Academic Writing
Nur Farah Ain Binti Nordin
930923-12-5794
L3 PISMP June Intake
Abstract
A basic issue in the study of learning concerns about the process whereby learning
occurs and the product of learning (Schunk, 2004).But the most tough issue pertains to
learning theories is how the implication of the learning theories can fulfil the needs of
individual differences and student learning styles in the teaching and learning process.
Many theories argue on how the right way the learning process occurs. As time goes by
and the involvement of technology infiltrate in education context, the learning theories
develop from the behaviourist approach to constructivist approach to cater the needs of
individual differences and student learning styles in classroom context. This paper will
cover on how the learning theories (behaviour approach, cognitive approach and
constructive approach) meet the needs of individual differences and student learning
styles in the teaching and learning process.
1.0 Introduction
As a teacher, one should be aware that every student has different ways of learning.
Some of the disciplines that need to be considered, in terms of their influence on
learning, are questions of personality differences, perceptual factors and the nature of
memory from psychology, environmental influences from the sociological perspective,
together with the concerns of the educational practitioner. Hence, by conducting an
eclectic approach in the classroom, it giving the teacher the chance to address the
individual differences of the students and identify the variety of student learning styles.
The existence of learning theories helps the teacher to understand how their pupils
learn, which allows them to apply it to the teaching and learning process so that the
students can achieve the effective learning result.
2.0 Learning Theories
The study of human learning focuses on how individuals acquire and modify their
knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs and behaviors (Schunk, 2004). Learning represent
an enduring change in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given stimuli, which
results from practice or other experiences. This definition excludes temporary changes
in behavior due to illness, fatigue, or drugs, as well as behaviors reflecting genetic and
maturational factors. Theories of learning differ in how they address critical issues.
Some of the more important issue
influence learning, what the role of memory is, what the role of environment is, how
transfer occur s, which processes are involved in learning, and what the theory
implications for instructions are.
Learning theories often viewed as distinct, but in fact they should complement one
another. Neither is sufficient to ensure good teaching and learning. Theory alone may
not fully capture the importance of experience in learning. Practical experience without
theory is situational specific and does not accord to any guideline in order to organize
knowledge of teaching and learning. Mok Soon Sang (2008) stated on this book,
Learner and Learning Environment, at the present time, learning theories can be
classifies into five main theoretical perspectives, namely: behavioral, cognitive, social,
humanistic and constructivism.
2.1 Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and
behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the
antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and
negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
2.5 Constructivism
A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction,
constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing
knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal
experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these
hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and
construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but
brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation.
3.0 Individual Differences
Individual differences in educational field are strongly related to differences in
intelligence, a major focus of individual-differences research. Intelligence has multiple
meanings. Lurking within this diversity of meaning, however, are important facts that
pose serious explanatory challenges to any approach to psychology that aspires to
encompass the field's most basic learners nature. According to Mok Soon Sang (2008),
human possess a distinct varied feature from born. This is due genetic influence and
environment influence. By the time an individual develops his sensory and cognitive
skills, they will discover they own human potential, an individuals hidden capability and
ability. According to Gardner, individuals possess eight types of intelligences, namely:
a) Logical-mathematical, someone who had the capacity to discern, logical and
numerical patterns.
b) Linguistic, someone who are sensitive to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of
words.
c) Musicals, someone who had the ability to produce and appreciate rhythm.
d) Spatial, someone who had the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world
accurately and able to perform transformation on ones initial perceptions.
e) Bodily-kinesthetics, someone who had the ability to control ones body
movement.
f) Interpersonal, someone who had the capacity to discern and respond
appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other
people.
g) Intrapersonal, someone who had the access to ones own feeling and the ability
to discriminate among them, and draw upon them to guide behavior.
h) Naturalistics, someone who are possess keen observations skills and able to
appreciate the beauty of environment.
4.0 Student Learning Styles
In the context of educational psychologist, learning style is a pupils typical manner to
attend, process and acquire information, knowledge or new experience. (Sang, 2008)
Learning styles are important because they are the education-relevant expressions of
the uniqueness of the individuals (Bruce Joyce, 2009). Individual differences are to be
prized because they are the expressions of the uniqueness of personalities. Individually,
each configuration give us an individuals personal identities, together, they also
exemplify the richness of our cultures.
According to Murnford and Honey (1986), learning style can be categorized into four
main types, namely:
a) Activist, someone who likes to be involved in new experiences and are
enthusiastic about new ideas. They enjoy doing things and tend to act first and
consider the implications afterwards. They are unlikely to prepare for the learning
experience or review their learning afterwards,
b) Reflectivist, someone who like to view the situation from different perspectives.
They like to collect data, review and think carefully before coming to any
conclusions. They enjoy observing others and will listen to their views before
offering their own,
c) Theorist, someone who like to adapt and integrate observations into complex and
logically sound theories. They think problems through step- by-step. They tend to
be perfectionists who like to fit things into a rational scheme,
d) Pragmatist, someone who are eager to try things out. They like concepts that can
be applied to their job. They tend to be impatient with lengthy discussions and
are practical and down to earth.
According to Slavin (1994), learning style can be grouped into two main categories,
namely;
styles. Therefore, the teacher should review the differences of its students and
determine the following approaches in accordance with the level of students, namely;
5.0 The implication of behaviourist approach to individual differences and student
learning style;
According to Pavlovs Classical Conditioning theory, conditioned response can be
fostered through the process of teaching and learning activities. In order to teach
effectively, the teacher ought to relate practical experience (conditioned stimulus) with
the learning task (unconditioned stimulus) so as to produce satisfactory conditioned
learning response through satisfactory learning activities (Sang, 2008). For an individual
who possess intelligence any other intelligence accept logical mathematics, a teacher
should guide the pupils to use the skill discrimination, for example to ascertain the
different specific characteristics of acute triangle and regular triangle. The principle of
discrimination in operant conditioning happen when the pupils would not respond the
same way as the original stimulus when encounters new stimuli that are similar and in
this case, the same shape (two types of triangle). This also can be applied to verbal
learners. Verbal learner preferred text and recorded voice rather than use pictures,
drawing and diagrams. A teacher should guide them using the principle discrimination
in order to teach them how to visualise or learn using demonstrations, pictures, drawing
and diagrams. The principle of readiness also needs to be taken into account. A teacher
should identify which pupils who are lack of logical mathematical intelligence and the
pupils who are verbal learners. Then, the teacher should allocate sufficient exercises for
these pupils to strengthen the application of conditioned stimulus and conditioned
response. For example, give related exercises regularly to solve mathematical
problems. For remedial purpose on the pupils who are lack of mathematical reasoning
intelligence and the verbal learners, use a secondary reinforcement to sustain
conditioned response to avoid process of extinction. For instance, use new, similar
stimulus as conditioned stimulus to motivate pupils for their subsequent learning
activities.
6.0 The implication of cognitive approach to individual differences and student
learning style;
Dependent learners learn by extrinsic motivation and need to be led by the expert.
While, logical-mathematical intelligences learner sometimes unable to applied the same
theory into practice. In a class, a constructivism teacher must use facilitating technique
to guide them to learn. Facilitate them while doing an activity is a good start to imply
constructivism approach. A constructivism teacher should also consider the appropriate
learning materials as well as teaching method should be based on pupils cognitive
development and their level of thinking. From the identification of learning style and
intelligence, for example; dependent learner and logical-mathematical intelligence, a
teacher can imply the stated step to approach the target group.
Learning Theory
: Humanism
Time
: 20 minutes
No. of students
: 24
Level of proficiency
: beginner to medium
Theme
: Mystery
Topic
General objective
Stage/Time
Set Induction
Content
Whole-class relaxation
5 minutes
Material: Mozart Classical
Music
Presentation/Rationale
Rationale
To take off the negative frame from
the students mind.
First
Concert-Active
Concert
Dramatic reading
Material:
1. reading passage entitled
The Closet Creature.
2. Mozart Classical Music
Rationale
Dramatic reading enhance the
students understanding about the text.
Second
Concert-Passiv
e Review
Normal reading
Material:
.
1. reading passage
entitled The Closet
Creature.
2. Baroque Music
Rationale
The change of music and the speed
of reading bring the learners into the
optimum mental state for the effortless
acquisition material.
Practice
1. Whole-class reading
Material:
1. reading passage
entitled The Closet
Creature.
2. Mozart Classical
Music
Rationale
This session work on the reading
and speaking skills of the students.
Rationale
2. Dramatization by the
student
Material:
1. reading passage
entitled The Closet
Creature.
2. Mozart Classical
Music
Material:
1. A table of verbs
past tense
2. Flash cards
ed
2. Teacher pronounce the verbs
on both side and ask the
students whether there are any
differences.
3. Students spot the differences
and they are the t sound and
the d sound.
4. Teacher guide the students for
the correct pronunciation and
explain why it is sounded so.
5. Teacher assess the students
comprehension by conducting
listening game. All they have to
do is to listen and show up the
flash card on which sound does
the verb ended with.
Rationale
Eventhough the verbs ended up
with same ending, -ed, they
dont really pronounced the
same.
Rationale
Irregular verb has its own form of past
tense, which got nothing to do with the
addition of -ed.
Material:
1. A table of past
tense for irregular
verb
2. Ball
Closure
Bibliography
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