Fracture Mechanical

MATE 370 Mechanical Behavior of Solids
Instructor:
Dr. Mark R. VanLandingham (mrv25@drexel.edu)
Chief, Multifunctional Materials Branch, U. S. Army Research Laboratory
Adjunct Professor, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Drexel University
Course Meets: 6:00-9:00 pm Wednesdays, CAT 76
Office Hours: 2:00-4:00 pm Wednesdays, CAT 479 (G. R. Palmese)
Textbook:
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation,
Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13186312-6. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Course covers Chapters 5-7, 12-13, 15 + some additional material
Mechanical behavior of solids is the study of deformation and

fracture of materials.
The topics of Chapters 1-4 are covered in detail in other courses,
such as ENGR 220 and MATE 221. We will not cover them in
detail in this course. They may be useful for reference.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Gives an overall view of types of material failure by
deformation or fracture.
Elastic deformation
Plastic deformation
Creep deformation
Brittle fracture
Ductile fracture
Fatigue Fracture
Also discusses how mechanical behavior relates to:
Design
New technology
Economic costs
Chapter 2 - Structure and Deformation in Materials
Summarizes chemical bonding and atomic arrangement in
solids.
Explains the physical cause of elastic, plastic, and creep
deformation.
Chapter 3 - A Survey of Engineering Materials

Classifies engineering materials as:
metals
polymers
ceramics and glasses
composites
Discusses the characteristics of each group and gives
subgroups and examples for each.
Explains naming systems for materials.
Chapter 4 - Mechanical Testing: Tension Test and Other
Basic Tests
Covers materials tests in:
tension
compression
hardness
notch impact
bending or torsion
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition,
by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Components of engineered systems often need to bear
mechanical loads
General classes of materials
Metals and alloys

Ceramics and glasses
Polymers
Composites
Engineers need design rules and a clear understanding

of the mechanisms of deformation
Understand the appropriate continuum mechanics
Understand the underlying physical mechanisms
Introduction
mechanical loads
Fig. 2.1
Introduction
mechanical loads
Metals and alloys

Ceramics and glasses
Polymers
Composites
Engineers need design rules and a clear understanding

of the mechanisms of deformation
Understand the appropriate continuum mechanics
Understand the underlying physical mechanisms
Strength of Materials Approach
Principles of elasticity and plasticity are used to predict material

response
Deals with relationships between external forces, internal forces and
deformation
Engineering design largely based on this approach
Treats the material like a black box

Generally neglects microstructure of the material
Can break down when nano/microscale structure is introduced
Typically minimizes the number of parameters needed to predict

mechanical response
Basic assumptions include
Solid is in static equilibrium (Fi = 0, Mi = 0)

Solid is continuous
Solid is homogeneous
Solid is isotropic
In this course, we will generally follow this approach but with some
comments regarding the physical mechanisms at the microstructural to
atomic levels as appropriate
When Exposed To External Forces
Materials can deform
Elastic
Plastic
Time Independent
Viscoelastic
Viscoplastic
Time Dependent
Materials can fracture
Static Loading
Fatigue
After Fig. 1.1
Brittle
Ductile
Environmental
Creep rupture
High cycle
Low cycle
Fatigue crack growth
Corrosion fatigue
What Constitutes Failure?

Anything that causes the component to lose its
structural tolerance or function
Plastic (or viscoplastic) deformation
Component changes shape during service
Excessive elastic (or viscoelastic) deformation

Fracture cracking, separation or fragmentation of solid
Brittle component fractures with little to no plastic deformation
Ductile component fractures after significant plastic
deformation
Some Additional Terminology
Surface or contact forces

Friction, indentation, scratching, etc.
Volume forces act over the entire body

Static forces do not vary with time
Quasi-static forces vary slowly with time
Dynamic forces vary with time
Steady state forces maintain the same characteristics
(frequency, amplitude) over a long time
Transient forces change character with time
Review of Simple Stress-Strain

Relationships
Why Stress? Why Strain?

If we apply a force, P, and measure a change in length, L
e s
P applied force
initial area
A0
e e
P1
P2
P1
L1
L
A1
P2
A2
Li L0 L change in length
initial length
L0
L0
L2
P1
P1
P2
P2
applied force
P
t
e e 1
Ai instantane ous area
i
L
L
change in length
dL
t
ln i ln e 1
Li instantane ous length L0 L
L0
Modes of Deformation Axial Loading

Tension
Compression
x E x
Fig. 4.9
Modes of Deformation Flexure

3-Point Bending
4-Point Bending
Area moments of inertia
Advantages of 4-point bending include

The material over the inner span is subjected to a uniform stress state with
shear stress = 0
A larger volume of material is tested and materials flaws are more likely to
reside in the region of maximum stress
Modes of Deformation Shear

Shear
Torsion
xy G xy
Shear stresses act to change shape
Shear strains are a measure of that distortion
Normal stresses act to change volume
Review of Elasticity
Origins of Elasticity
Elasticity is extremely important because

engineering design is done in the elastic region
Elasticity is derived from atomic bonding forces
originating from long range attractive forces which
draw atoms together until short range repulsive
forces become large enough to balance them out
Elastic properties are an aggregate effect of
individual deformations of interatomic bonds
P = 0 for r = r0; for small r0, P ~ r - r0
For N bonds / unit area = NS(r - r0)
NS r r0
N = 1 / r02
E
r
r
0
0
= (r - r0) / r0
B
rn
P
Ua
A
rm
Stiffness, S = dP / dr P / (r - r0)
Ur
Force P dU
S
r0
Elastic properties are largely insensitive to

microstructure
Ultrasound (elastic waves) for measuring E, G
Velocities of longitudinal and shear waves, Vl and Vs
Vl
Vs
dr
Poissons Ratio
Application of a tensile (compressive) stress in the xdirection causes contraction (expansion) in the y- and zdirections (Poisson effect)
lateral strain
y z
Poisson' s Ratio
x
x
longitudinal strain
Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.13
Elastic strain energy and work

Work to deform a body elastically is stored as
elastic strain energy. It is recovered when the
applied forces are released.
Recall from thermodynamics: dU Q W TdS PdV
During elastic deformation, the amount of heat
generated is negligible
Thus the work done on the body is converted into
internal energy and is fully recovered upon unloading.
Strain energy is proportional to the area under the

stress-strain curve
dU
Fd
x A x dx 1 2 x x Adx
Adx = deformed volume

Strain energy density = the elastic strain
energy per unit volume
U 1
0
x x
Review of Selected Topics In

Mechanics of Materials
Appendix A
A.2
A.3
A.4
A.5
Basic Formulas for Stresses and Deflections

Properties of Areas
Shear, Moments and Deflections in Beams
Stresses in Pressure Vessels, Tubes, and Discs
Basic Formulas for Stresses and

Deflections
Fig. A.1
Tc
c
J
Fig. A.1
Properties of Areas
Fig. A.2
(c) Approximations ( ) for tubes within 1% for t / r1 < 0.2 , and 5% for t / r1 < 0.6
Fig. A.2
Stresses in Pressure Vessels, Tubes, and

Discs
Fig. A.6
xt
Stress
t
75
25
10
20
30
-25
40
50
r
p
-75
r1
r2
Fig. A.6
Fig. A.7
(a) Approximations, within 5% for t / r1 < 0.1 , and 10% for t / r1 < 0.2
(b) Approximations, within 5% for t / r1 < 0.3 , and 10% for t / r1 < 0.45
Stress
pr1
t
75
pr1
2t
25
10
20
30
40
50
-25
-75
r1
r2
Approximations, within 5% for t / r1 < 0.1 , and 10% for t / r1 < 0.25
Fig. A.8
Time for a Break!
Models of Deformation Behavior

Chapter 5
Section 5.2
Fig. 5.1
Fig. 5.3
Fig. 5.3 contd.

Creep
recovery
Fig. 5.5
Relaxation
relaxation
Fig. 5.6
3-D Stress-Strain Relationships

Chapter 5, sections 5.3 and 5.4
Chapter 6
State of Stress
Most engineering systems / materials undergo multiaxial
loading
Varying combinations of normal and shear stresses
Consider an arbitrary solid object that has a series of

external forces applied to it
Assume that the object remains in static equilibrium
Forces applied on the exterior of the solid are balanced by internal
forces that keep the object in equilibrium (i.e., keep it from moving or
changing shape)
Define a planar area that passes through

the point and establish an orthogonal 3-D
coordinate system passing through the
point
1 axis is the normal to the plane and the other
2 axes lie within the plane
Sum forces such that the resultant force F

on the point keeps the body from moving
State of Stress cont.

The resultant force, F, can be resolved into normal, Fn, and shear, Fs,
components relative to the plane and our orthogonal coordinate
system
Components of force can then be converted into components of stress
F
Stress at Point O lim
A 0 A
ij
1st subscript corresponds to the plane upon which the stress acts
2nd subscript corresponds to the direction in which the stress is pointed
Thus, relative to any plane, the state of stress at any point can be
defined by one normal stress and two shear stresses corresponding
to an orthogonal coordinate system
2-D Stresses and Strains
The strains resulting from

this stress state must be the
sum of the strains associated
with loading along each
individual axis
3-D or Generalized Hookes Law

Relative to any plane, the state of stress at any point can be defined
by one normal stress and two shear stresses
The normal and shear components correspond to an orthogonal
coordinate system
Fig. 5.9
xy
xy
G
yz
yz
G
zx
zx
G
Brief Introduction to 2-D Stress

Transformation
Plane Stress: z = yz = zx = 0
The stress (and strain) state depends on the

area of interest and the direction of loading
relative to that area
Consider a state of pure shear
Fig. 6.2
State of shear stress can be equivalently

represented by normal stresses on planes
rotated by 45
Fig. 6.3
Fig. 4.41
E
G
21
x y
x y
cos 2 xy sin 2
2
x y
sin 2 xy cos 2
2
Volumetric Strain and Hydrostatic Stress

Recall that normal strains cause volume changes
while shear stresses cause changes in shape
For a rectangular solid (V=LWH):
dL
L
dW
W
dH
H
Change in volume relative to original volume is the

dV dL dW dH
volumetric strain or dilatation, v

= 0.5 causes v = 0
1 2
x y z
E
Material is incompressible
Average normal stress = hydrostatic stress, h

h
x y z
3
31 2
h
E
Bulk Modulus K
h
E
v 31 2
Compressibility B
1
K
y z
Summary of Elastic Constants for

Isotropic Materials
Thermal Stresses and Strains

Most engineering materials expand when heated and
contract when cooled
Increasing T causes increasing vibrational amplitudes of atoms
Shifts equilibrium spacing of atoms to larger values
The change in volume caused by a change of 1 in

temperature is known as the coefficient of thermal
expansion ()
The strain and corresponding stress caused by temperature
change T is: T T T
T
can be a function of T
For an isotropic material:
1
x y z T
E
1
y y x z T
E
1
z z x y T
E
Fig. E5.3 - Example 5.3
In working problems with Hookes law for normal stresses and strains,
with the material (E, ) known, note that there are 6 variables x, y, z,
x, y, z. With three equations, any three of these can be known, and
then the others can be found. Use all three terms of each equation
unless proven to be zero.
Prob. 5.22
Prob. 5.23
Prob. 5.24
Time for a Break!
Stress-Strain Relationships for

Anisotropic Materials
Chapter 5, sections 5.3 and 5.4
Anisotropy in Materials
Fig. 5.14
Expanded stress-strain relationships

In general, we need to relate every stress component
to every strain component.
Would require 34 = 81 tensor components
ij = ji; ij = ji reduces to 36 components
Re-write Hookes law as:
Cijkl = stiffness tensor

Sijkl = compliance tensor
Contracted Notation and Symmetry
Symmetry about the matrix

diagonal reduces 36
components to 21
Symmetry of crystal system
can provide further
reductions
Summary of Crystal Systems
Cubic Symmetry
Stresses applied along the [010] or [001] axes will

evoke an equivalent elastic response. Thus:
C11 = C22 = C33
Similarly, applied shear stresses will evoke equivalent

responses along the following axes:
C44 = C55 = C66
C12 = C13 = C23
The number of independent elastic constants for a

cubic material is therefore reduced to 3.
Isotropy Considerations
Cubic materials are not necessarily isotropic.

For these systems, anisotropy is defined by the
Zener ratio, A:
When the Zener ratio = 1, the material is isotropic

Number of independent elastic constants = 2
Examples of Stress-Strain Relationships
General case
Isotropic case
Orthotropic Case
3 moduli, EX, EY, EZ, for 3 different directions in the material

In general, these moduli will have different values
3 different shear moduli, GXY, GYZ, GZX, for 3 different planes

Poissons ratio, ij = - j / i
(5.45)
Symmetry of Sij values about the matrix diagonal
ij
Ei
ji
i, j X , Y , Z
i j
(5.46)
3 independent Poissons ratios
9 total independent constants for the special X-Y-Z coordinate

system
Orthotropic case for sheet materials loaded in-plane:

z, yz, zx = 0, and z, yz, zx are of little interest.
Introduction to Composite Materials

Composite microstructure typically involves the matrix
material and the reinforcing material
Matrix acts to hold reinforcement together, protect the
reinforcement and transfer stress to the reinforcement
Reinforcement can be in the form of continuous fibers,
discontinuous fibers (whiskers), woven and non-woven fiber
mats, and particles (micro / nano)
Interface between matrix and reinforcement can be a critical
element
Influences stress transfer
Interphase can develop that has different properties than either
the matrix or the reinforcement
Reinforcement can have different purposes

PMCs: Increase E, yield strength, tensile strength, and creep
resistance
MMCs: Increase yield strength, tensile strength, and creep
resistance
CMCs: Increase fracture toughness
Properties depend on constituent materials and

reinforcement geometry, concentration, distribution, and
orientation
Continuous Reinforcement
Fig. 5.15
Estimating Properties of Unidirectional

Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites
Iso-strain condition stress applied in direction of
reinforcement
1 v v

E 1 v E
c
Iso-stress condition stress applied perpendicular to

E
reinforcement
E
1 v v
c
Poissons ratio
XY Vr r Vm m ,
Shear modulus
Gr Gm
G XY
Vr G m Vm G r
Er
where Gr
,
2(1 r )
r r
YX XY
EY
EX
vr E r
Er
1 vr Em vr Er
m
Em
Gm
2(1 m )
E at any angle, , from fiber direction

4
1 cos sin 4 1
2

XY
E
EX
EY
EX
G XY
2
sin cos 2
Additional Equations for Composite

Properties
A more general rule-of-mixtures based

calculation of composite moduli are the
Halpin-Tsai equations for a random
distribution of short fibers
1 ABv r
Mm
1 B vr
M is any modulus (typically E or G)
M filled
A is a constant accounting for filler geometry

and Poissons ratio of the matrix
B is a constant accounting for the relative
moduli of filler and matrix
depends on maximum packing fraction of
the filler
Halpin-Tsai can also be used to predict /

model the modulus of particulate reinforced
composites
A lot of other models, too
Table applies to Vr = 0.6 only
Matrix properties

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MATE 370 Mechanical Behavior of Solids

Mechanical behavior of solids is the study of deformation and

Chapter 3 - A Survey of Engineering Materials

Metals and alloys

Engineers need design rules and a clear understanding

Metals and alloys

Engineers need design rules and a clear understanding

Strength of Materials Approach

Principles of elasticity and plasticity are used to predict material

Treats the material like a black box

Typically minimizes the number of parameters needed to predict

Basic assumptions include

Solid is in static equilibrium (Fi = 0, Mi = 0)

When Exposed To External Forces

Materials can deform

Materials can fracture

After Fig. 1.1

What Constitutes Failure?

Excessive elastic (or viscoelastic) deformation

Some Additional Terminology

Surface or contact forces

Volume forces act over the entire body

Review of Simple Stress-Strain

Why Stress? Why Strain?

Modes of Deformation Axial Loading

Modes of Deformation Flexure

Area moments of inertia

Advantages of 4-point bending include

Modes of Deformation Shear

Elasticity is extremely important because

Elastic properties are largely insensitive to

Elastic strain energy and work

Strain energy is proportional to the area under the

Adx = deformed volume

Review of Selected Topics In

Basic Formulas for Stresses and Deflections

Basic Formulas for Stresses and

Stresses in Pressure Vessels, Tubes, and

Time for a Break!

Models of Deformation Behavior

Fig. 5.3 contd.

3-D Stress-Strain Relationships

Consider an arbitrary solid object that has a series of

Define a planar area that passes through

Sum forces such that the resultant force F

State of Stress cont.

2-D Stresses and Strains

The strains resulting from

3-D or Generalized Hookes Law

Brief Introduction to 2-D Stress

The stress (and strain) state depends on the

State of shear stress can be equivalently

Volumetric Strain and Hydrostatic Stress

Change in volume relative to original volume is the

Average normal stress = hydrostatic stress, h

Summary of Elastic Constants for

Thermal Stresses and Strains

The change in volume caused by a change of 1 in

For an isotropic material:

Fig. E5.3 - Example 5.3

Time for a Break!

Stress-Strain Relationships for

Expanded stress-strain relationships

Re-write Hookes law as: