M03 Permeability Controls

Permeability Controls in
Hydrothermal Systems
Module 3
Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems
Contents i
Contents
1.
Why Permeability is Important
2.
Sources of Permeability
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Primary Permeability
Secondary Permeability
Relative Importance of Primary and Secondary Permeability to Fluid Flow
and Mineralisation
Locations and Orientation of Secondary Permeable Zones
Variations in Permeability with Depth
Applications of These Principles in Exploration
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1. Why Permeability is Important

A hydrothermal mineral deposit is a fossil record of fluid-rock interaction. For this to
occur, fluid must pass through the rock. Unless the rock is permeable, little fluid can pass
through and so there can be little mass transfer. Other things being equal, the more fluid
that passes through, the larger and richer can be the mineral deposit formed. Any process
of brecciation also exposes more rock surfaces to fluid-rock interaction, and thus speeds up
the necessary chemical processes. The objective of this section is to identify which are the
most important types of permeability for hydrothermal ore deposition, and hence see how
an understanding of the geometric relations of permeable zones might be used to predict the
localisation of mineralisation.
Porosity: distribution usually random
Cooling joints and autobrecciation

in lava flows: either random or in
sub-horizontal zones
Lithological contacts:
either sub-horizontal or at low to moderate
angles of dip in draped pyroclastics
Diatremes, volcanic vents: sub-vertical
AI37/14.1M
Figure 1:
Primary permeability in volcanic rocks
2. Sources of Permeability
2.1
Primary Permeability
Massive volcanic rocks are the most common host rocks for epithermal and porphyry
deposits. The sources of primary permeability in these rocks are (Figure 1):
Primary pores: These have very little effect on the permeability of the rock as a
whole unless they are well connected. In most rocks they add little to the
permeability. We must distinguish between porosity and permeability. Porosity is
important for fluid storage, but unless it is connected it does not contribute to bulk
permeability. There are exceptional rocks where it does matter, e.g. pumice.
Cooling joints: In lava flows these will form zones of permeability, e.g. Breccias at
the top and bottom of lava flows. These zones of permeability will originally be
sub-horizontal. In plutonic or hypabyssal rocks, they will form zones of
permeability, e.g. around the margins. They are just as likely to be vertical as
horizontal (or anything in between).
Lithological contacts: These zones of permeability will generally originally be subhorizontal, but some air-fall pyroclastics can be draped over pre-existing terrain at
quite steep angles of dip: 20 is not uncommon. In plutonic or hypabyssal rocks, the
contacts are just as likely to be vertical as horizontal (or anything in between.
Volcanic vent structures: These are a special case of autobrecciation. They are
generally sub-vertical.
In volcaniclastics and sediments, the degree of permeability will depend on the grain size
and packing. Tuffs, for example, may be quite permeable or quite impermeable. Such
rocks may also have a large surface area per volume, and hence be prone to alteration.
Large vertical eruptive vents (e.g. diatremes), are a special case of highly permeable
primary channels in volcanic terrains. A good example of where this has permitted
selective mineralisation is the Montana Tunnels deposit in the USA (Sillitoe et al. 1985).
2.2
Secondary Permeability
In the typical island arc setting, the main sources of secondary permeability are (Figure 2):
Fracturing due to dyke injection:

slightly more likely to be in
sub-vertical zones
Thermal cracking: distribution random
Rock dissolution: distribution random
Faulting: more likely to be sub-vertical
Hydrothermal brecciation:
more likely to be sub-vertical
AI36/14.2M
Figure 2:
Secondary permeability in volcanic rocks
Dyke Injection: Permeability due to the mechanical emplacement of a pluton before

the onset of a hydrothermal system can be considered along with primary
permeability as above. Obviously, repeated intrusion of dykes during the lifetime of
a hydrothermal system will also cause secondary permeability due to purely
mechanical effects. But as will be discussed elsewhere, it will have far more
important effects because of its disturbance of the fluid temperatures and hence
pressures. Such events, while important, can be considered infrequent in
comparison to other sources of secondary permeability.
Thermal Cracking: A factor which is important in the near-pluton porphyry

environment, but not so much in the epithermal environment, is fracturing of rocks
by thermal stresses. This may be fracturing of host rocks as they are heated by an
adjacent pluton, or, more significantly, fracturing of the intrusive rock as cool
groundwater encroaches into them. A surprisingly small thermal change can cause
rock to fracture: as little as 75C under favourable circumstances of stress.
Enhancement of permeability in intrusives by thermal fracturing is therefore a
positive feedback mechanism encouraging fluid circulation and cooling of the
pluton. The more cooling, the more fracturing, and the more fracturing, the more
fluid can circulate.
Rock Dissolution: Except in special cases, such as limestones, this is a relatively

minor source of permeability in volcanic terrains. It is however very important for
the formation of oil reservoirs. In contrast, permeability reduction by deposition of
secondary minerals is a very important process in controlling the hydrology of
hydrothermal systems.
Tectonism: Faulting and related fracturing. Both normal and reverse faults can
produce large fracture zones, since lateral stresses are often high. In plate-margin
settings, repeated movement on faults is the norm. Once a fault is created, it is
easier for it to move again that for a new fracture to form in response to
accumulating stress. Slightly misdirected stress will therefore enhance permeability
as open space is created in order to accommodate this. Rejuvenated structures may
therefore be particularly permeable. Conversely permeability can be lowered in
some situations and consistently high permeability cannot be assumed to exist all
along a fault.
"Hydrothermal" Brecciation: This is a particular type of dilatant brecciation,

which will take place when the fluid pressure in a rock exceeds the sum of the
minimum principal stress, plus the tensile strength. But in a fractured rock (which is
often the case in an area of active tectonism), the tensile strength is often almost
zero, and in the arc environment the minimum stress will often be horizontal. Hence
fractures can open at relatively low pressures, nowhere near "lithostatic" (where that
is defined as equivalent to the vertical rock load). Once open, a fracture tends to
extend. This process is called "hydrofracturing". It can result in a "jigsaw" or
"crackle" breccia.
The formation of such a fracture allows fluid to flow much faster than before, since
it short-circuits the hydrological gradient of the fluid. It may reach the point where
clasts are transported along the fracture, producing rounding and the formation of
rock flour. If the pressure difference between the source and the sink becomes great
enough, the fluid may locally change phase, i.e. "boil", "effervesce" or "flash". This
process involves a volume change, and thus very vigorous and rapid fluid
movement. It may therefore cause considerable breakdown of the clasts within a
fracture, creating a large permeable conduit (Figure 3). Flow will continue until the
fracture becomes blocked, or the fluid source is exhausted.
Tectonism and hydrothermal brecciation go hand in glove: one may initiate the other;
the same zones tend to remain as foci for repeated episodes of brecciation of both
types. It is often not clear whether any particular event is strictly tectonic or strictly
hydrothermal. To some extent the distinction is artificial. Tectonic forces create a
state of stress, within which fracturing may be induced as increasing fluid pressures
reduce the effective confining stress, and so movement results.
Stockwork
Polymict breccia
Milled, fluidised breccia:
rounded clasts, much fine
clastic matrix
(Late stage veins)
Rounded clasts,
matrix becoming abundant
Angular clasts, little matrix
Jigsaw or Crackle breccia

Root zone
K:geo\lec\min\99min\mod15\fig2.ppt
Figure 3:
Idealised development of hydrothermal vein and breccias
2.3
Relative Importance of Primary and Secondary Permeability to Fluid Flow and

Mineralisation
Secondary permeability is generally much more important than primary permeability in
forming epigenetic deposits. Occasionally it is the other way around: for example,
consider the high-sulphidation mineralised tuffs at Nansatsu (Figure 4), and possibly some
of the low-sulphidation mineralisation at Toka Tindung (Wake et al. 1996). But in most
cases secondary permeability is more important. There are several reasons for this:
powdery acid leached zone
andesite flows
0m
porous acid leached zone
hydrothermal
explosion
breccia
pyroclastic
rocks
100
silicified milled breccia
quartz
alunite
zone
200
hydrofractured vein stockwork
andesite flows
feeder vein
electrum, pyrite, enargite,

luzonite, bornite
300
kaolinite smectite zone

quartz kaolinite alunite zone
400
K:geo\lec\min\99min\mod15\fig1
Figure 4:
Schematic model, Nansatsu type hot-spring gold deposit
(after Bonham 1989)
Fluid flow is predominantly within major fractures of secondary origin. The

fractures created by secondary processes tend to be larger, and more continuous,
than those created by primary processes. The ability of a fracture to transmit fluid
varies as about the fourth power of the width of the fracture (depending on the
shape). Thus a few big fractures are much more important than many little ones.
With time, hydrothermal mineral deposition blocks primary permeable channels.

Secondary channels keep being rejuvenated, whereas primary ones do not.
2.4
Economic mineral deposits require focussing of the locus of deposition, to

concentrate the minerals to economic grades. This especially applies to minerals of
high value, such as gold. Thus the fact that secondary mineral channels tend to be
the locus of repeated episodes of brecciation means that economic (as opposed to
"background") mineralisation is concentrated in them.
The processes of secondary brecciation take place abruptly. They therefore can
introduce rapid changes to the fluid pressures, and this is the best means of inducing
gold deposition, as we have discussed.
Secondary permeability-creating processes are more likely to produce permeable

channels with a high angle of dip, whereas many primary zones of permeability are
comparatively flat-lying (i.e. effectively stratigraphically controlled) (Figure 2).
Low-angle fractures are not so common in this setting, except perhaps in response to
removal of lithostatic load during the erosional unroofing of plutons. Near-vertical
channels are more effective in connecting zones of different hydraulic pressures, and
hence inducing fluid flow.
Locations and Orientation of Secondary Permeable Zones

Primary zones of permeability, as mentioned, can have any orientation, but are often nearhorizontal. Secondary permeability channels tend to be more nearly vertical. This is
because of the relative stresses in a typical volcanic belt.
In the back-arc situation, stresses will be extensional, and simple gravity faults at angles in
the range 60-75 dip will result, depending on the rock properties. More often in platemargin volcanic belts, forces will have a strong lateral component, and are often
compressional. This means that both the least and greatest principal stresses will be
horizontal. Thus hydrofracturing will result in near-vertical normal fractures. The
fractures created become the pathways for the hydrothermal fluids, thus forming the
typical near-vertical hydrothermal vein deposits (Figure 5b and c).
The situation with both horizontal stresses exceeding vertical (Figure 5a), which is
common at depth in metamorphic zones, is not common at comparatively shallow levels at
tectonic plate boundaries, which is where epithermal and porphyry deposits occur. Thus
low-angle fractures are not so common in this setting, except perhaps in response to
removal of lithostatic load during the erosional unroofing of plutons.
Rupture in response to tectonic stress may be expressed as a series of conjugate shears
with a high angle of dip, or often an en-echelon structure of tension gashes rather than a
single planar fault. This applies over a wide range of scales. The concept of the
extensional or dilational jog has been successfully applied to the localisation of epithermal
deposits. The space created provides a locus for pressure reduction, and so flashing of the
fluid and mineralisation can occur (Figure 6). Recognition of this structural situation also
explains why some vein deposits appear to be "cut-off" by faults, but the "missing"
extension of the veins cannot be located (Figure 7). It is important to distinguish synmineralisation faulting from post-mineralisation faulting.
At a deeper level, the intrusion of magma to form porphyry deposits may be localised
within "pull-apart" structures.
Reverse faulting

Strike-slip faulting
= maximum compressive stress
= mean compressive stress
= minimum compressive stress
Normal faulting
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod14\fig5.ppt
Figure 5:
Initial stress distribution causing faulting: 1 = maximum, 2 =
mean, 1 = minimum (compressive) stress (after Hills 1964)
A: Pre-rupture; uniform fluid pressures
B: Post-rupture; fluid influx into jogs
Arrest
Perturbation
Figure 6: Rupture arrest at dilational fault jogs

Rupture perturbation and arrest (from Sibson 1985, 1987)
10
80
EAST
FAULT
70
80
70
70
WEST
FAULT
Mine Plan, #9 Level, 178m below sea level

0
300
k:geo\lec\min\99min\mod15\fig7
Figure 7:
Interpretation of the Martha Mine, Waihi, as a strike-slip
dilational fault jog (after Wellman 1954, Sibson 1987)
2.5
Variations in Permeability with Depth

The vertical zone at which economic epithermal mineralisation may occur is controlled to a
large extent by the chemistry of the fluids, and the nature of the boiling-point for depth
curve for water, while porphyry deposits are localised near to their intrusive parent by
temperature constraints. But there are some general mechanical considerations that also
play a role, and mean that some levels in a hydrothermal system are more likely to have
extensive permeable zones than others. Let us look at the mechanics of a typical
hydrothermal system from the bottom up (Figure 8).
200C
330C
Note:
vertical scale variable,
highly dependent on
geological setting
600C
11
Near surface zone:

permeability reduced by silica sealing and
argillic alteration. May be locally enhanced
by hydrothermal eruptions
Main productive reservoir:
permeability enhanced by tectonic and
hydrothermal fracturing, minor reduction
by mineral deposition.
Convective / conductive transition zone:

permeability reduced by lack of fracturing
above brittle/ ductile transition, near-critical
mineral deposition
Near pluton environment:

permeability temporarily enhanced
by second boiling
Figure 8:
Vertical permeability distribution in hydrothermal systems
Much of the information on permeability comes from drilling for geothermal energy in
active hydrothermal systems. As the technology improved, geothermal wells were drilled
deeper and deeper, into hotter and hotter conditions. Thus the energy output of the wells
became greater. But this process led to diminishing returns. Below a depth of about 2500
m in typical active hydrothermal systems in andesitic terrain, experience in geothermal
drilling has shown that permeabilities are usually not consistently as high as at shallower
levels. This was disappointing to those interested in energy extraction.
Experience has shown that the best wells for energy extraction often penetrate zones in the
temperature range 260 - 300C, rather than higher temperatures. The answer to this
puzzle is to be found in the nature of rock deformation at these temperatures. Above about
320C, typical host rocks will deform sufficiently rapidly that fractures either do not occur,
or become healed within a short time in comparison to the rate of stress accumulation due
to tectonic plate movement. Thus major permeability is short-lived.
The same phenomenon is well known to structural geologists working in metamorphic
terrains, who refer to this as the "quartz-feldspar brittle-ductile transition", and set the
temperature limit at about the same level (320-340C). But in metamorphic zones, the
much smaller geothermal gradient means that this transition occurs much deeper: many
12
kilometres, where pressures are also much greater. In hydrothermal systems the transition
zone is much closer to the surface. This is also reflected in the depth limit of small
earthquakes: it is well known that the number of micro-earthquakes drops off below the
transition zone (10-15 km in continental crust). Active hydrothermal systems are often
quite aseismic compared to the surrounding areas.
Another factor causing a decrease in permeability at depth is silica deposition. Late-stage
magmatic and hydrothermal fluids are usually close to saturated with silica, simply
because they are in equilibrium with silica-containing rocks. But the solubility of silica
depends both on the temperatures and the fluid state. Supercritical fluids can contain much
more silica in solution than sub-critical water (Figure 9). Thus if fluid cools from nearmagmatic supercritical temperatures down to subcritical, it becomes silica supersaturated
and quartz is deposited. We cannot put a single figure on the temperature of this process,
since the critical point for water solution is so dependent on the concentration of dissolved
solutes. But at some level around a cooling pluton, there will be a zone where silica tends
to deposit and reduce permeability. This probably helps in keeping separate the nearpluton magmatic fluid and the overlying freely-convecting fluid which is largely of
meteoric origin.
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
100
K:geo\lecture\min\99mins\mod15\fig3.ppt
300
500
700
900
Temperature (C)
Figure 9:
13
Calculated solubilities of quartz in water up to 900C at the

indicated pressures (after Fournier 1985)
14
Permeability within the porphyry environment and the deeper part of the epithermal
environment is therefore short-lived. Permeability can be created by faulting, by
intrusions, by hydrofracturing, or thermal cracking, but it does not remain open
indefinitely.
These effects are accentuated by the properties of water at high temperatures. At high
temperatures water has very low viscosity. In that respect it more resembles a gas than the
fluid we are familiar with, and so can penetrate even tiny fractures readily. But it also has
very low density, so a large volume of fluid moving through the rock is in effect providing a
relatively small mass for chemical reaction and mineralisation. This is not true for the
hyper-saline brines formed in the near-intrusive environment by phase separation on
depressurisation. They are very dense and may in fact be too dense to convect, thus
concentrating porphyry mineralisation near to the intrusive.
Moving up the hydrothermal system, the zone from 300 to 240C, corresponding to
perhaps 1 to 3 kilometres depth, is often found to be very permeable. The rocks are strong
enough that fractures can be formed, cool enough that they do not rapidly heal, and covers
an interval over which there is not a drastic drop in solubility for most volumetrically
significant common hydrothermal minerals. However, because of the fluid properties, this
is below the level at which most epithermal mineralisation occurs.
Although
hydrofracturing is common, the fluid is under too great a pressure for major flashing into
fractures to be common. There are however some notable exceptions to this, in special
cases where some local peculiarity has permitted flashing to extend to a greater depth.
The zone above 1000 m depth, that is to say from a level of 240-260C up to ambient
conditions at the surface, is where vigorous hydrothermal brecciation, in some cases
leading to surficial hydrothermal eruptions, is most probable. It is thus the main zone of
high-grade epithermal deposition. The reason for this is easily seen from the boiling-point
for depth curve: the relative pressure gradient is much greater near to the surface (Figure
10). It is also within this zone that gas can separate from the typical hydrothermal fluid
and accumulate to set up the conditions for triggering hydrothermal eruptions.
This is also the level at which a hydrothermal system in high elevation terrain may become
stratified, with layers of different chemistry developing. In turn this can lead to
permeability reductions due to secondary mineral deposition. So the overall effect is
probably to focus the most important fluid flow in relatively few channels, which once
again is favourable for the localisation of economic mineralisation.
Fluid mixing can be an important additional mineralising process at this level also.
15
Temperature (C)
100
0
150
200
250
300
350
200
Depth (m)
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
BPD.xls
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod1\figbpd2.ppt
Figure 10:
Boiling point for depth curve
2.6
Applications of These Principles in Exploration

We now have a picture of what the target zones for epithermal mineralisation might look
like: at depth they will be steeply-dipping structures, with economic mineralisation
concentrated on a few major channels. At shallower levels they may flare into stockworks,
within which, while individual veins will still be predominantly vertical, the zone as a
whole might be more laterally extensive. But the need for permeability to be constantly
rejuvenated means that the economic zones will be concentrated on major structural
channels. This will especially apply to any lateral outflow zones, simply because the
available fluid is potentially spread over a much wider (radial) area.
16
Thus structural studies should be an important part of the exploration programme. These
should include detailed fracture and vein mapping in the field, in the course of detailed
prospecting, trenching and so on. But it is also important to consider structures on the
larger scale. This may be best done using aerial photography or satellite imagery,
especially in steep or jungle-covered terrain. Side-scanning radar imagery can also be very
useful, especially in areas without good topographic maps. It is better than aerial
photography for revealing the fine detail of topography in heavily vegetated areas. It is
best to use the different types of image in combination.
Using these techniques it may be possible to identify target structural zones which can then
be investigated in detail. It is important to appreciate the scale of such structures.
Experience in active systems shows that major faults can often be traced over 1 to 5 km,
and sometimes three times as far. Stratigraphic mapping should not be neglected, as
significant stratigraphic dislocation may imply the presence of a major fault. But in
volcanic areas, erection of a sufficiently detailed and meaningful stratigraphy may be
impossible. Fluid inclusion and alteration studies can reveal faulting on a smaller scale.
It is equally important to avoid mapping spurious "faults". Particularly where there is little
exposure and the geologist finds it difficult to explain the observed distribution of
mineralisation, there can be a tendency to assign all observable surface lineations to faults.
Without direct evidence such as sheared or slickensided outcrops, inconsistent
juxtaposition of lithologies, or strong lineation of fossil thermal activity and/or alteration, a
fault should only be inferred if other explanations can be discounted. Lineations that can
be mistaken for faults include:
Bedding planes or foliation.
Radial drainage off conical volcanoes (Figures 11, 12)
Raised coastal or alluvial terraces.
Junctions between lava flows or lahar surfaces.
Similar comments apply to the interpretation of ring-faults and calderas. Such structures
do occur in volcanic areas and in some case can constitute significant permeable targets for
exploration. But not all sub-circular structures are of this origin. Other explanations
include slump amphitheatres, lithological contacts at the margins of a volcanic ring-plain
(Figure 13), eroded structural domes and large-scale karst features.
17
contact
Lithostratigraphic
Adjacent streams
(a)
Examples of lineations without structural significance

developed during erosion of conical volcanoes
Lavas
and
lahars
(b)
Apparent lineation created by sub-parallel

dendritic drainage on outflow fan.
Figure 11:
Development of lineations during geomorphic development
18
(a) Initial drainage
(b) Following capture
Figure 12:
Stream piracy producing non-structural lineation
19
(a) Initial cone

Drainage diverted
(b) Later flows divert drainage

Concentric arcuate streams
(c) Development of concentric arcuate streams

K:geo\lec\min\99min\mod15\fig11.ppt
Figure 13:
Development of non-structural arcuate drainage

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Permeability Controls in

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Why Permeability is Important

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

1. Why Permeability is Important

Porosity: distribution usually random

Cooling joints and autobrecciation

Diatremes, volcanic vents: sub-vertical

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Fracturing due to dyke injection:

Thermal cracking: distribution random

Rock dissolution: distribution random

Faulting: more likely to be sub-vertical

Dyke Injection: Permeability due to the mechanical emplacement of a pluton before

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Thermal Cracking: A factor which is important in the near-pluton porphyry

Rock Dissolution: Except in special cases, such as limestones, this is a relatively

"Hydrothermal" Brecciation: This is a particular type of dilatant brecciation,

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Jigsaw or Crackle breccia

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Relative Importance of Primary and Secondary Permeability to Fluid Flow and

porous acid leached zone

hydrofractured vein stockwork

electrum, pyrite, enargite,

kaolinite smectite zone

Fluid flow is predominantly within major fractures of secondary origin. The

With time, hydrothermal mineral deposition blocks primary permeable channels.

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Economic mineral deposits require focussing of the locus of deposition, to

Secondary permeability-creating processes are more likely to produce permeable

Locations and Orientation of Secondary Permeable Zones

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

= maximum compressive stress

= mean compressive stress

= minimum compressive stress

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

A: Pre-rupture; uniform fluid pressures

B: Post-rupture; fluid influx into jogs

Figure 6: Rupture arrest at dilational fault jogs

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Mine Plan, #9 Level, 178m below sea level

Variations in Permeability with Depth

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Near surface zone:

Convective / conductive transition zone:

Near pluton environment:

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Calculated solubilities of quartz in water up to 900C at the

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Applications of These Principles in Exploration

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Bedding planes or foliation.

Radial drainage off conical volcanoes (Figures 11, 12)

Raised coastal or alluvial terraces.

Junctions between lava flows or lahar surfaces.

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

Examples of lineations without structural significance

Apparent lineation created by sub-parallel

Permeability Controls in Hydrothermal Systems

(a) Initial drainage