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SCIOGRAPHY.

SCIOGRAPHY;
OR,

RADIAL PROJECTION OF SHADOWS,

By

R.

CAMPBELL PUCKETT,

Ph.

D.,

HEAD MASTER OF THE BATH SCHOOL OF ART.

J-^oir.

LONDON
CHAPMAN AND HALL,
1868.

\t^''
5y:

193,

,==r

PICCADILLY.
*'

z^'

BATH

WILLIAM LEWIS, "DIRECTORY" PRINTING OFFICES,

12,

NORTHGATE STREET.

INTRODUCTION.
The

present text book does not treat upon

understood

the elements of Perspective, as

by Linear Perspective
the
It

perspective
is

therefore

will

but

projection

limited

is

to

shadows.

of

assumed that the pupil be-

attempting

fore

the

problems

foregoing

be able to place objects accurately

in

pupil

in

perspective.

It

the hope that

it

is

offered

to

the

may supplement

his perspec-

tive studies.

The

substance of the following text and

diagrams was prepared as black-board lessons

for the pupils of the school over

author

is

placed,

he having

which the

felt

that

an

INTRODUCTION.

occasional

divergence from the perspective

course to Sciography would give an additional

interest.

The

writer

must confess ignorance of any

progressive text-book upon Sciography, and

is

indebted to the lectures delivered by the

late

Professor

Academy

J.

of Perspective at the Royal

P.

Knight,

R.A.

of the thoughts contained in the

pages.

for

many

following

Also, he has to acknowledge

hints

derived from Dr. Brook Taylor's theory upon

the subject.

The

science that teaches the correct projec-

tion of

shadows as a means of expression of

form, should be comprised in the essential

subjects of study for students of Art.

want of the knowledge of Sciography

played in

architectural

from the attempt

to

drawings,

unite

the

The
dis-

resulting

mechanical

projection of shadows with perspective representations,

produces

possible shadows.

many

The

errors

pupil

and im-

must be cau-

INTRODUCTION.

tioned against confining his practice to the

examples given, and

various

geometrical

to project the

advised to construct

figures

in^ perspective,

shadows, throwing them from

the right and

and

is

left,

with the sun at the back

in the face of the

spectator.

With

this

independent practice at various angles and

figures,

it is

anticipated the principles govern-

ing shadows will be thoroughly mastered.

Bath School of Art

March, i86S.

W-nhh

^uituh.

nf

PAGE PLATE

Introduction
Lesson

i.

Definition of Sciography

optics

rays

of

light,

subject to the laws of

their divergence,

illustration of the rays of light

parallell to the plane of delineation

,,

2.

Further

of

illustration

the

sun's

3.

The

-II

rays,

parallel to the plane of delineation

,,

sun's rays perpendicular to the plane

of delineation, and before the spectator

,,

4.

The

sun's rays perpendicular to

ture,

,,

5.

When

behind the spectator

the

rays

of

light

the

pic-

make

angles

with the plane of delineation, and with

the ground plane
tator

,,

6.

The sun

sun

before the spec-

at the spectator's back,

rays inclined to the picture,

and

its

and with

the ground

,,

J.

Illustrating

13

shadows

oblique planes

cast

,,

S.

Oblique planes, continued

,,

9.

Further illustrations

-'

and

by,

(,

upon

15

iS

21

CONTENTS.
TAr.E

Lesson

10.

Shadows upon

curvilinear

behind the spectator

II.

The same, continued

,,

12.

The same,

,,

13.

Spherical surfaces

,,

14.

Projection of

,,

15.

the sun before the spectator

niche

shadow of abacus and

der on a vertical plane-

right cone placed vertically,

PLATE

sun

surfaces,

23

10

25

II

27

12

29

13

31

14

33

15

35

16

37

17

41

18

47

19

49

20

cylin-

casting

its

shadow upon a cylinder lymg horizontally,

,,

16.

sun at the back of the spectator

sphere,

casting

spectator

,,

17.

Mode

its
-

shadow toward
-

the
-

of finding shadows, thrown by arlight

tificial

interior

jection of right lines

upon

of

room

horizontal surfaces

,,

18.

Reflections,

,,

19.

Continued vertical surfaces

,,

20.

The same

oblique-

pro-

SCIOGRAPHY.
LESSON
Plate

[CIOGRAPHY,
treats

each

lines,

i.

Science of Shadows,

the

of the correct projection of shadows.

The
luminous body,

or

I.

is

direct
in the

acting

shining of the

form of

rays,

independently

such separation of parts however

is

of

sun, or other

or

thin ethereal

the

other;

observable in

no

common

circumstances, in consequence of the diffusive properties

of the atmosphere.

When
A

tlie

medium

in

which the rays of

light

move be

of

SCIOGRAPHY.

uniform density, they

will

always spread in straight lines

from the luminous body which produces them.

In consequence of

ened spot

is

observable behind any opaque object pre-

sented to the

light.

shadow

this

and

space, that

shadow or dark-

this directness, a

when

During

night,

we

shadow reaches so

the

moon

are in the earth's

far

plunges into

beyond us

it

into

in her course,

she undergoes an eclipse,

In proportion as light advances from

production
nution

i.e.,

is

it

The

diminishes in intensity.

its

seat of

ratio of dimi-

agreeable to that which governs physical forces

the intensity of the light will diminish as the square

of the distance increases, or at the rate of

i, 4,

16,

&c.

But in proportion as we lose in intensity we gain in volume

the light

is

it is filling

the weaker the further

a wider space.

it is

from the candle, but

This continual receding of the

rays of light from each other, as the

radii,

word

implies, forms

proceeding from a centre.

The

rays of light which reach us, emanating from the

sun's surface presented to our earth,

being parallel to each other.

These

may be

parallel rays of light

are necessarily subject to the laws of optics,

recede from

us: will

converge

regarded as

for instance,

betwesn the sun and our view, the rays

and

as they

when we

cast over tlie

are

head

of the spectator, they will have a point of convergence.

This vanishing point being placed below the horizontal

SCIOGRAPHY.

The

hue.

great space through which the sun's rays tra-

verse renders the divergence ahnost imperceptible, so that

when

the direction of the sun's rays to the plane of deline-

ation

is

parallel to that plane, lines that represent rays of

must be drawtn

light

parallel to

Let the square block in

one another.

a, b, c,

the plane of delineation.

angle

of

the

60,

be placed

d, plate i,

in parallel perspective, the sun's rays also

being parallel to

At point of distance

up the

set

assumed angle made by the

rays with the horizontal plane, parallel to which

sun's

all

rays

of light must be drawn.

Continue

e,

f,

until

it

is

intersected

parallel to the direction of the sun's rays

may be
tains the

to the

drawn

line

this intersection

considered as a point lying in a plane that con-

luminary and point

lying in a plane parallel to

a',

by a

same point

b.

The shadow line,

one containing

a ray of light from

a,

a, b, will

cutting

a', b',

vanish

b',

C, in

completes the shadow thrown by the block.

The rod
picture-plane,

g, h,
its

lying in a plane at right angles to the

vanishing

point will

a line drawn through the centre of vision.

an mdefinite distance

in

be found upon
This

the horizontal plane

line is at

also the

sun must be regarded as being at an indefinite distance,

so that a line drawn through the vanishing point parallel
to the sun's rays,

where

it

the vanishing point for the

cuts the horizontal line will be

shadow of the rod upon the

SCIOGRAPHY.

The

horizontal planes.

the

rays of light,

the

plane b,

d, e,

being parallel to

f,

shadow upon

it

will

be

parallel

to those rays.

From

the foregoing problem the following corollaries

may be deduced
Cor.

I.

The shadow on

a plane of any point must

in the intersection with that plane of

ray of light that casts the shadow

in a plane containing the luminary,

the ground in
Cor.
allel to

2.

such

a',

and

b',

gives the

Shadows thrown by
lines,

one containing the

for instance,
its

intersection

shadow of the
lines

a, b, lie

upon

line a, b.

upon planes

par-

vanish to the vanishing point of the

plane in which the lines

the centre of vision

lie

its

lie,

as the

line a, b, vanishes to

shadow lying upon a

has the same vanishing point.

parallel plane

LESSON
Plate

In

we

plate

this

have

II

2.

another

given

illustration

of shadows thrown by rays of light parallel to the plane of

delineation.

square block placed upon a larger one, the sides

making angles of 45" with the plane of

The

made by

angle

plane

as

is,

the sun's rays with the horizontal

60,

the previous figure,

in

delineation.

on the

re-

verse side of the picture.

Draw
line,

lines

from

where rays of

b', d',

light,

and

from

parallel to the

c',

b, d,

and

c,

ground

parallel to the

given angle intersect, points in the reqnired shadow are

found; these, joined, give

lines in the projected

thrown by the

and

and

h, until

intersections

lines b,

drawn

d,

c.

Produce

they intersect the ground plane.

draw

ing the solid in

tal surlace

d,

i,

lines parallel to the

j,

k,

of the block

draw
;

ground

shadow,

lines e,

From
line,

f,

these

meet

vertical lines to the horizon-

from the top edge lines must be

parallel to the picture, they are cut

by rays of light

SCIOGRAPHY.

from

e,

f,

h,

completing the shadows cast from the soMd

block.

The rod

m,

1,

in a plane

lies

45" with the picture plane

found upon a

line

its

making an angle of

vanishing point will be

drawn tnrough vanishing point

perpendiculars drawn through the vanishing points

2 represent traces

delineation.

of

point

tersects

the

line

drawn

parallel

vertical

intersection

this

and

of vertical planes upon the plane of

rod,

the

The

2.

line

through
to

sun's

the

drawn

rays,

through

v,p,

ini,

be the vanishing point of the

will

shadow-line cast by the rod upon plane

same line, continued

vanishing

the

until

it

The

a, a', b, b'.

cuts the horizontal line, gives

the vanishing point for the shadow of the rod

upon the

ground.

The

following corollary

already given

dow

line

Cor.

The

to the

a, b, a', b', is

two

vanishing point of any sha-

must be found upon a trace of the plane

ing the shadow

upon

3.

may be added

as an instance, the

receiv-

shadow of the rod

found upon trace passing through

v, p, i.

LESSON
Plate

II

I.

In

sun

this figure the

plane

of

in

is

a plane perpendicular to the

and

delineation,

spectator and the sun.

plane,

this

between the

Consequently the shadows are

cast towards the spectator.

The plane

of delineation being a vertical plane with-

out limit, the position of the sun or other luminary

be found upon

it,

this

will

be found on a

foot,

and

is

plane being regarded as the meri-

The assumed

dian of the place.

may

line of

position of the sun,

which the centre of vision

is

s,

the

the trace of plane perpendicular to the plane

of delineation

the angle

is

constructed at the point of

distance.

The shadow on a plane

of any point must

intersection with that plane, of

light that

casts the shadow.

parallel planes, in

which the

verge to the central

dow,

d, e,

f;

lie

in the

one containing the ray of

In the present figure the

lines a,

a',

b, b', c,

c'.

He, con-

they contain the points in the sha-

upon the ground, and the luminary

s.

Pro-

SCIOGRAPHY.

duce

a, a', b, b', c, c', until

draw

lines

they intersect the ground plane

outwards from the centre of vision through their

intersections

upon the ground

of light passing through

these lines, cut

a, b, c,

by the rays

give the required points

upon the ground.

By
this

a similar process

and the other

figure,

all

the points in the

may be

obtained.

shadow

for

LESSON
Plate

When

the spectator

is

IV.

4.

between the sun and the picture-

plane the sun will be represented below the horizontal line,

and the shadows

Plate

4.

The

figure

folding projecting from,

plane a,

b, c, d,

it is

be cast from the

will

on the

left

spectator.

represents a scaf-

and casting shadows upon, the

placed in parallel perspective

the

sunliesin a plane perpendicular to the plane of delineation,

making an anglewith the horizontal plane, but

spectator, so that the angle

is

behind the

must be constructed down-

wards from the point of distance.

It will

be seen that a

number of parallel planes, each containing a point or points

casting shadows (as

a,

and

b,)

and the luminary converg-

ing to the central line, will form vertical traces where they
intersect the plane a, b, c, d.

To

determine every point in the shadow,

it is

only

necessary to draw rays from them to the sun, their intersections with the vertical traces, give points defining the

shadow.

SCIOGRAPHY.

lO

The cube
lineation
will

placed at 45 with the plane of de-

is

shadow thrown by

the

vanish to the centre of vision,

of light drawn to the luminary

it is

its

vertical

edge,

c, d,

and be cut by the ray

shadow

to complete the

only necessary to draw a line to the vanishing point

of the line casting the shadow.

The

vertical

edges of the board placed upon the cube,

planes parallel to the side of the cube

lie in

their vanish-

ing point will be found upon a line drawn through the

vanishing point of the side of that figure,

where

in V, p, 3, will

it

be the vanishing point

plane

i,

through

g,

v, p, 2

will

by a

the

for the

The side

shadow of the

of the cube

e,

f,

h,

shadow thrown by the edge of the

be found upon a

vertical line

drawn

v, p, 2.

Continue the

line

drawn from vanishing point of plank,

through luminary until

hrough

Join

passes through the horizontal line

plank upon horizontal planes.

vanishes to

i.

point with the luminary

the accidental vanishing

straight line

v, p,

v, p, 2

point required.

it

cuts

the

vertical

their intersection will

line

drawn

be the vanishing

LESSON
Plate

beam placed

SOLID

to points

in angular perspective, resting trans-

and

2.

The sun

ing the shadows towards him.

rays

upon

the ground v,

down from
altitude

is

To
planes

5.

upon two upright blocks

versely

V.

the base line

p,

is

before the spectator, cast-

o,

is,

point for sun's

as in every case, set

measuring point the sun's

placed up.

find the vanishing point for shadow-lines

a, b, c, d,

and

e,

where upon vanishing

Draw

a line from

f,

g, h,

line,
v, p,

evidently

drawn from

it

must

upon the
lie

some-

or trace of these planes.

i,

(the vanishing point of lines

tlirowing shadows) to luminary, where

vertical

planes vanish

their

The vanishing

at its

v, p, 2, (vertical

it

trace

passes through

upon the

pic-

ture plane, of the vanishing plane receiving the shadow),

is

the point required.

12

SCIOGRAPHY.

We may gather from

ing

Cor.

4.

The

upon the ground

the above problem the follow-

vanishing point for shadows thrown

plane,

by

lines perpendicular to

it,

always the foot of a vertical line drawn from luminary.

is

LESSON
Plate

This

figure

spectator

The

is

VI.

6.

similar to the preceding, but in this case the

between the sun and the plane of delineation.

is

angle for the altitude of the sun must be placed

downwards, from the measuring point of

its

inclination to

Consequently the shadows are

the plane of delineation.

thrown from the spectator.

To

upon the

find the vanishing point of shadow-lines

plianes a, b, c, d,

and

e,

g, h, as in

f,

the previous figure,

the vanishing point for lines casting the shadows, the

lu-

minary, and the trace of plane receiving shadow, these

three conditions, must be united.

through luminary until

downwards from

v, p, 2

point required.

shadow-line

i,

j,

intersects vertical

drawn

must be adopted

upon the small block.

it

line

p, i,

this intersection is the vanishing

similar operation

through luminary, until

from

it

Draw a line from v,

cuts

the line

From
drawn

v,

for

p, 2,

vertically

v, p, I.

It will

be seen from

this,

and the previous

figure, that

SCIOGRAPHY.

the shadows thrown by lines upon planes parallel to such

vanish to the same vanishing points

lines,

the shadow of the

beam

vanishes to

point of the beam, because they

From
lowing

v, p,

i,

for

example,

the vanishing

lie in parallel planes.

we may deduce

the foregoing figures

the

fol-

Cor.

5.

The

vanishing point of lines throwing sha-

dow, the luminary, and the vanishing point of plane

ceiving shadow, must be united

this,

upon the

re-

trace of a

plane containing the luminary, and the plane receiving

the shadow.

LESSON
Plate

It

proposed in

is

this,

e,

f,

is in

g,

the square block

Angles

parallel perspective.

vanish to
g.

a, b, c,

a,

dicular

and

and

planes.

and the

Figure h,

2.

b,

figure
i,

represent, re-

v,

The

cast from the vertical edges of the block

p,

o,

until

it

intersects

to V, p, 7,

produced

until

it

wn'll

the oblique plane

continuation of the shadow upon

be found by the following process.

V, p, 2,

lessons, to

the azimuth and altitude of the sun's rays.

The shadow

f,

upon oblique

have their vanishing points in

spectively,

e,

7,

7.

and the two subsequent

give rales for finding shadows

In plate

VII

The

e,

f,

g, will

right line

from

intersects the perpen-

drawn from luminary through

v,

p,

o.

This

perpendicular will be the vertical trace of the plane in

which the sun's azimuth

ing point of

shadow

upon the oblique

of the

cast

plane.

lies

v, p, 6, will

by the

To

shadow thrown by the

vertical

be the vanish-

edges of the block

obtain the vanishing point

line of the

block

a, k, its

l6

SCIOGRAPHY.

vanishing point,

a right

line,

v, p,

produced

oblique plane, gives

The shadow
will

and the luminary being joined by

i,

until

by

line

be found by drawing a

the luminary, where

it

of plane upon which

point required,

Figure

h,

upon plane

k,

the point required.

v, p, 3,

cast

cuts the vanishing line of the

it

from

line

it

thrown, will be the vanishing

is

v, p, 8.
i,

parallel perspective, casts a

in

b,

j.

these intersections
h,

i,

to luminary.

draw

First

its

to v, p, o, until

lines

draw

shadow

vertical lines

from

they will be cut by rays drawn from

To

find the lines in the

formed by these points joined,

trace in the vertical line

shadow

necessary to consider

it is

upon which the shadow

the plane

vanishing point to

its

passes through the vanishing line

they intersect the upright plane

1,

of the oblique plane

e, g,

is

thrown, which has

drawn through

v, p, 2.

vanishing point for the shadow cast by the edge h,

The
i,

of

the block, parallel to the plane of delineation, will be found

by drawing a
it

line

from luminary parallel to

this

edge until

cuts the vertical trace of plane passing through

be vanishing point

this will

for line

m,

n.

v, p, 2

The shadow

thrown by the edge that vanishes to the centre of vision

must be found upon the same

ing point

this line intersected

nary through centre of vision

v, p, 4,

line as the previous vanish-

the point for o, m.

by one drawn from lumi(its

vanishing point) gives

SCIOGRAPHY.
Cor.
ture,

6.

Wlaen the

original line

17

is

parallel to the pic-

and consequently has no vanishing

point, (the sun

being on either side of the picture) then a right line drawn

through the vanishing point of the rays, parallel to the line

whose shadow

is

plane receiving

it,

required, cuts the vanishing line of the

in the vanishing point of the shadow.

LESSON
Plate

Continuing

VIII.
8.

The diagram

the practice of oblique planes.

given in this lesson illustrates the projection of shadows

of right lines inclined to the horizontal, and to the picture

planes,

upon planes

The
which

is

figure

is

inclined to both.

the block shape of a house, against

placed a plank, casting

ous planes forming the

The sun
V. P.

is

The

s.

rays (V. P.

by V.

P.

i,

and V.

P.

it

at

with the shadow of the plank upon the

connecting the vanishing point of the sun's

s,)

with the vanishing point of the plank by a

for the horizontal portion of the

until

found

is

2.

right line, cutting the horizontal line, V. P. 5

which the

vari-

figure.

behind the spectator, and

To commence
By

shadow upon the

horizontal vanishing points for the house

are represented

ground.

its

last

shadow.

is

obtained,

The

line

by

vanishing point was found must be produced

intersects the vertical line

from V. P.

vertical line really represents the plane in

2.

This

which the shadow

SCIOGRAPHY.

and the intersection so found will be the vanishing point

lies;

shadows upon the planes

for the

The
lary

19

vanishing point for

h,

e,

by

i,

f,

g.

corol-

found to be the vanishing point of the object

is

2,

and

a, b, c, d,

shadow upon plane

casting the shadow, they lying in parallel planes.

The

j,

6, is

found

where

has

k, p, q,

contained by V. P.

in that

V. P.

oblique plane,

2,

it is

and V.

cut

by a

its

P. 3,
line

nary to the vanishing point of the plank.

point for that portion of the shadow

By
V. P.

the

following

upon which

from the lumiV. P.

upon plane

same method

6, is

j,

the

k, p, q.

as the preceding,

shadow of the plank upon the roof will be

for the

7,

vanishing line

found.

The
V. P.

4,)

vanishing line of the plane of roof (V. P.

intersected

gives V. P.

8,

to

by a

vertical line

by

from the luminary

which the shadow-lines thrown by the up-

right angles of the chimney converge.

cast

the horizontal angle,

1,

(Cor. 6.)

Theshadow

m, will vanish to a point

obtained by the intersection of a line drawn from V. P.

through V. P.
V. P.

s,

with one from V. P.

4,

i,

passing through

2.

The

perpendicular

the ground has

its

line, b, d,

throwing a shadow upon

vanishing point at V. P.

o, (Cor. 4),

the vanishing plane containing the luminary.

The
oblique

vanishing points for the shadows thrown by the

.lines n, o,

and

p,

q, are

found where the

lines

SCIOGRAPHY.

20

from their vanishing points (V. P.

V. P.

s,

It

3,

and V.

cut the horizontal line in V. P. 9,

is

anticipated the pupil will

that the vanishing point of the

on a plane,

is

P. 4,) to

and V. P.

now apprehend

shadow of any

10.

clearly

right line,

the intersecting point of the vanishing line

of that plane, and the vanishing line of the plane of shade.

LESSON
Plate

We

have

IX.

9.

in this lesson further to illustrate oblique planes

throwing and receiving the shadows.

In Plate

9,

figure a, b, c, d, represents

a truncated

pyramid placed in perspective, making angles of 45

j

with the plane of delineation

it

casts a

oblong figure with gabled apex; that

shadow upon an

placed at a more

is

acute angle with the plane of delineation.

The

made by

and the

being the angle

plane,

it is

always placed

the present figure

set

the ray of light

it is

down from

angle

dow

that

be necessary

the base line

this

vanishing

Draw a

line,

line

j,

k,

by ray of

apex, in

At

r.

its

line.

by the vanishing point

light

j,

line

until

it is

from luminary, containing the

intersection with vertical plane

draw a perpendicular

is

representing the

of the sun's rays upon the ground, through

intersected

in

to find the projection of the sha-

would be thrown by a

axis of the p)T:amid.

picture

the altitude of the sun

up from the measuring point of

It will

azimuth,

meeting the ray of

f,

h,

1,

light in k.

SCIOGRAPHY.

22

Lines drawn by the vanishing point of the sun's rays upon

the horizontal plane through the corners of the base,
cutting the vertical face of the block

give the form of

shadow upon

and carried

c, o,

to k, will

that surface.

For obtaining the fomi of shadow upon the oblique

plane,

it is

necessary

first

to join the accidental vanishing

point of the oblique plane with V. P.

continue this line

rays

until.it cuts

upon the plane of

be the vanishing point

of the pyramid,

c,

d,

delineation
for the

this intersection, will

shadow thrown by the

upon the oblique

intersecting
ki,

to

o,

the

the corners

upright

upon the ground,

of the

plane,

axis

Lines drawn by

plane.

tnuicated

must

be

and where they meet the horizontal edge

Rays from the sun containing

k".

right line

the vertical trace of the sun's

the vanishing point of the sun's rays

through

by a

3,

a,

b,

figure,

carried
lines

to

drawn

o', cutting,

the corresponding lines that are drawn to k", complete the

shadow.

To draw

the

shadow upon the ground

other figure, lines must be drawn

draw a

f,

by the

by the vanishing point

of sun's rays upon the ground through

from the sun through the points

cast

h, e',

and cut by rays

e, in hi, e".

From e"

line parallel to the side of the figure, V. P. 3.

LESSON

It

is

our intention

now

X.

Plate

io.

to give

some

rules

by which the

contour of shadows upon curviHnear surfaces may be drawn.

The accompanying plate

(Plate lo)

is

of an arch placed in parallel perspective

the sun

found at A, and

is

its

a representation

the azimuth of

altitude at B, giving S, as its

image.

The

figure being parallel to the picture plane, c, the

centre of vision

luminary

must be Joined by a

parallel to

which

e, d,

right line to S, the

and ordinates from

f,

g,

must be drawn, intersecting the opposite side in

h,

i,

fi,

gi, h',

i'.

Upon

lines

drawn from these

to the centre of vision points for the line of

be found.

Thus, draw rays from

naiy, cutting the fonner in k,

1,

f,

g, h,

m, n

i,

intersections

shadow

will

to S, the lumi-

the curve being

SCIOGRAPHY.

24

drawn

through them,

gives

the

thrown by the side of the arch.

the point from which

mences.

shadow-line required,

The

the curve

tangent

e, d,

gives

of the shadow com-

LESSON
Plate

This
the

ii.

a similar arch to the preceding,

figure represents

face

XI

of which in the present case

is

placed at an

angle of 45" to the plane of projection.

The

direction

and

of the sun's rays are

inclination

found at a and b respectively;

being the vanishing

point of the rays.

A right

line

drawn from

ting the vertical from v.

obtaining the tangent

c, d, e,

f,

is

cut

b,

a,

in

and

i,

to

through

s,

intersec-

gives the point for

which ordinates from

g must be drawn, intersecting the further side

of the arch, as in
it

p.

v. p.

d'.

From

by a ray from

d,

in

d'

draw a
;

line to v. p.

i,

giving a point in the

curved line of shadow.

This process being repeated by means of the ordinates from the various points given, the entire shadow
line is obtained.

SCIOGRAfHY.

26
It

will

be seen that the

line

from

v.

p.

to

i,

represents the vanishing line of the plane of shade, for

perpendiculars to the plane of the arch, and

upon

that plane.

s is its seat

LESSON

Plate

In

case the light

this

I:

i 2.

before the spectator, and flows

is

inwardly through the arch towards the spectator

c,

that projects the shadow.

of the sun

is

found upon the

a,

through the intersection

horizontal line.

sun through

p.

V.

2,

For example,

the

drawn from the position of the

until

which to the ordinates from

point,

draivn

with

inclination

its

The

vertical

it

intersects vertical

gives a point for finding the tangent,

I,

p.

v.

line

of

the

it is

b,

exterior curve
altitude

a, b, c,

and

to

must be drawn.

to obtain points in the

where the vanishing

from

by the

shadow

line of the plane of

shade

in-

tersects the vanishing line of plane containing arch

from

vertical
b',

by

arch,

v.

by

p.
v.

v.
2,

p.

p.

draw

the ordinate b,

draw a perpendicular
2,

this,

intersected

b'.

viz.,

From

to the face of the

by a ray drawn from

SCIOGRAPHY.

28

the position of the sun through b, gives

d,

a point in

shadow.

The commencement of shadow will be

contact of the tangent with the arch.

at the point of

LESSON
Plate

The

following lessons treat

The

surfaces.

c, s

the

s,

upon

spherical

and

The

angles a,

b,

cylindrical
13,

is

in

give the position

being the centre of vision, drawing

trace of a plane passing through the luminary,

and perpendicular
a, b,

13.

niche represented in plate

parallel perspective.

of the sun at

XIII.

parallel to

to

c,

the

picture.

Draw

giving the point for

s,

the

tangent

commencing

Several ordinates must also be drawn, as

the shadow.

amongst themselves, and to the vanishing

c, d,

parallel

line

of plane

c,

s,

which the semi-circle

c,

d,

c,

e,

will

be the diameter upon

d, is to

be constructed, and

a section of the head of the niche upon

represents
line c, d.

The

simplest

be as follows
centre,

and

this will

c, g,

mode

for finding the semi-circles will

being the point of distance, with c as

as radius, cut the vanishing line

be the point

c, s,

ing';

for finding the semi-diagonals of the

parallelograms in which the semi-circles are to be found.

SCIOGRAPHY.

30
Thus, draw a
g',

cutting d,

c,

line

from

f,

the centre of the line

in h,

from

h,

a line drawn parallel to

tersecting a line from c to

will

the line from

The

c, d, in-

gives the parallelogram for the

be found upon the semi-circle at

c,

to

This being constructed, the shadow

required semicircle.

of point c

c,

c, d,

drawn

where

i,

to luminary passes through

repetition of this process will give

it.

any number

of points required for obtaining the form of shadow.

As

the sections are taken through the spherical or

cylindrical portions of the niche, they

or

semi-ellipses

respectively.

transverse diameters,

the

niche.

perspective,

The

become

semi-circles,

ordinates being the

and the conjugate

the diameter of

The

rules given for the figure in

may

also

oblique perspective,
as in the present

parallel

be applied to niches placed in

with

case,

only

this

difference

the ordinates are

each other, in obhque perspective they

to a point found where the line

c, s,

that,

parallel

will

to

converge

produced, cuts the

vanishing line of the plane of the niche.

LESSON
Plate

A CYLINDER

F,

its

shadow upon a

The

the image of the sun.

vanish to

v. p.

given at

a,

and

i,

b, c,

vertical plane that

and cutting the ground

trace in d, e,

s is

14.

surmounted by an abacus, placed above the

horizontal line, casts a

has

XIV,

sides of the abacus

The plan

v. p. 2.

in the line

of the figure

d; and the vanishing points

for the

shadow of the abacus upon plane receiving shadow,

be found upon the vanishing
V. p. 3,

of

s,

and

V, p.

line of that plane

intersections obtained

is

will

viz.,

by the union

the luminary with the vanishing points of the planes

casting the shadows

v. p.

Continue the line

d,

i,

and

c,

v. g. 2.

of plan until

cuts the

it

edge of the vertical plane on the ground, at g

erect a perpendicular meeting h,

vanishing point of the shadow

a line from

To find

th-e

i,

f,

of this line

downwards, cutting

shadow

produced, in

oi the line e,

it

f,

at k,

it is

i.

at

By

v. p. 3,

the

draw

by a ray from h.

necessary to draw,

SCIOGRAPHY.

32

by
a

V. p.

5,

representing the plane receiving the shadow,

through

line passing

i,

until

intersects

it

e,

produced

f,

inj.

By
will

V. p.

4 draw a

line

from

be the shadow thrown by

shadow
ray from

shadow

line cast

by the edge

e,

h,

line

thrown by the edge

j,

at

e,

The

f.

will

f,

cutting the line from

e,

cutting

j,

k, in

1,

length of the

be determined by a

1,

The

i.

m,

will

be the

other points

of the abacus being obtained by the same process.

ellipses

Ik

The

forming top and base of the cylinder must be

enclosed in squares, these latter require to be projected,

and the former constructed within them.

A tangent to

of the sun's rays at

r,

limits the vertical

cylinder.

The shadow

taking a

number of points

n,

drawn

the plane of cylinder,

cast

by the

to the seat

shadow upon the

line

s, t, is

at discretion, as o,

found by
its

plan at

from which point a ray of light drawn to h, the vanish-

ing point for the sun's rays

the cylinder at

of light from

of the point

drawn from
o.

the ground, intersects

q.

The shadow
vertical line

upon

q,

o, will

where

it is

be obtained upon a
intersected

by a ray

LESSON
Plate

The spectator is between the

and

is

XV.

15.

sun and plane of delineation,

inclined at an angle of 45 with

The cone
larly, casts

is

a right one, and

it.

placed perpendicu-

is

a shadow upon a cylinder, whose axis

lies in

plane of 60, with the plane of delineation.

To

obtain the shadow upon the ground cast by the

end of the
should be

cylinder,

first

the square

b, c, d,

found npon the ground plane

and the points where the

lines,

a,

circle is

cut

enclosing

a'

it,

b' c' d,

by the diagonal

projected to the corresponding lines in the shadow,

give the form required

drawn

to v. p.

from

The commencement

cylinder,

find the
it is

extremities lines

must be

2.

cylinder will be found

To

its

of shadow upon the

by rays of light

side

tangential to

of

it.

shadow thrown by the cone upon the

necessary to project the shadow of the axis

of cone upon the ground

this

ray of light containing the apex.

E

line is

determined by

SCIOGRAPHY.

34

The shadow of cone upon the ground

by drawing tangents

line

i,

upon which points

from

its

in the

cone meeting

in g.

must be drawn

shadow of

shadow may be found

point of contact with the ground at

to

v.

p.

from apex in

in k, a

f,

1,

j,

will give

upon the imaginary plane passing

axis

through cylinder in

intersecting g,

2,

vertical line drawn, cutting ray

the

be obtained

series of vertical planes must be taken through

cylinder,

as h,

to the base of

will

h,

i.

Join

and

shadow of cone upon the gxound meets

n,

points where

this plane,

with

1,

complete the form of shadow upon the plane. This triangle

cut by lines from h,

i,

to v, p. 2, points o, p, q,

shadow upon cylinder are found.

may be

obtained in

this

way

for

Any number
shadow

r,

in

the

of points

required.

LESSON
Plate

The

XVI.
i6.

perspective representation of a sphere in the accom-

panying diagram

is

found to be an eUipse

of the cone of visual rays enveloping

lar to the

not perpendicu-

it is

plane of delineation.

The luminary
is

since the axis

is

before the spectator, and

obtained by constructing the angles

and

a,

its

image

b,

in the

usual way.

In order to delineate the contour of the shadow upon

the surface of the sphere,

it is

necessary to determine the

vanishing points for the plane perpendicular to the sun's

rays.
is

The

angle by which the point for the oblique lines

found must be constructed

and perpendicular

at B,

the angle of the altitude, and that for

ground plane,

at a,

angle of the azimuth, giving

v. p.

parallel to the

The

plane

a, b, c, d,

a, b,

and

c, d,

and perpendicular

to

lines

to the

i.

being perpendicular to the sun's

rays, circumscribes the circle that

determines the outline

of the shadow upon the sphere.

The

line

i,

j,

is

the re-

SCIOGRAPHY.

36
presentative of

measuring

is

upon

the picture plane,

cast

sphere at

its

line tangential to the

point of contact with the ground plane, as

this is cut

by rays from

Lines drawn by

v. p.

i,

1,

and m.

passing through

determined by rays from the angles

plete the square

e,

f,

g, h.

outline required for the

ground.

the

By the vanishing point of the

upon the ground, draw a

is

by the sphere upon the horizontal

found as follows

sun's rays

n,

and

line for obtaining its length.

The shadow
plane

b,

a,

The

a, b,

ellipse

o,

and

and

n,

c, d,

inscribed

and

comis

the

shadow of the sphere upon the

LESSON

XVII.

Plate

17.

In the projection of shadows by

one

artificial light

situation of the luminous point

The

sented before the spectator.

it

is

there

examples

A representation
of a room, lighted
a, b, c,

be

%vill

theory being identical

by the luminary

cast

an

by the sun are found,

principle

is

7 of the interior

over the square block,

l,

the edges of which throw shadows

The same fundamental

little

sufficient.

given in plate

is

but

always repre-

with that of sun shadows, and the practice having but

variation, few

is

upon the ground.

by which shadows

applicable to those cast by

the union of the luminary, the van-

artificial light, viz.,

ishing point of the plane receiving the shadow, with the

trace of plane throwing the shadow.

The

shelves

on the

the centre of vision.

upon plane
tion

To

d, e, the

l, c,

find vanishing point for the

luminary

upon the ground

of vision, by

right of the spectator vanish to

in

and

l',

l,

and

its

shadows

vertical intersec-

must be joined with the centre

l', c.

The

plane, d,

e,

being pro-

SCIOGRAPHY.

38

duced from

f,

until

intersects

it

l', c,

in f, a vertical line

must be drawn to

line l, c,

dows upon

The shadow thrown by

d, e.

upon the ground

from

will

this will give v. p. 2, for sha-

be obtained by a

line

comer of

the

l' until it intersects in g,

from

draw a

by ray of

top corner
until

is

it

the

room

that

light

from the

from h, draw a line by the centre of vision

intersected

the case, at

cut

it is

being drawn

this intersection

vanishes to the centre of vision

vertical line until

edge

vertical

by a ray from the

further

comer of

a perpendicular drawn downwards com-

pletes this shadow.

Again, the plank m,

points for shadows thrown

Lines
v. p. 3,

a, l,

and

c, l',

vanishes to a

n,

by

it

shadow thrown by the

lower end of plank upon the ground.

room

until

it

meets

in

i,

a, l, in v: p. i

Where

this will

from the bottom of the door to

l',

cuts A, L

this will

in

from

upon

its

the wall to the

left

cuts

be the vanishing

this point

line

vanishing point,

draw a

be vanishing point

of the shadow upon door.

c, l',

a vertical must be drawn

point for shadow of plank upon the wall.

tersects c,

drawn
B, in-

vertical until

it

4, for the portion

The remainder

of this shadow

of the spectator, will vanish to the

vanishing point of the plank, they being parallel planes.

(Cor. 2.)

until they intersect, give

the vanishing point for the

horizontal angle of

the vanishing

be found as follows

will

produced

SCIOGRAPHY.

The shadow

by the door

cast

ing L and h with

39
will

vanishing point

its

be found by join-

where

cuts the

b, l',

angle of plane receiving shadow draw a vertical line

intersection with
for the portion of

on

line

from

gives

L, b,

shadow upon

v. p.

j,

4,

The

v. p. 5.

where

side wall

cuts

it

its

vanishing point

must be obtained
in

c, L,

v. p.

being the vanishing point of the plane upon which the

shadow

is

The

thrown.

square plane suspended from the ceiling throws

a shadow upon the

a plane,

upon

s,

and end

this,

being cut by a ray from the corner

The shadows

parallel planes

same

direction.

by

the

Thus

k', o',

o,

gives the

o'.

cast

upon

and

Draw

a line through the corner of the plane marked

point in the shadow,

vision,

First,

found upon the

7,

immediately above the luminary.

surface,
V. p. 7,

walls.

projected from below must be obtained

the ceiling, and vanishing point

same
from

p, q, r,

ceiling, the side,

8,

shadow

o', u',

drawn

Vanishing point

lines k, o,

will

and

o, u, are

thrown

lines, therefore, will

take

vanish to the centre of

horizontally.

found upon the side wall,

lies in

plane parallel to the plane of delineation containing the

luminary, and

upon the same

level with

it.

This

will

be

the vanishing point for the remainder of the shadow-line

thrown by

k, o,

upon the plane having

its

vanishing point

SCIOGRAPHY.

40

in the centre of vision

k",

is

detennined by a ray con-

taining k.

The

shadow-line thrown by

k,

has

t,

its

vanishing

point in the centre of vision.

Again, to obtain the vanishing point for the portions of

shadow casfby lines

upon plane

receiving the

the ground line in

i,

and

o, u,

k,

shadow

draw a

t,

v. p. 9,

where

must be found
c,

vertical line until

l',

it

intersects

meets

c', l.

By

V. p. 9,

continue the shadow-lines from the angles of

the

room

these cut

a horizontal

The

line,

by rays containing

t,

u,

and united by

completes the shadow.

student will not

fail

to see from the foregoing

problems that as an invarible rule the vanishing point for

a shadow must be found upon the trace of the plane
ceiving the shadow

and the intersection upon

re-

this trace,

obtained by the ray of light passing from the luminary to

the vanishing point of line throwing the shadow, will be
the shadow's vanishing point.

hending

And

this essential rule, viz., the

quirements,

little difficulty will

thoroughly compre-

union of these three

be experienced.

re-

v-

LESSON
Plate

XVIII.
i8.

REFLECTIONS.
The

science bearing

upon

reflections occupies

portant place in relation to the imitative

associated as

it

is

arts,

an im-

intimately

with perspective and sciography, and

with them forming a link in the chain of connection be-

tween science and

art.

Wlaile the painter can scarcely be expected always

to

work out every appearance of nature with mathematical

precision, the laws that govern such appearance should

at least

more

be thoroughly apprehended by him, that he may

closely imitate nature in all her diversities,

and by

the application of her laws be able to test the correctness

of his work.

Light

is

diffused

around us by the

refractive

power

of the atmosphere, and therefore objects are quite visible

though the rays of the sun do not

The atmosphere being

them.

rays of the sun

stiike directly

upon

thus a vehicle of light, the

must be regarded as

travelling through

immense regions of darkness before they reach our atmosF

SCIOGRAPHY.

42

become

phere, where they

diffused into that universal soft

which we observe around

light

us.

But besides being diffused by a pure atmospheric

medium,

light is greatly

enhanced

in brillianay

by

reflec-

tion.

on the surface of our planet were to

If all the objects

be black, which

the negation of

is

would be absorbed, or

light

rays which

fell

at least return

upon them, and we

sun shone, possess much

less

Nature has avoided

calamity,

this

colour, the sun's

all

no part of the

should, even while the

now

hght than we

and by producing

varieties of colours in objects, the sun's rays

upon them

are less or

the general mass of

more

light.

enjoy.

reflected or

which

all
fall

thrown back into

We then understand that every

object

we

travel

from the object to our eye as soon as we bend our

upon

vision

more

see reflect rays of light,

Inasmuch, however, as a thousand or

it.

individuals

instant of time,
points,

and

fall

and that these rays

may

it is

see the same object at the same

evident that the rays proceed at

upon eyes

If the object

all

at every variety of angle.

be clean or polished

in

its

surface

it

will

possess the power of representing the image of any object

within reach of

its rays.

Thus the

surface of a

smooth

lake will represent the image of the sky above, or the

neighbouring

For

hills,

or of any object passing on

instance, a ray of light darting

its

surface.

downwards

in

an

SCIOGRAPHY.

43

exactly perpendicular direction to the surface of the lake

will

be

thro^v^l

back

in the exact path

descent, without

in its

any deviation.

descends in an oblique manner

it

will

former instance, to the place whence

reflected at

The

it.

flecting surface

angle

is

made by

same perpendicular
and they are both,
each other.

not return, as in the

it

came, but
at

it

be

des-

the incidental ray with a peris

the angle of inci-

reflected ray with the

we have

This being the

fact,

application

observed, exactly equal to

we have

afforded us a

by which, when once the

angle of incidence, or that at which the ray

is

will

which

line is called the angle of reflection

as

method of universal

body,

it

called the reflected ray.

and the angle made by the

however,

the ray returned from the re-

pendicular to the reflecting surface

dence

traversed

it

ray striking the reflecting surface

called the incidental ray

The

If,

an angle exactly equal to that

cended upon
is

which

found, that of reflection

is

falls

upon a

easily obtained.

This holds true whatever form the reflecting surface

takes

of rays

plane, concave, or convex,

may fall upon

and whatever number

it.

In the case of standing directly in front of a mirror

the image

is

necessarily before us, for the rays proceeding

from our eye to the mirror are sent back from the surface
without any angle of incidence.

when we stand

The

so far at a side that

case

is

otherwise

we cannot

see our-

SCIOGRAPHY.

44

selves in the glass, though

person equally

far off

we can

see the image of another

on the opposite

Two

side.

persons

so situated will see each other though they cannot see

themselves, because the line of rays from the

striking

on the

glass

form an angle of

off in the direction of the

first

reflection,

person

and dart

second person, while the rays

from the second person are similarly reflected towards the

first.

The

may be more

principle of reflection

plained as follows

We suppose

(fig. 2,

plate 18) a, a, to

be the surface of a plane mirror, the arrow

placed in front of

it,

and

f,

minutely ex-

b, c,

any object

the eye of an observer.

Of the

rays which shoot in a rectilinear direction from the points,

B, c,

of the object, and are reflected from the mirror, those

which enter the eye are few

flected

number, and must be

in

from portions, d and

re-

of the mirror, so situated

e,

with reference to the eye and the object that the angle of
incidence of the rays which

fall

on these portions must be

equal to the angles of reflection of those which enter the

eye, at

f.

For instance, the ray

direction d,

f.

f.

be continued backwards they

will

will

reflected in the

In the same manner the ray

reflected in the du-ection e,

whence they

b, d, is

c, e, will

If the rays f, d,
will

meet

and

This image,

behind the mirror as the object,

b, c, is

f, e,

at points b, &c.,

appear to have come to the eye

be the reflected image.

be

b, c,

b, c, is as far

before

it,

and

is

SCIOGRAPHY.
in the
will

same

be perpendicular

in the

same spot ;

its

If

we

join the

the lines

B, b, c, c,

to the mirror, a, a,

and consequently-

In every position of the eye the image

parallel.

and

position.

45

absolute size

its

apparent size

is

also the

distances from the eye.

is

seen

is

always the same,

same when seen

If the object,

b, c, is

at equal

an

indi-

vidual surveying himself in the mirror he will see his perfect image, as if at b, c,

laws of perspective.

diminished in accordance with the

'

Let us apply the principle here obtained to plate

i8,

representing a series of arches, et cetera, with their reflection

A,

upon a
B, is

stream.

an edge view of the plane of delineation;

D, E, the picture line,

The

figures

and

also the line of the water.

to the right of the drawing are simply

isometrical elevations

and plans of the objects represented

in the perspective drawing, as

that drawing,

viewed at right angles to

and are placed from the

line a, b, equal to

the distance of the figures from the picture plane in the

perspective representation.
its

Thus

a,

coincidee with

f',

equal to

a',

in

perspective representation.

Construct on

a, b,

the angle

f,

i,

e,

angle the line of the arches makes with the plane of

lineation.

Upon

the line so found construct at

semi-circular arch,

its

c,

the
d'e-

d, the

geometrical dimensions, also the

SCIOGRAPHY.

46
isometric elevation

and- the inverted elevation at

d',

c',

c", d".

The
its

plane in which the arches

lie

vanishes to

v. p. i

inverted image also has the same point of convergence.

The

parallelogram

first

arch, indicated

representative of

are obtained,

is

e,

g, h,

f,

enclosing the reflection of the

below the picture

the other reflections,

found

as. follows

line, serves as

the

and from which they

From

c",

draw a

line

to the centre of vision, cutting the picture plane, a, b, in

i,

from

i,

draw a horizontal

line until

from the side of the arch in

above process

g.

it

meets the vertical

repetition of the

will enable the pupil to find the

remaining

points in the reflection.

The boat and plank

From

tive.
j',

k', r,

may be

are placed in parallel perspec-

the elevations

j,

k,

1,

and inverted

elevations,

points in the reflections, as in the previous figure,

found.

Lines
clination

g, h,

and

and the

i,

j,

represent, respectively, the in-

altitude of the sun throwing the

shadows

in this drawing.

Corollary

i.

Reflections

on horizontal surfaces

have the same vanishing points as the objects

Corollary

2.

The angle of incidence

to the angle of reflection.

c',

m,

n, is

equal to n, m,

Thus
c',

is

will

reflected.

always equal

the angle of incidence,

the angle of reflection.

LESSON XIX.
Plate

Plate

19,

flections

In

shows the same method adopted

upon a

must be drawn
;

for finding re-

a looking glass.

vertical, surface as

this case the

drawings

19.

edge view of the plane of projection

as an

ordinary base line in perspective

in the present figure

it is

marked

a,

a,

b, c,

represent a plane mirror placed at an angle of 45 with

The geometric

the picture plane.

is

obtained from

once

its

elevation d,

see, that the reverse elevation

plan of the figure

e,

The

d',

f ',

pupil will at

must not only be placed

reversely to the original figure, but with

it

must

lie in

planes

at right angles to the reflecting surface, as line g, h,

is

at

v. p.

i,

right angles to c, d.

Because the plane of the mirror vanishes to

the reflection of objects in perspective must be found in

planes at right angles to

v. p.

i, viz., v. p.

2.

Lines as in the previous figure must be drawn to the

centre of vision until they cut a,
tions vertical lines

b,

from which intersec-

must be drawn downwards

until they

SCIOGRAPHY.

meet the corresponding

V. p. 2.

Thus point

i,

lines

drawn from the objects

on the plane of projection,

is

at

its

position in the reflection

i".

It will

be seen the angle of incidence

the same angle as the angle of reflection,

Corollary
lie

and point

in the reverse elevation,

i',

to

3.

1,

Reflections upon plane

j,

j, 1,

makes

k.

surfaces always

in planes at right angles to such surfaces,

the object throwing the reflection.

i',

and contain

LESSON XX
Plate

The

20.

objects in this plate are intended to illustrate the

principles of reflection

The

upon oblique

planes.

figures are placed at angles of 60

plane of delineation, represented by

the
V. p.

and 30 with
v.

p.

i,

and

2.

B. c,

D, E,

is

the oblique plane

tion of the candlestick

is

upon which the

reflec-

required to be found.

This oblique plane makes an angle, a, with the hori-

We

zontal plane.
lie

have seen that reflections must always

in planes perpendicular to the reflecting surface, such

planes containing the object that casts the reflection.

So

that

it is

necessary to find a vanishing point at

oblique plane

right angles to the

downwards from the angle

The

this

must be placed

A.

line b, d, represents the trace of

the oblique surface,

and containing the

continued until
G

it

B, c,

d, e,

axis G,

f.

and
This

a plane upon

at right angles to
trace, B,

d.

it,

must be

cuts the produced axis of the candle-

SCIOGRAPHY.

so
Stick in r.

As

the apparent distance of reflection behind

the plane reflecting surface,

is

always equal to the distance

of the object from the reflecting surface, the angle

must be constructed equal

to the angle f, G,

be measured perspectively equal

fore, F, g, represents

The

to h, g.

f, h, g,

g, h,

must

line, there-

the axis of the object in the reflec-

tion, at right angles to

which the parts must be drawn..

Lines drawn from the candlestick, as

G, g, to

the lower

accidental vanishing point will give the position of points

This principle

in the reflection.

will

apply to oblique

planes of any angle.

Corollary

4.

upon plane

Reflections

surfaces will

always appear to be at every point, equidistant with the

objects casting the reflections to the reflecting surfaces.

PRINTED AT THE "DIRECTORY" OFFICES,

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NORTHGATE STREET, BATH.

ERRATA,
Plate

6,

the letters "

Plate

9,

the letter " r

Plate

9,

the ray of light from b,

e, f,"

"

are omitted.

should be

is

r.

carried too

finish at the highest point of the

should

far, it

shadow upon the

oblique plane.

Page

Page

bottom "k," should be

Lesson 12 bottom
but one omit

Lesson 9

2 1.

27,

k'.

line

V. p.

Page

line

"by

2."

33, line 2, in the place of "

angle of 45 with

it,"

read

and

the

is

inclined at an

sun's ray's lie in a

plane that makes an angle of 45" with the plane

of delineation.

Page

42, line 15

Page

45, line

from the top, for "reflect" read

20 from the top,

reflects.

for " coincidee

"

read

coincides.
Page

47, line 2, omit

Page

22

lines

comma.

and

12

in the

place of

vanishing point of the sun's rays," read

"by

to

r.

the

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