COMMUNICATION

Introduction
Communication is fundamental to human life. It is as important to such weighty human activities
as diplomacy, politics, organizations, leadership, management and team working, as it is to the
more intimate ties that bind an old married couple sitting together on a park bench, or a parent
soothing a child. In many ways it is what makes us human. Without it compassion, co-operation,
understanding and society itself would not be possible. Yet of all the links that bind humans
together, it is often the most poorly understood and it is frequently given the least priority in
human affairs. In recent history, despite rhetoric to the contrary, much of the time it takes a poor
second place to what has recently been called competitive advantage, that drive to win at all
costs that characterizes others simply as rivals to be beaten at all costs but not communicated
with. This has created many of the problems that beset modern organizations both internally and
externally as the scope of those to be beaten grows to include all others in the environment.
Communication is the exchange of ideas, opinions and information through written or spoken
words, symbols or actions.
Communication is an important part of our world today. The ability to communicate
effectively is considered a prized quality. But people in the world are not alike. These
differences, however, can cause problems in sending/receiving messages. Simply these are the
hurdles in the way of communication and anything which blocks the meaning of a
communication is a barrier to communication.
Communication
Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions
through speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender(encoder)
encodes a message and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who
decodes the message and after processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply
using a medium/channel.
Types of Communication
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affect communication. So, there are varieties of types of communication.
Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:
1.

Verbal Communication

2.

Nonverbal Communication

1.

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the the form of communication in which message is transmitted
verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every
communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal
communication remember the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know
what we are saying. But this is not the case. usually people bring their own attitude, perception,
emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.
So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and
think from your receivers point of view. Would he understand the message? How it would sound
on the other side of the table?
Verbal Communication is further divided into:

Oral Communication

Written Communication
Oral Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication,
communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages of Oral communication are:
It brings quick feedback.
In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess
whether he/she should trust whats being said or not.
Disadvantage of oral communication
In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can
be counted as a
Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message
may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email,
letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary &
grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it
is considered core among business skills.
Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types
of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external
environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes,
postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication includes:
Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for later study.
A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages of written communication includes:
Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesnt bring instant feedback.
It take more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and number of
people struggles for writing ability.
2.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that
communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of
voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is
all about the body language of speaker.
Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal
signals reflect the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal
response contradicts verbal communication and hence affects the effectiveness of message.
Nonverbal communication has the following three elements:
Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures
Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate
Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1.

Formal Communication

2.

Informal Communication

1.

Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually
professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.

2.

Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication
channels. Its just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an
organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal
communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. informal
communication is done orally and using gestures.
Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesnt follow authority lines. In
an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.
Components of Communication

1.

Context

2.

Sender/Encoder

3.

Message

4.

Medium

5.

Receiver/Decoder

6.

Feedback
Context

Every message (Oral or written), begins with context. Context is a very broad field that
consists different aspects. One aspect is country, culture and organization. Every organization,
culture and country communicate information in their own way.
Another aspect of context is external stimulus. The sources of external stimulus includes;
meeting, letter, memo, telephone call, fax, note, email and even a casual conversation. This
external stimuli motivates you to respond and this response may be oral or written.
Internal stimuli is another aspect of communication. Internal Stimuli includes; You opinion,
attitude, likes, dis-likes, emotions, experience, education and confidence. These all have
multifaceted influence on the way you communicate you ideas.
A sender can communicate his ideas effectively by considering all aspects of context mentioned
above.
Sender/Encoder
Encoder is the person who sends message. In oral communication the encoder is speaker, and
in written communication writer is the encoder. An encoder uses combination of symbols, words,
graphs and pictures understandable by the receiver, to best convey his message in order to
achieve his desired response.
Message
Message is the information that is exchanged between sender and receiver. The first task is
to decide what you want to communicate and what would be the content of your message; what
are the main points of your message and what other information to include. The central idea of
the message must be clear. While writing the message, encoder should keep in mind all aspects
of
context
and
the
receiver
(How
he
will
interpret
the
message).
Messages can be intentional and unintentional.
Medium
Medium is the channel through which encoder will communicate his message. How the
message gets there. Your medium to send a message, may be print, electronic, or sound. Medium
may be a person as postman. The choice of medium totally depends on the nature of you
message and contextual factors discussed above. Choice of medium is also influence by the
relationship between the sender and receiver.
The oral medium, to convey your message, is effective when your message is urgent, personal or
when immediate feedback is desired. While, when your message is ling, technical and needs to
be documented, then written medium should be preferred that is formal in nature. These

guidelines may change while communicating internationally where complex situations are dealt
orally and communicated in writing later on.
Receiver/Decoder
The person to whom the message is being sent is called receiver/'decoder. Receiver may be a
listener or a reader depending on the choice of medium by sender to transmit the message.
Receiver is also influenced by the context, internal and external stimuli.
Receiver is the person who interprets the message, so higher the chances are of miscommunication because of receivers perception, opinion, attitude and personality. There will be
minor deviation in transmitting the exact idea only if your receiver is educated and have
communication skills.
Feedback
Response or reaction of the receiver, to a message, is called feedback. Feedback may be written
or oral message, an action or simply, silence may also be a feedback to a message.
Feedback is the most important component of communication in business. Communication
is said to be effective only when it receives some feedback. Feedback, actually, completes the
loop of communication.
Barriers to Effective Business Communication
1.

Conventions of meaning

2.

Differences in perception of reality

3.

Values, attitudes and opinions

1.

Conventions of meaning
There are a lot of meanings for a single word. So, it may mislead the reader from the real
meaning. Miscommunication may occur due to the use of Denotations and Connotations.
Denotations
Denotation is the dictionary definition of a word. It means name, object, people or events without
indicating positive or negative qualities. These words dont have clear meanings.
Such words are: Car, Desk, Book, House, etc.
Connotations
A word that separates the meanings of a word from its usual definition is called connotation.

These
have
Such
BMW, BC book, mental house etc.

clear
words

meanings.
are:

So, use of denotations instead of connotations may mislead the reader. Choose connotations &
denotations wisely.
2.

Differences in perception of reality

Because of changing world, everyone has its own concept of reality. Each persons mental filter
is unique. In our daily interactions with others, we make various abstractions, inferences and
evaluations of the world around that may cause problems in the way of communication.
Abstraction
It means selecting some detail and omitting others. It may cause problem in communication. One
must always try to avoid Slanted statements. Thats why news reporters are said to quote the
statement of a person as it is to show it a fact or true statement.
Inferences
It means conclusion on the basis of assumptions. But for some situations inferences proves
fruitful but for some situations it is risky & sometimes dangerous.
Evaluation
It is a persons own perception or opinion towards a certain fact.
So, difference in perception may become a hurdle in communication.

3.

Values, attitudes and opinions

Communication is also affected by the Values, attitudes and opinions of the communicators.
People react favorably when they receive agreeable message. Occasionally people react
according to their attitude towards a situation rather than to the facts.
Closed
Minds
Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. They dont consider facts and maintain their
views. Such person is very hard to communicate with.
Senders
Usually people react more favorably to that communicator who has credibility.

creditability

So, Values, attitudes and opinions may also become hurdles in the way of communication.
Seven Cs of Effective Communication

1.

Correctness

2.

Clarity

3.

Conciseness

4.

Completeness

5.

Consideration

6.

Concreteness

7.

Courtesy

1.

Correctness
At the time of encoding, if the encoder has comprehensive knowledge about the decoder of
message, it makes the communication an ease. The encoder should know the status, knowledge
and educational background of the decoder. Correctness means:

Use the right level of language

Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation

Accuracy in stating facts and figures

Correctness in message helps in building confidence.

2.

Clarity
Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, its easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the
meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder.
Clarity makes comprehension easier.

3.

Conciseness
A concise message saves time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a business
message, can be achieved by avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and to the
point sentences, including relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness
does not mean to loose completeness of message.

Conciseness saves time.

4.

Completeness
By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures. and
when desirable, go for extra details.
Completeness brings the desired response.

5.

Consideration
Consideration demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a message. It
refers to the use of You attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing readers problems,
desires, emotions and his response.
Consideration means understanding of human nature.

6.

Concreteness
Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general leads to concreteness of
the message. Facts and figures being presented in the message should be specif.
Concreteness reinforces confidence.

7.

Courtesy
In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking
about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and
gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy
builds goodwill.
Courtesy strengthen relations.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:
a. Linear model
b. Interactive model

c. Transactional model

Linear Model
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens. Laswells (1948) model was based on the five questions below,
which effectively describe how communication works:

Shannon and Weavers (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding
between the speaker and the listener. Figure 1.3 shows a linear model of communication:

Figure
1.3:
A
linear
model
of
communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth
Interactive Model
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where
speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send
messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or
listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also
listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take

turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in
both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common
fields of experience, or fields which overlap (please refer to Figure 1.4):

Figure
1.4:
An
interactive
model
of
communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth

Transactional Model
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.
The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously
sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i.

Transactional means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing

process. You are changing, the people with whom you arecommunicatingare changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.

ii.

In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.

iii.

Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

Figure 1.5 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account noise or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate
that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also
takes into account changes that happen in the communicators fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.

Figure
1.5:
A
transactional
model
of
communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.

Transmission models - criticism

The Shannon and Weaver and Lasswell model are typical of so-called transmission
models of communication. These two models also typically underlie many others in the
American tradition of research, showing Source-Message/Channel-Receiver as the basic process
of communication. In such models, communication is reduced to a question of transmitting
information.
Although transmission models have been highly influential in the study of human
communication, it can be argued that, although Shannon's and Weaver's work was very fertile in
fields such as information theory and cybernetics, it may actually be misleading in the study of
human communication.

Some criticisms which could be made of such models are:

The conduit metaphor
Their model presents us with what has been called the 'conduit metaphor' of
communication (Reddy (1979) The source puts ideas into words and sends the words to the
receiver, who therefore receives the ideas. The whole notion of 'sending' and 'receiving' may be
misleading, since, after all, once I've 'sent' a message, I still have it. The underlying metaphor is
of putting objects into a container and sending them through some sort of conduit to the receiver
who receives the containers and takes the objects out. The important question which is
overlooked is: How do the 'objects' get into the 'containers'? In other words, how do we succeed
in putting meanings 'into' words and how does somebody else succeed in taking the meanings
'out of' words? Transmission models don't deal with meaning.
It's probably worth saying that that's not really a criticism of them, since they weren't
intended to deal with meaning, but rather a criticism of their (mis)application to human-tohuman communication. One might question how useful the application of information theory is.
It may be helpful to academics in that it supplies them with an arcane vocabulary which gives
them some kind of kudos. It also appears to offer a 'scientific' methodology, but it's worth
bearing in mind Cherry's warning (speaking of the relationship between entropy and
information):

...when such an important relationship ... has been exhibited, there are two ways in which
it may become exploited; precisely and mathematically, taking due care about the validity
of applying the methods; or vaguely and descriptively. Since this relationship has been
pointed out, we have heard of 'entropies' of languages, of social systems, and economic
systems and of its use in various method-starved studies. It is the kind of sweeping
generality which people will clutch like a straw.
Cherry (1977)
1950s: Early models
Mass communication research was always traditionally concerned with political
influence over the mass press, and then over the influences of films and radio. The 1950s was
fertile for model-building, accompanying the rise in sociology and psychology. It was in the
USA that a science of communication was first discussed.

The earliest model was a simple sender-channel-message-receiver model.

Modifications added the concept of feedback, leading to a loop.

The next development was that receivers normally selectively perceive, interpret and retain
messages.

Gerbner is important because he recognises the TRANSACTIONAL nature of much

communication ie the intersubjectivity of communication. The result is that communication
is always a matter of negotiation and cannot be predicted in advance.

Communication to mass communication

Early on, a sub-set of models began to refer specifically to mass communication. Westley and
Maclean were important in this. Their model emphasises the significance of audience demand
rather than just the communicators purpose.

1960s and 1970s

The attention now moved away from the effects of the mass media on opinions, behaviour and
attitudes, and began to focus on the longer-term and socialising effects of the mass media. The
audience were less victims of the media, and more active in adopting or rejecting the guidelines
offered by the mass media. This an emphasis on an active audience.

Nevertheless a healthy suspicion of the mass media has continued through the 1970s and 1980s,
especially in terms of news selection and presentation.

A more recent development is an interest in the information society when the boundary
separating mass communication from other communication processes is becoming much less
clear. There has also been an accelerating internationalisation of mass communication.

Basic models include:

Model
Lasswell
(1948)

Comment
formula

Shannon
and
Weaver (1949)

Gerbner (1956)

Useful but too simple.

It assumes the communicator wishes to influence the receiver
and therefore sees communication as a persuasive process.
It assumes that messages always have effects.
It exaggerates the effects of mass communication.
It omits feedback.
On the other hand, it was devised in an era of political
propaganda
It remains a useful INTRODUCTORY model
Braddock (1958) modified it to include circumstances, purpose
and effect
Highly influential and sometimes described as the most
important model (Johnson and Klare)
Communication is presented as a linear, one-way process
Osgood and Schramm developed it into a more circular model
Shannon and Weaver make a distinction between source and
transmitter, and receiver and destination ie there are two
functions at the transmitting end and two at the receiving end
Criticised for suggesting a definite start and finish to the
communication process, which in fact is often endless
Special feature of this model is that is can be given different
shapes depending on the situation it describes
There is a verbal as well as visual formula (like Lasswell):
1 someone
2 perceives an event
3 and reacts
4 in a situation
5 through some means
6 to make available materials
7 in some form

8 and context
9 conveying content
10 with some consequence

Westley
&
MacLean (1957)

The flexible nature of the model makes it useful.

It also allows an emphasis on perception
It could explain, for example, the perceptual problems of a
witness in court and, in the media, a model which helps us to
explore the connection between reality and the stories given on
the news
Another influential model
The authors were keen to create a model which showed the
complexities of mass communication - hence the emphasis on
having to interpret a mass of Xs (events which are
communicated in the media)
It oversimplifies the relationships between participants by not
showing power relations between participants
It makes the media process seem more integrated than it may
actually be
It doesnt show the way different media may have different
interests of the state (eg difference between a state broadcaster
and private one)

Ritual models of communication

Early models were based on a transmissive or transportation approach (ie assuming that
communication was one-way). James Carey in 1975 was the first to challenge this. He suggested
an alternative view of communication as ritual in which communication is linked to sharing,
participation, association, fellowship the maintenance of society in time; not the act of
imparting information but the representation of shared beliefs.

As a result there is more emphasis on signs and symbols. Medium and message are harder to
separate. Communication is seen as timeless and unchanging. The Christmas tree represents the
model it symbolises ideas and values of friendship and celebration but has no instrumental
purpose. The tree is both medium and message.

Communication as display and attention

As well as transmissive and ritual models, there is a third. This aims to catch and hold our
attention. The main goal is economic = consumption. This makes sense in terms of a mass
media audience who use the media for entertainment and escapism. The media here works like a
magnet, attracting the audience temporarily and sometimes repulsing. The theory is associated
with Altheide & Snow (1979) and McQuail (1987).