Chapter 6:

Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 1

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

F
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic

Chapter 6 - 2

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial

2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

3. Unload
p lanes
still
sheared

plastic

elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

plastic

Chapter 6 - 3

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, :

Shear stress, :

Ft

Area, A

Area, A

Ft
Ft
lb f
N
= 2 or
=
2
in
m
Ao
original area
before loading

Ft

Fs
Fs

Fs
=
Ao

Ft

Stress has units:

N/m2 or lbf/in2

Chapter 6 - 4

Common States of Stress

Simple tension: cable

A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)

F
Ao
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac
M

Fs

Ski lift

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Ao
Fs
Ao

2R

Note:

= M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches

National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
Ao

Note: compressive
structure member
( < 0 here).

Chapter 6 - 6

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)

Bi-axial tension:

Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

>0
z

>0

h<

0
Chapter 6 - 7

Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:

Lateral strain:
/2

Lo

wo

= x/y = tan
90 -

90

wo

L /2

Shear strain:

Lo

Strain is always
dimensionless.

Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 8

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine

extensometer

Typical tensile
specimen

specimen

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)

Chapter 6 - 9

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

=E

F
E
Linearelastic

F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 10

Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :

metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless

> 0.50 density increases

< 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
Chapter 6 - 11

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 12

Other Elastic Properties

M

Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

simple
torsion
test

=G
M

Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:

V
P = -K
Vo

V P
Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials:

E
2(1 )

P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V

3(1 2 )
Chapter 6 - 13

Youngs Moduli: Comparison

Metals
Alloys
1200
10 00
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
10 0
80
60
40

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

C FRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

A FRE(|| fibers)*

Glass -soda

Glass fibers only

G FRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete

109 Pa

GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*

G raphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

C FRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *

Epoxy only

Based on data in Table B2,

Callister 7e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

PP
HDP E
PTF E
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

Chapter 6 - 14

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple tension:

FL o
EA o
F

Simple torsion:

2ML o

Fw o
EA o

r o4 G
M = moment
= angle of twist

/2

Ao

wo
L /2

Lo

Lo
2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all

contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 15

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

engineering stress,

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

engineering strain,
plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 16

Yield Strength,

Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has

occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y

= yield strength

Note: for 2 inch sample

= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain,

p = 0.002

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 17

Yield Strength : Comparison

Metals/
Alloys

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

Composites/
fibers

20 00

200

Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061) a

30
20

10

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

LDPE

Hard to measure,

300

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

10 00

Hard to measure ,

Yield strength,

y (MPa)

Steel (4140) qt

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

Chapter 6 - 18

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.

TS

F = fracture or
ultimate
strength

engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 19

Tensile Strength : Comparison

Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

5000
3000
2000
1000

300
200
100
40
30

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt

A FRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)

Diamond
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Si nitride
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Al oxide
Steel (1020)
ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete

Room Temp. values

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

20

Composites/
fibers

Graphite

wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
A FRE( fiber)

LDPE

10

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B4,

Callister 7e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
Chapter 6 - 20

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:

Lf

%EL

Lo
Lo

x 100

smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

%RA =

Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
Chapter 6 - 21

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,

small toughness (ceramics)

large toughness (metals)
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 22

Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

Ur
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.

1
2

y y

Chapter 6 - 23

Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 24

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force

measure size
of indent after
removing load

e.g.,
10 mm sphere

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

d
easy to machine
steels
file hard

cutting
tools

nitrided
steels

diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 25

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 26

Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 27

True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress

True Strain

F Ai

ln i o

ln 1

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 28

Hardening
An increase in

due to plastic deformation.

large hardening

small hardening

y0

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

T
true stress (F/A)

n
T

hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 29

Variability in Material Properties

Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n

Mean

xn
n

Standard Deviation

xi x
n 1

1
2

where n is the number of data points

Chapter 6 - 30

Design or Safety Factors

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4

y
working

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does

not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
y
working

220,000N
d2 / 4

1045 plain
carbon steel:
y = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

Lo

F = 220,000N
Chapter 6 - 31

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 32

Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)

Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)

Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 33

Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Occurs with plastic deformation

Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic

Chapter 6 - 34

Ductile vs Brittle Failure

Classification:
Fracture
behavior:

Very
Ductile

Moderately
Ductile

Brittle

Large

Moderate

Small

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL
Ductile
fracture is usually
desirable!

Ductile:
warning before
fracture

Brittle:
No
warning
Chapter 6 - 35

Example: Failure of a Pipe

Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

Chapter 6 - 36

Moderately Ductile Failure

Evolution to failure:
necking

Resulting
fracture
surfaces

void
nucleation

void growth
and linkage

shearing
at surface

fracture

50
50mm
mm

(steel)
100 mm
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)

Fracture surface of tire cord wire

loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
Chapter 6 - 37

Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 38

Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate pt at which failure originated

Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 39

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Intragranular

Intergranular
(between grains)

4 mm

304 S. Steel
(metal)

(within grains)
316 S. Steel
(metal)

Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)

Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Defor-mation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.

160 mm

Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)

3 mm

1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

Chapter 6 - 40

Ideal vs Real Materials

Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

TSengineering << TS perfect

carefully produced glass fiber

E/100

typical ceramic

materials

materials

typical strengthened metal

typical polymer

0.1

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...

-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.

Chapter 6 - 41

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Results from crack propagation
Griffith Crack

a
o

1/ 2

Kt

where

= radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 42

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 43

Engineering Fracture Design

Avoid sharp corners!
o
w

max

r,
fillet
radius

Stress Conc. Factor, K t =

max
o

2.5

Adapted from Fig.

8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)

2.0

increasing w/h

1.5

1.0

0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius

r/h

Chapter 6 - 44

Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle

plastic

Energy balance on the crack

Elastic strain energy energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires energy
Chapter 6 - 45

When Does a Crack Propagate?

Crack propagates if above critical stress
i.e.,
or

>

Kt > Kc

2E s
a

1/ 2

where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack
Kc = c/ 0

For ductile => replace s by s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy
Chapter 6 - 46

Fracture Toughness
Metals/
Alloys

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

100

K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )

70
60
50
40
30

C-C (|| fibers) 1

Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys

Based on data in Table B5,

Callister 7e.

20

Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6

10
7
6
5
4

Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

PET
PP

PVC

1
0.7
0.6
0.5

Composites/
fibers

PC

<100>

Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete

PS

Polyester

Composite reinforcement geometry is: f

= fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
p = particles. Addition data as noted
(vol. fraction of reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
(1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.

Glass 6
Chapter 6 - 47

Design Against Crack Growth

Crack growth condition:

K Kc = Y

Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!

--Result 1: Max. flaw size
dictates design stress.
design

Kc
Y amax

--Result 2: Design stress

dictates max. flaw size.
2

Kc

amax

design

amax
fracture
no
fracture

fracture

amax

no
fracture
Chapter 6 - 48

Design Example: Aircraft Wing

Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A
--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa

Use...

Kc
Y amax

Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?

Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.

--Result:

112 MPa

9 mm

c amax

Reducing flaw size pays off!

4 mm

c amax

Answer: ( c )B

168 MPa
Chapter 6 - 49

Loading Rate
Increased loading rate...
-- increases y and TS
-- decreases %EL

TS
y

Why? An increased rate

gives less time for
dislocations to move past
obstacles.

larger
TS

smaller

Chapter 6 - 50

Impact Testing
Impact loading:

(Charpy)

-- severe testing case

-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height

initial height

Chapter 6 - 51

Temperature
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

Impact Energy

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
polymers
Brittle

More Ductile
High strength materials ( y > E/150)

Temperature

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.

Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 6 - 52

Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)

WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,

"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)

Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.

Chapter 6 - 53

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
bearing

bearing

motor

counter

flex coupling
tension on bottom

Stress varies with time.

-- key parameters are S, m, and
frequency

Adapted from Fig. 8.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.18 is
from Materials Science in
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.)

max
m
min

S
time

Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < c.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 6 - 54

Fatigue Design Parameters

Fatigue limit, Sfat:

S = stress amplitude

--no fatigue if S < Sfat

unsafe

case for
steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
10 3

Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero!

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister 7e.

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
unsafe

safe
10 3

case for
Al (typ.)

Adapted from Fig.

8.19(b), Callister 7e.

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 6 - 55

Fatigue Mechanism
Crack grows incrementally

da
dN

typ. 1 to 6

increase in crack length per loading cycle

crack origin

Failed rotating shaft

--crack grew even though

Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as

increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Chapter 6 - 56

Improving Fatigue Life

1. Impose a compressive
surface stress
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)

S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.

Increasing
m

near zero or compressive

moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening

--Method 2: carburizing

shot
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress
concentrators.

bad

C-rich gas

better
Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.

bad

better
Chapter 6 - 57

Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress ( ) vs. time

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.

Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 58

Creep
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary
primary

secondary

elastic

Adapted from Figs. 8.29,

Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 59

Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

s
strain rate
material const.

Strain rate
increases
for higher T,

K2

exp

Qc
RT

activation energy for creep

(material parameter)

applied stress
2 00
10 0

Stress (MPa)
427 C
538

40
20
10

10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate

649

Adapted from
Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
Handbook: Properties
C and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
ed., D. Benjamin
C 9th
(Senior Ed.), American
Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)

1
s (%/1000hr)

Chapter 6 - 60

Creep Failure
Failure:

Estimate rupture time

along grain boundaries.

S-590 Iron, T = 800 C,

g.b. cavities
applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Time to rupture, tr

T ( 20 logt r ) L
function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

temperature

20
10

Stress, ksi

100

= 20 ksi

Adapted from
Fig. 8.32, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.32 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952).)

data for
S-590 Iron
1
12 16 20 24 28
L(10 3 K-log hr)

24x103 K-log hr

T ( 20 logt r ) L
1073K

Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 6 - 61

SUMMARY
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.

Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause

premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.

- for cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as

increases.

- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):

- time to fail decreases as

or T increases.
Chapter 6 - 62