Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 528 532

International Conference on Education and Educational Psychology (ICEEPSY 2011)

The Role of Metacognitive Orientation of Classroom Environment

in Depression
Roshanak Nikpoura*, Hamidreza Zakeria, Reza Chalmeha
a

Department of Educational psychology,University of Shiraz, Shiraz, Iran

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive role of classroom environment perceptions in depression of
high school students. For this purpose, a sample of 385 high school students (164 male, 221 female) were selected
through random cluster sampling from Shiraz high schools, Iran. They completed Metacognitive Orientation of
Classroom Learrning Environment scale and Children Depression Scale. To examine reliability of measures,
Cronbach alpha coefficient and to determine validity, factor analysis method was used. Results showed that there
was a significant negative relationship between all dimensions of Metacognitive Orientation of Classroom Learrning
Environment and children's depression, but Multiple regression analysis indicated that only "within-class
discourse", "metacognitive demands", " distributed control " & "emotional support"( 4 dimension of metacognitive
Orientation of Classroom Learrning Environment) can negatively predict students' depression. In addition,
independent t-test showed the significant differences between females and males in research variables. In sum, the
results showed that classroom environment perceptions affect students' depression in school.

2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Dr Zafer Bekirogullari.

1. Introduction
Childhood and adolescent depression presents a challenge for society, creates substantial problems and associates
with negative outcomes in school environment (Ward, Sylva, & Gresham, 2010). Poor school work, reduced
academic achievement (Nolen- Hoeksema, Seligman, & Girgus, 1992), impairments on cognitive tasks or peer
relationships (Roeser et al., 1998) increased risk of completed suicide (Horowitz & Garber, 2006), and behavioral
outcomes such as substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices and grater likelihood of acting out behavior (Saluja et al.,
2004) are resulted from depression. Unfortunately despite these problems, depression is an area that has been
grossly ignored in schools, But classroom environment is an important factor in positive development. According to

* Corresponding author. Tel: +98-711-7275528.

E-mail address. Roshanak.nikpour@gmail.com

1877-0428 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Dr Zafer Bekirogullari.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.271

Roshanak Nikpour et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 528 532

529

Sharifian, Lavasani, Ejei, Taremian and Amrai (2011), classroom community is one of the core predictors of
psychological factors include anxiety disorders and depression. Thus there are important aspects of school
environment that can affect and prevent student depression.
Trickett and Moos (1995) suggests a good classroom environment should have 1) good student-teacher
relationships, in which teachers support students, and students are highly committed and involved; 2) promote
personal growth, in which there are clear goals for learning and (3) have dynamic system, in which there are orderly
clear expectations, and innovations in teaching and learning.
On the other hand, Researches about effectiveness of school based depression prevention programs show that
some macro school factors are related to successful program implementation and consequently reduction of
depression (Rohrbach, DOnofrio, Backer, and Montgomery, 1996). Having non authoritarian and positive working
environment, where staff can openly communicate and collaborate with each other and having positive ethos and
norms, and creating a psychologically secure and supportive environment where there are opportunities for the
students development (Eccles and Gootman ,2002) are some of these factors.
Based on what mentioned above the effect of school environment on students mental health is well documented.
But one of the recent constructions about learning environments is what Tomas (2003, 2004) named
metacognitively-oriented learning environment. Metacognitive orientation refers to the extent to which psychosocial
conditions that are known to enhance students metacognition are evident within classrooms. So this environment
should improve student learning process and metacognition as documented in some researches (see :Thomas, & Kin
Mee, 2005; Thomas, & McRobbie; 2001). However it is important to know whether this environment creative a
positive climate and can affect student's mental health. To answer this question we should know what features does
such environment have?
According to social constructivist learning and situated learning theories, Tomas (2003) conclude that learning
processes and development of student's metacognition are, in fact affected by sociocultural processes and structures
of the classroom environment.
Tomas defines The characteristics of metacognitively oriented learning environments in eight dimensions: (1)
Metacognitive Demands, (2) Teacher Modelling and Explanation, (3) Student-Student Discourse, (4) StudentTeacher Discourse, (5) Student Voice, (6) Distributed Control, (7) Teacher Encouragement and Support, and (8)
Emotional Support.
Metacognitive Demands, Teacher Modelling and Within class discourse (Student-Student and Student-Teacher
Discourse) orderly refer to student- teacher interactions about how students aware of their learning process,
modelling and explanation of how they can learn subject and Students discuss with their teacher and classmates
about how they can improve their learning ( Tomas 2003).
Student voice means It is legitimate for students to ask about why they have to do a certain activity and
Distributed control refers to student's collaboration with their teacher to plan their activities.Emotional Support and
Teacher Encouragement and Support, are The other dimensions of metacognitive oriented environment that reflect
social and emotional climate in classroom environment (Tomas, 2003).
These dimensions focus on student teacher interactions and social and emotional support, as Tomas (2003)
discusses: metacognitive learning environment is conceptualized based on social constructivist view and some
elements such as discourse, language and social interaction in developing and enhancing metacognition are
important characteristics of such environments. Discourse and language are key factors of student's metacognitive
development that used to sharing and exchanging ideas about learning process between teachers and students and
between students (e.g. Hogan, 1999; Thomas & McRobbie, 2001). More over creating social climate and social
support in classroom environment in which students question teachers pedagogical plans, and methods (Taylor et
al., 1994), feel respect and fairness from teachers are prominent aspects of metacognitive oriented environment. On
the other hand social interactions and support are key factors that have protective role in positive development (see:
Shochet, Dadds, Ham & Montague, 2006, Jacobsen & Hoffman, 1997; Marchant, Paulson, & Rothlisberg, 2001;
Roeser et al., 2000, Cochran and Bo, 1989, Solomon, Battistich, Watson, Schaps, & Lewis, C. 2000; Anderman,
2002; Battistich, & Hom, 1997; Sun, & Hui, 2007) Thus It seems that this environment elucidated above is not only
a metacognitinve environment that improve student learning, but a supportive situation that related to student mental
health. The present study examined the effect of metacognitive orientation of school environment on children
depression. The main question of the study was which one of the metacognitive orientations predicts the children
depression? Also, the effect of gender variable in this relationship was examined.

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2. Methods
Participants of this study were 385 high school students (164 male, 221 female) that selected by
multi-stages cluster random sampling; from different high school of Shiraz university.
2.1. Measures
2.1.1. Metacognitive Orientation of Classroom Learning Environment scale (MOLES)
The MOLES developed by Thomas (2003) that comprised of 35 items scale and six subscales: metacognitive
demands, within-class discourse, teacher encouragement and support, distributed control, emotional support, and
student voice. The reliability of the measure examined by internal consistency Chronbach alpha method. Alpha
coefficient toward metacognitive demands, within-class discourse, teacher encouragement and support, distributed
control, emotional support, and student voice was 0.84, 0.91, 0.76, 0.82 and 0.65 respectively. The validity of the
measure examined to factor analysis method.
2.1.2. Children Depression Scale (CDS-A)
The CDS-A is a 25 item scale developed by Long and Tisher (1978) to measure Depression in children. It uses a
five-point Likert response format ranging from one (not true at all) to five (true at all), with a total score range
from 0 to 125 in present study Persian version of CDS-A was used. The reliability of the measure examined by
internal consistency Chronbach alpha method. Alpha coefficient for CDS-A total score was 0.62. The validity of
the measure examined to factor analysis method.

3. Results
The results revealed negative and significant correlations between metacognitive orientation subscales and
depression (Table 1).
Table1. Correlation matrix of depression and metacognitive orientations
Variable
1- Metacognitive demands
2- Within-class discourse
3- Teacher encouragement and support
4- Distributed control
5- Emotional support
6- Student voice
7- Students depression

1
1
0.26**
0.39**
0.43**
0.53**
0.52**
-0.24**

1
0.06
0.06
0.14**
0.22**
-0.27**

1
0.61**
0.52**
0.65**
-0.27**

1
0.47**
0.67**
-0.33**

1
0.63**
-0.33**

1
-0.32**

** p<0.001

Simultaneous multiple regression of depression total score on the metacognitive orientations, revealed that the
within-class discourse, distributed control and emotional support were significant negative predictor of the
depression, whereas the metacognitive demands, teacher encouragement and support, and student voice didn't had a
significant predict power for the depression (Table 2).

Table2. Multiple regression of metacognitive orientation on depression

Criterion Variable
Prediction Variables
Metacognitive demands
Within-class discourse
Teacher encouragement and support
Distributed control
Emotional support
Student voice

R2

0.45

0.20

Depression
B
0.12
-1.08
-0.14
-1.05
-0.78
0.04

0.03
-0.24
-0.03
-0.22
-0.20
0.01

t
0.58
4.95
0.53
3.34
3.29
0.13

P<
N.S
0.001
N.S
0.001
0.001
N.S

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Roshanak Nikpour et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 528 532

The results of analysis t-test showed that the mean score of females was significantly greater than males in the
metacognitive demands, within-class discourse, distributed control and emotional support. However, there wasnt
significant difference between females and males in teacher encouragement and support, student voice and students
depression (Table 3).

Variable

Table3. Comparison of males and females participants in study variables

Males
Females
M
SD
M
SD

P<

Metacognitive demands

13.46

4.76

16.62

6.37

5.33

0.001

Within-class discourse

16.88

4.52

18.50

4.99

3.26

0.001

Teacher encouragement and support

16.49

4.81

16.76

5.33

0.52

N.S

Distributed control

16.73

4.44

18.12

4.60

2.97

0.001

Emotional support

14.41

5.22

16.06

6.10

2.77

0.001

Student voice
Students depression

16.12
50.87

4.95
7.05

16.99
54.31

4.99
28.19

1.68
1.53

N.S
N.S

4.Discussion
Create a sensitive environment responsive to student's mental health, and detecting features of such place can be
an important goal for school professionals. This study investigated the relationship between metacognitive oriented
learning environment and depression in young adolescence. Results showed that there was a significant negative
relationship between all dimensions of Metacognitive Orientation of Classroom Learning Environment and
children's depression but only "within-class discourse", "metacognitive demands", "distributed control" and
"emotional support can negatively predict students' depression. It seems that these dimensions make students active
in their tasks and improve school involvement. According to Eccles & Barber (1999) School activity involvement
has been demonstrated to have positive effects for adolescent wellbeing also participation in school activities was a
protective factor in relation to academic performance and involvement in risk behaviors (Eccles & Barber, 1999).
More over school involvement can positively affect school connectedness One of the important predictor of
student's mental health particularly depressive symptoms (Shochet, Dadds, Ham & Montague, 2006). McNeely et al.
(2002) in a study of the effect of student participation upon school connectedness found that those who participated
in school activities experienced higher overall school connectedness.
Also these dimensions as mentioned above focus on student teacher relationship. Studies have demonstrated
that the student-teacher relationship is a critical aspect of the school environment and student perceptions of positive
relations with teachers and other school staff contributed to their success in academic settings (Jacobsen & Hoffman,
1997; Marchant, Paulson, & Rothlisberg, 2001; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989). Research by Roeser et al.
(2000) demonstrated that adolescents who perceived their teachers as caring and respectful showed improved
academic, social and emotional functioning over time, while Cochran and Bo (1989) identified that support from
non-related adults influenced school adaptive behavior and academic performance. Similarly, Midgley et al. (1989)
found evidence suggesting that the quality of the student-teacher relationship maybe important during adolescence
when seeking adult role models outside the family. Studies also showed that an inviting school environment where
students feel they are a part of the school, are valued and accepted by their teachers and classmates, and can earn a
valued identity was essential in strengthening the students learning and positive development (Solomon, Battistich,
Watson, Schaps, & Lewis, C. 2000; Anderman, 2002; Sun, & Hui, 2007) In general, the findings of present study is
emphasizing that metacognitive oriented learning environment is an important factor that can predict student
depression specially the relationship between studet- teacher and social support in this environment has a prominent
role in student mental health. In relation to gender differences, the results showed there was a significant difference
between means scores of girls and boys in metacognitive demands , within-class discourse, distributed control"
and emotional support, so that the means scores of girls is higher than boys in this style.
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