are alike and are of one kind, q are
alike and are of second kind, s are alike and are of third kind when each thing is taken at least once :
= coefficient of xr in
[(x + x2 + ..... + xp) (x + x2 + ..... + xq) (x + x2 + ..... + xs) .....]
RESULT-8 : The number of non-negative integral solutions of the equation x1 + x2 + ..... + xr = n is n + r 1Cr.
RESULT-9 : The number of terms in the expansion of
(a1 + a2 + a3 + .... + an)r is n + r 1Cr.

8
An important Expansion :

(1 x)

n 1

C2 x 2

C1x

n 2

C 3 x 3 ...

n r 1

Cr xr

... , n

N and | x | 1

Product of two infinite power series :

(a 0

a1 x a 2 x 2 ....) (b 0

where c n

a 0b n

b1x b 2 x 2 ......)

c 0 c1x c 2 x 2 ......
0.

a1b n 1 a 2 b n 2 ...... a n b 0 for all n

PROPERTIES OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS :

4.

We have (1 x ) n

C0

C1 x n C 2 x 2 .... n C r x r ....
n

n
Also, (1 x )

C0 x n
n

Let us denote

C1 x n 1

Cn 1 x n 1

Cn x n

C 2 x n 2 ....

C r x n r .... n C n 1 x

Cn

C 0 , n C1 , n C 2 , ....., n C n by C0, C1, C2,...., Cn respectively..

Then the above expressions become (1 x ) n

And (1 x ) n

C0 x n

C1 x n

C2 x n

C1x C 2 x 2 .... C r x r

C0

.... C n

1x

..... C n x n

Cn

C0, C1, C2,....,Cn are called the binomial coefficient and have the following properties:
1. In the expansion of (1 + x)n the coefficient of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal.
The coefficient of (r + 1)th term from the beginning is nCr. The (r + 1)th term from the end is (n r + 1)th term
from the beginning. Therefore, its coefficinet is nCn r.
But nCr = nCn r
Hence the coefficient of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal.
2. The sum of the binomial coefficient in the expansion of (1 + x)n is 2n.
Putting x = 1 in
(1 + x)n = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 + ..... + Cr xr + .... + Cn xn, we get
n

C0 + C1 + C2 + ..... + Cn = 2n or
3.

Cr

2n .

r 0

The sum of the coefficient of the odd terms is equal to the sum of the coefficient of the even terms and each is
equal to 2n 1 i.e., C0 + C2 + C4 + ...... = C1 + C3 + C5 + ..... = 2n 1
Putting x = 1 and 1 respectively in the expansion.
(1 x ) n

C0

C1 x C 2 x 2

C 3 x 3 .... C n 1x n 1 C n x n ,

we get C0 + C1 + C2 + C3 + ..... + Cn 1 + Cn = 2n
and C0 C1 + C2 C3 + .... + (1)n Cn = 0
Adding and subtracting these two equations, we get C0 + C2 + C4 + .... = C1 + C3 + C5 + .... = 2n 1.
n

4.

1 . C1 + 2 . C2 + 3 . C3 + .... + n . Cn = n .
we have (1 x ) n

C0

C1x C 2 x 2

2n 1

r . n Cr

or

n . 2n 1

r 0

C 3 x 3 .... C n

1x

n 1

Cn xn

Differentiating both sides w.r. to x and putting x = 1, we get n . 2 n

C1 2 C 2 3 C3 ..... n C n

EXTRA IMPORTANT RESULTS

n

1.

2.

Cr

n r 1
r

Cr 1

Cr

n
r

n 1

Cr

that is, r. n C r

n . n 1C r

and

Cr
r 1

n 1

Cr 1
n 1

9
3.

n.

4.

5.

6.

n 1

Cr

Cr
n

(n r 1) n C r

n 1

Cr

Cr

Cr

Cx

7.

C0

C1

8.

C0

C 2 .....

9.

2n 1

C0

Cn

Cy

x
n

y or x y

C 2 .....
n

C1

Cn

2n

C3 ........ 2 n

2n 1

C1 ..... 2 n 1C n

2 2n
x2

Example : If the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (

(b)

(c) 2
2 2

(1

=.

1
2
(d) 1

(a) 1

Sol. (

2 x 1) 51 vanishes then

2 x 1) 51 [(1
x)102

we get (1

A0
)102

x ) 2 ]51

A1x A 2 x 2 .....(say)
A0

Put x = 1,

A1 A 2 ..... 0 (given)

1
0
1
[Note : The sum of the coefficients (not the binomial coefficients) in any expansion can be obtained by substituting
all the variables equal to one]Answer (a)
5. RESULTS RELATED TO A POINT AND A STRAIGHT LINE
(i)

Position of a given point Relative to a Given Line :

P(x1, y1)

Y
ABOVE

BELOW
P(x1, y1)
O

Let the given line be ax + by + c = 0 or L(x, y) = 0.

A point P (x1, y1) will lie above or below this line according as
L(x 1 , y1 )
L( x 1 , y1 )
0 , P lies above the line and if
b
b
where L(x1, y1) = ax1 + by1 + c.

That is, if

ax 1 by1 c
is positive or negative.
b
0 , P lies below the line,

(ii) The perpendicular distance of the point P(x1, y1) from the given line
Y

P(x1, y1)
L
N(h, k)
Q(x2, y2)

10
ax1 by1 c

L( x1 , y1 )

a2

b2

(iii) Coodinates of foot of perpendicular N(h, k) from the point P(x 1, y1) on the line L (x, y) = 0 may be given by

h x1
a

k y1
b

ax1 by1 c

x1

y2

y1

L( x1 , y1 )

a
b
a 2 b2
(iv) Coordinates of the image of Q(x2, y2) of the point P(x1, y1) in the line mirror L(x, y) = 0 may be given by
x2

2(ax1 by1 c)

2L( x1, y1 )
a2

b2

RESULTS RELATED TO TWO POINTS AND A STRAIGHT LINE

(i) The ratio in which the join of two given points P(x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is divided by the straight line ax + by + c
= 0 or L (x, y) = 0 is given by
Y

P(x1, y1)
M

O
PM
QM

ax1 by1 c
ax 2 by 2 c

L
Q(x2, y2)
X

L(x1 , y1 )
L( x 2 , y 2 )

If the above result comes out to be negative, it indicates an external division.

(ii) The relative position of the points P and Q with respect to the line may be expressed as following :
If

L( x1 , y1 )
L( x 2 , y 2 )

If L( x1 , y1 )
L( x 2 , y 2 )

0 , both the points lie to the same side of the given line.
0 , the points lie in opposite sides of the given line.

RESULTS RELATED TO TWO STRAIGHT LINES

Suppose that a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 or L1 (x, y) =0
....(i)
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
or L2 (x, y) = 0
....(ii)
be two straight lines.
(1) The Point of Intersection : Point of intersection of the two given straight lines can be found by solving equations
(i) and (ii).
x

Thus,

b1c 2

y
b 2 c1

c1a 2

provided a1b 2 a 2 b1

c 2 a1
a1
a2

1
,
a 1b 2 a 2 b1
b1
.
b2

b1c 2 b 2 c1 c1a 2 c 2 a1
a1
That is the point of intersection of the lines is a b a b , a b a b , provided
a
1 2
2 1 1 2
2 1
2

If

a1
a2

b1
b2

c1
, then the straight lines L1 and L2 are parallel and distinct.
c2

If

a1
a2

b1
b2

c1
, then the straight lines L1 and L2 are coincident.
c2

b1
.
b2

11
(2) Angle between two Straight Lines :
L2
Y
L1

If the slope of two straight lines be m 1 and m 2 then the acute angle ( ) between the lines is given by
tan

m1 m 2
1 m1m 2 .

The lines are parallel if m1 = m2.

The lines are perpendicular if 1 + m1m2 = 0

m1m 2

Thus, for the lines given above by equation (i) and (ii), we get
(a) angle ( ) between them tan

a1b 2 a 2 b1
a1a 2 b1b 2

(b) the lines are parallel if

a1b 2 a 2 b1

a1
a2

b1
b2

(c) the line are perpendicular if a1a 2

b1b 2

0.